Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory System

The respiratory System is subdivided into two; the upper and lower tracts, their boundary is the larynx.
The primary function of the upper respiratory tract is to serve as the initial pathway for air to enter the
respiratory system, ensuring that the air is filtered, warmed, and humidified before reaching the lower
respiratory tract. The primary function of the lower respiratory tract is to facilitate gas exchange between the air
and the bloodstream, allowing for the uptake of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide from the body.

Upper Respiratory Tract

Nose and Nasal Cavity

The nose is the primary entry point for inhaled air, which then passes into the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity is
lined with a mucous membrane and cilia that filter, warm, and humidify the air. The nasal conchae, or
turbinates, increase the surface area of the mucous membrane, enhancing the conditioning of incoming air.
This process is crucial for protecting the lower respiratory tract from harmful particles and pathogens.

Pharynx
The pharynx, or throat, is a muscular tube that connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx and
esophagus. It serves both respiratory and digestive functions, directing air to the larynx and food to the
esophagus. The pharynx is divided into three regions: the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx, each
playing a role in ensuring that air and food are appropriately routed.

Larynx
The larynx, or voice box, is located below the pharynx and above the trachea. It houses the vocal cords, which
vibrate to produce sound when air passes through them. The larynx also functions as a critical protective
mechanism, preventing food and liquids from entering the lower respiratory tract during swallowing by closing
the epiglottis over the glottis.
 Lower Respiratory Tract

Trachea
The trachea, or windpipe, is a tube that extends from the larynx to the bronchi. It is reinforced with C-shaped
cartilage rings that keep the airway open, allowing unobstructed passage of air. The trachea is lined with
ciliated epithelium and mucus-producing goblet cells that trap and expel foreign particles through the
mucociliary escalator mechanism.

Bronchi and Bronchioles

The trachea bifurcates into the left and right main bronchi, which enter each lung. These bronchi further divide
into smaller bronchi and then into bronchioles. The bronchi are supported by cartilage, while the smaller
bronchioles are primarily smooth muscle. This branching network ensures that air is distributed throughout the
lungs. Bronchioles also regulate airflow through constriction and dilation, controlled by the autonomic nervous
system.

Lungs
The lungs are a pair of spongy, elastic organs located in the thoracic cavity. Each lung is divided into
lobes—three on the right and two on the left. The lungs house the bronchioles and alveoli, where gas
exchange occurs. The extensive surface area provided by the alveoli, coupled with a rich capillary network,
facilitates efficient oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.

Alveoli
Alveoli are tiny, balloon-like structures at the end of bronchioles and are the primary sites of gas exchange.
Each alveolus is surrounded by a network of capillaries, and the walls are composed of a single layer of
epithelial cells. The thin barrier between the alveolar air and capillary blood allows for rapid diffusion of oxygen
into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood.

Pleural Space
The pleura is a double-layered membrane that envelops the lungs and lines the thoracic cavity. The visceral
pleura covers the lungs, while the parietal pleura lines the chest wall and diaphragm. The pleural cavity
between these layers contains a small amount of lubricating fluid that allows the lungs to move smoothly during
respiration. This lubrication reduces friction and helps maintain the pressure gradient necessary for lung
inflation and deflation.

Diaphragm and Intercostal Muscles

The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. It plays a crucial
role in breathing by contracting and flattening during inspiration, increasing the thoracic cavity volume and
decreasing the pressure, drawing air into the lungs. The intercostal muscles, located between the ribs, also
assist in expanding and contracting the chest cavity, enhancing the mechanics of breathing.
 Physiology

1. Ventilation
Ventilation refers to the movement of air in and out of the lungs. It involves two main phases: inspiration
(inhalation) and expiration (exhalation). During inspiration, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract,
expanding the thoracic cavity and reducing intrathoracic pressure, allowing air to flow into the lungs. During
expiration, these muscles relax, and the elastic recoil of the lungs and thoracic wall expels air.

2. Gas Exchange
Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, where oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses across the alveolar membrane
into the blood in the pulmonary capillaries, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be
exhaled. This process is driven by the partial pressure gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
alveolar air and the blood.

3. Transport of Gases
Oxygen is transported in the blood primarily bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, forming oxyhemoglobin. A
small amount is dissolved in plasma. Carbon dioxide is transported in three forms: dissolved in plasma,
chemically bound to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) resulting from the
dissociation of carbonic acid formed from CO2 and water.

4. Regulation of Respiration
Respiration is regulated by the respiratory centers in the brainstem, primarily the medulla oblongata and the
pons. These centers respond to changes in blood levels of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and pH. Chemoreceptors
in the carotid bodies, aortic bodies, and the medulla detect changes in CO2 and pH, adjusting the rate and
depth of breathing to maintain homeostasis. Neural input from the cerebral cortex allows voluntary control of
breathing, such as during speaking, singing, or holding one's breath.