EEC173B/ECS152C, Spring 2009 Review ‐ Wireless Communications

 What is multiplexing? Which 4 dimensions can

Review of last week’s material we use for multiplexing?
Wireless Channel Access  What is frequency reuse?
Challenges: Hidden/Exposed Terminals  What is the relationship between cluster size, N,
Access Methods: SDMA, FDMA, TDMA, CDMA frequency reuse distance, D, and cell radius, R?
‐ Can N be any number? What equation must N satisfy?
Random Access: Aloha, CSMA/CD, Reservation
 How do you calculate co‐channel interference?
 What is handoff?

Medium Access Sublayer Remarks on MAC Sublayer

 MAC is not important on point‐to‐point links

 MAC is only used in broadcast or shared channel
networks
Medium Access Control (MAC) ‐ Only one can send successfully at a time
Network Protocols
‐ Two or more simultaneous transmissions => interference
Medium Access
Sublayer ‐ How to share a broadcast channel?
Data Link ‐‐‐ distributed algorithm that arbitrate ‐ Communication about “sharing” must use the channel itself!
access to a common shared channel
among a population of users, i.e.,
Physical determine when a node can  Examples:
transmit
‐ Packet‐switched Radio Network (Aloha)
‐ Ethernet IEEE 802.3 (CSMA/CD)
‐ Token Ring IEEE 802.5, FDDI (Token Passing)
‐ Cellular, Satellite, Wireless LAN (MACAW)

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 Motivation Problems in wireless networks

 Can we apply media access methods from fixed
networks?
 Example CSMA/CD
‐ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
‐ Send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the
medium if a collision occurs (original method in IEEE
802.3)
 Signal strength decreases proportional to the
square of the distance
 The sender would apply CS and CD, but the
collisions happen at the receiver
 It might be the case that a sender cannot “hear”
the collision, i.e., CD does not work
 Furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a
terminal is “hidden”

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Hidden Terminals Exposed Terminals

 Hidden terminals  Exposed terminals

‐ A sends to B, C cannot receive A ‐ B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
‐ C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails) ‐ C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
‐ Collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails) ‐ But A is outside the radio range of C, waiting is not necessary!
‐ A is “hidden” for C ‐ C is “exposed” to B

A B C D
A B C

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 Near and Far Terminals Taxonomy of MAC Protocols
 Terminals A and B send, C receives
‐ Signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the
distance
‐ The signal of terminal B therefore drowns out A’s signal
‐ C cannot receive A

A B C

 If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights,

terminal B would drown out terminal A already on the
physical layer
 Also severe problem for CDMA‐networks
‐ Precise power control needed!
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Controlled Access methods FDD/FDMA – e.g., GSM

 SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)

‐ Segment space into sectors, use directed antennas f
‐ Cell structure 960 MHz 124

 FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

‐ Assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel 1 200 kHz
between a sender and a receiver 935.2 MHz
20 MHz
‐ Permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., 915 MHz 124
GSM), fast hopping (FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum)
 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) 890.2 MHz 1

‐ Assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission t

channel between a sender and a receiver for a certain
amount of time
=> The multiplexing schemes presented before are
now used to control medium access!
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 TDD/TDMA, e.g., DECT CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

 All terminals send on the same frequency

probably at the same time and can use the whole
bandwidth of the transmission channel
417 µs ‐ Each sender has a unique random number, the sender
XORs the signal with this random number
1 2 3 11 12 1 2 3 11 12
‐ The receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the
t pseudo random number, tuning is done via a
downlink uplink
correlation function

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CDMA – Cont’d CDMA: An Example

 Disadvantages:
‐ Higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into
the medium and start receiving if there is a signal)
‐ All signals should have the same strength at a receiver
 Advantages:
‐ All terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
‐ Huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
‐ Interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
‐ Forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
 Sender A
‐ Sends Ad = 1, key Ak = 010011 (assign: “0“= ‐1, „1“= +1)
‐ Sending signal As = Ad * Ak = (‐1, +1, ‐1, ‐1, +1, +1)
 Sender B
‐ Sends Bd = 0, key Bk = 110101 (assign: “0“= ‐1, „1“= +1)
‐ Sending signal Bs = Bd * Bk = (‐1, ‐1, +1, ‐1, +1, ‐1)
 Both signals superimpose in space
‐ Interference neglected (noise etc.)
‐ As + Bs = (‐2, 0, 0, ‐2, +2, 0)
 Receiver wants to receive signal from sender A
‐ Apply key Ak bitwise (inner product)
• Ae = (‐2, 0, 0, ‐2, +2, 0)  Ak = 2 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 = 6
• Result greater than 0, therefore, original bit was “1“
‐ Receiving B
• Be = (‐2, 0, 0, ‐2, +2, 0)  Bk = ‐2 + 0 + 0 ‐ 2 ‐ 2 + 0 = ‐6, i.e. “0“

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 Another Example: CDMA on signal level (1) CDMA on signal level (2)

data A signal A As
1 0 1 Ad

key A data B 1 0 0 Bd
key
0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Ak
sequence A key B
data  key 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
key 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 Bk
sequence B
As 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
signal A data  key

Bs
signal B

Real systems use much longer keys resulting in a larger distance

between single code words in code space.
As + Bs

• For this example, ‘0’ is high, ‘1’ is low.

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CDMA on signal level (3) CDMA on signal level (4)

data A
1 0 1 Ad data B
1 0 0 Bd

As + Bs
As + Bs

Ak
Bk

(As + Bs)
* Ak (As + Bs)
* Bk

integrator
output integrator
output
comparator 1 0 1
output comparator 1 0 0
output
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 CDMA on signal level (5) Implications for High‐Speed Wireless Data

As + Bs
 Controlled multiple access performs well with
continuous stream traffic but inefficient for bursty
wrong traffic
key K
 Complexity:
frequency division < time division < code division
(As + Bs)  Multiple data rates
*K
‐ Multiple frequency bands
‐ Multiple time slots
‐ Multiple codes
integrator
output
comparator
output (0) (0) ?

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Comparison
SDMA/TDMA/FDMA/CDMA Taxonomy of MAC Protocols
Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA
Idea segment space into segment sending segment the spread the spectrum
cells/sectors time into disjoint frequency band into using orthogonal codes
time-slots, demand disjoint sub-bands
driven or fixed
patterns
Terminals only one terminal can all terminals are every terminal has its all terminals can be active
be active in one active for short own frequency, at the same place at the
cell/one sector periods of time on uninterrupted same moment,
the same frequency uninterrupted
Signal cell structure, directed synchronization in filtering in the code plus special
separation antennas the time domain frequency domain receivers

Advantages very simple, increases established, fully
capacity per km²
Dis- inflexible, antennas
advantages typically fixed
Comment only in combination
with TDMA, FDMA or
CDMA useful
simple, established, flexible, less frequency
digital, flexible robust planning needed, soft
handover
guard space inflexible, complex receivers, needs
needed (multipath frequencies are a more complicated power
propagation), scarce resource control for senders
synchronization
difficult
standard in fixed typically combined still faces some problems,
networks, together with TDMA higher complexity,
with FDMA/SDMA (frequency hopping lowered expectations; will
used in many patterns) and SDMA be integrated with
mobile networks (frequency reuse) TDMA/FDMA
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 Random Access Techniques Pure Aloha

 Originally developed for packet radio communications

 Design Goals at the campuses of U. of Hawaii in 1970
‐ Fully decentralized ‐ between a central computer & various data terminals
‐ Fairness among users  All nodes transmit on one frequency, fo
‐ High efficiency
 Central node relays packets on the other frequency, f1
‐ Low delay
‐ Fault tolerance Central
Node
f1
 Techniques
fo
‐ Aloha
‐ Carrier Sense Techniques
‐ Reservation Protocols
node 1 node 2 node 3 node n

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Pure Aloha Algorithm Pure Aloha Algorithm (cont’d)

1. Data is packetized and users transmit whenever they 2. Listen to the broadcast
have something to send  Assume the receiver rebroadcasts the received signal, so the
• Random, distributed (no central arbiter), time‐multiplex sender can find out if its packet was destroyed just by
listening to downward broadcast one round‐trip time after
If more than one node transmits at the same time sending it
=> Collision!
If there is a collision, both nodes need to retransmit 3. If packet was destroyed, wait a random amount of
time, and send it again
Central  prevent the same packet from colliding over and over again
Node

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 Contention Period in Pure Aloha Slotted Aloha

 Just send: no waiting for beginning of slot
 A collision occurs for any partial overlap of
packets
‐ If first bit of a new packet overlaps with last bit of a
packet almost finished, both packets are destroyed.
t: one packet transmission time (L/R)
How to reduce vulnerability/contention period?
 Time is divided into equal size slots
 Avoids partial overlap of packets
‐ Nodes must always start transmit at the beginning of a slot
‐ Packets must be transmitted within a slot
 If collision, retransmit later

t0‐t t0 t0+t

Vulnerable period: 2t Success (S), Collision (C), Empty (E) slots

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Contention Period in Slotted Aloha Pure Aloha vs. Slotted Aloha

t: one packet transmission time (L/R) = slot duration  Pure Aloha

collision
Packet could arrive in the
middle of a slot, but can’t sender A
send until the beginning of a slot
sender B
sender C
Potential collision with t
packets sent within
the same slot  Slotted Aloha collision

sender A
t0‐t t0 t0+t sender B
sender C
t
Vulnerable period: t
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 Demand Assigned Multiple Access
Performance of Aloha (DAMA)
 Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted
Aloha (assuming Poisson distribution for packet arrival
and packet length) • Use a common reservation channel to assign
bandwidth on demand
‐ A sender reserves a future time‐slot => Sending within this
S (Throughput

Packet Time)

.40 reserved time‐slot is possible without collision

Slotted Aloha
per

.30
.20 ‐ Typical scheme for satellite links
.10 Pure Aloha
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0
G (Attempts per Packet TIme)  Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%
‐ Very efficient if overhead traffic is a small percentage of the
 Comments message traffic
‐ Inefficient for heavily loaded system
‐ Capture effect improves efficiency
‐ Combining SS with ALOHA reduces collisions

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DAMA (2) DAMA w/ Explicit Reservation

 Explicit Reservation (Reservation Aloha)
‐ Two modes:
 Issues
• ALOHA mode for reservation: competition for small
‐ Reservation also causes higher delays reservation slots, collisions possible
‐ Reservation channel requires extra bandwidth • Reserved mode for data transmission within
 Example reservation algorithms: successful reserved slots (no collisions possible)
‐ DAMA w/ Explicit Reservation: Reservation‐ALOHA ‐ It is important for all stations to keep the reservation list
consistent at any point in time and, therefore, all stations
‐ DAMA w/ Implicit Reservation: PRMA (Packet Reservation MA) have to synchronize from time to time
‐ Reservation‐TDMA (Time‐Division MA)

collision

t
Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha reserved Aloha

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 DAMA w/ Implicit Reservation (PRMA) Access method DAMA: PRMA

 PRMA ‐ Packet Reservation MA:

‐ A certain number of slots form a frame, frames are reservation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 time‐slot
repeated ACDABA‐F frame1 A C D A B A F
‐ Stations compete for empty slots according to the ACDABA‐F frame2 A C A B A
slotted aloha principle collision at
AC‐ABAF‐ frame3 A B A F
‐ Once a station reserves a slot successfully, this slot is reservation
automatically assigned to this station in all following A‐‐‐BAFD frame4 A B A F D
attempts
frames as long as the station has data to send ACEEBAFD frame5 A C E E B A F D
t
‐ Competition for this slots starts again as soon as the slot
was empty in the last frame

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DAMA – Reservation (TDMA) Carrier‐Sense Techniques

 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

‐ Every frame consists of N mini‐slots and x data‐slots  Channel is sensed before transmission to determine if it
‐ Every station has its own mini‐slot and can reserve is occupied
up to k data‐slots using this mini‐slot (i.e. x = N * k).  More efficient than ALOHA
‐ Other stations can send data in unused data‐slots
‐ Fewer retransmissions
according to a round‐robin sending scheme (best‐
effort traffic)  Carrier sensing is often combined with collision
e.g. N=6, k=2 detection in wired networks (e.g., Ethernet)
N mini-slots N * k data-slots
‐ NOT POSSIBLE in a radio environment
 Collision avoidance is used in current wireless LANs.
‐ WLAN, Spectral Etiquette

reservations other stations can use free data-slots

for data-slots based on a round-robin scheme

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 MACA ‐ Collision Avoidance MACA examples

 MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)  MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals
uses short signaling packets for collision avoidance ‐ A and C want to
‐ RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a send to B
receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet ‐ A sends RTS first RTS
‐ CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon ‐ C waits after receiving CTS CTS
as it is ready to receive CTS from B
A B C
 Signaling packets contain
‐ Sender address  MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals
‐ Receiver address ‐ B wants to send to A, C
‐ Packet size to another terminal
 Variants of this method can be found in IEEE802.11 as ‐ Now C does not have
to wait for it cannot RTS RTS
DFWMAC (Distributed Foundation Wireless MAC) receive CTS from A
CTS
A B C

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Polling mechanisms Example: Randomly Addressed Polling

 Base station signals readiness to all mobile

 If one terminal can be heard by all others, this “central”
terminal (a.k.a. base station) can poll all other
terminals according to a certain scheme
‐ Now all schemes known from fixed networks can be used
(typical mainframe ‐ terminal scenario)
terminals
 Terminals ready to send can now transmit a
random number without collision with the help
of CDMA or FDMA (the random number can be
seen as dynamic address)
 The base station now chooses one address for
polling from the list of all random numbers
(collision if two terminals choose the same
address)
 The base station acknowledges correct packets
and continues polling the next terminal
 This cycle starts again after polling all terminals
of the list

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 ISMA (Inhibit Sense Multiple Access) Example Wireless Packet Data Services

 Current state of the medium is signaled via a “busy

tone”
 ARDIS (Advanced Radio Data Integrated System)
‐ the base station signals on the downlink (base station to
terminals) if the medium is free or not ‐ Joint venture of Motorola/IBM
‐ Slotted CSMA
‐ terminals must not send if the medium is busy
 RAM Mobile Data (Mobitex)
‐ terminals can access the medium as soon as the busy tone ‐ Joint venture of Ericsson/BellSouth
stops
‐ Provides communication link between base and mobile
‐ the base station signals collisions and successful ‐ Typical applications: host access and dispatch
transmissions via the busy tone and acknowledgements, ‐ Slotted CSMA
respectively (media access is not coordinated within this
approach)  CDPD
‐ DSMA/CD ‐ Digital Sense Multiple Access
‐ mechanism used, e.g., ‐ Collisions detected at receiver and transmitted back
for CDPD
(USA, integrated  WaveLAN
into AMPS) ‐ CSMA/CA

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Implications for High‐Speed Wireless Data

 Retransmissions are power and spectrally

inefficient.
 ALOHA cannot satisfy high‐speed data
throughput requirements.
 Reservation protocols are also ineffective for
short messaging.
 Delay constraints impose throughput limitations.

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