TO BE ETHICAL: OWN NOT MERELY
ABIDE BY MORAL STANDARDS
MORAL STANDARD
 those concerned with or relating to human
behavior, especially the distinction between
good and bad behavior.
 Involves the rules people have about the
kinds of actions they believe are morally
right and wrong.
UNIVERSAL VALUES
 PLATO - talked about the values or virtues of
temperance, courage, and wisdom
 JESUS CHRIST - preached the value of love
from which springs patience, kindness,
goodwill, forgiveness and compassion
 CONFUCIUS - taught righteousness, human
heartedness, filial piety.
 ARISTOTLE - would say that they exist
embodied in the concrete individual as
common or essential characteristic.
 ST. THOMAS - agreed with them, but the
universal do not exist apart from the
individual; they exist as universal
individuated, instantiated in the individual.
THE COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF
MAN ARE;
 rational,
 Sentient,
 Living body
 This universal character of a human person
exists in the mind as an idea
VAN PEURSEN
 termed universal values as “logical
structures” underlying the material world
and making the world possible.
 The same thing is true with moral
standards and values.
 Values are universalized because they
can only be wished to be the values of all.
 Using Kant’s Criteria, can identified
“universal values” be willed as universal.
 Related to the findings on the universal
values, Dr. Kent M. Keith (2003) came up
with the list of fundamental or universal
moral principle that can be found
throughout the world.
 These are grouped into negative and
positive statements as follows:
DO NO HARM – Do not do to others what
would you not like them to do to you.
DO GOOD – Do to others what you would
like them to do to you.
 Universal values are for human survival.
 Universal values are the ultimate bases
for living together and learning how to
live together.
CHAPTER II. THE MORAL AGENT
Moral Agent
 "Moral" comes from the Latin "mores,"
referring to society's patterns standards,
rules of doing things "Agent" comes from
latin "agere" to do act.
 one who performs an act in accordance
with moral standards.
 Is "a being who is capable of these action
that have moral quality and which can be
properly denominated good or evil in a
moral sense."
Edwards,1754
 Only a moral agent is capable of human
acts. That's why "morality is for persons."
WHAT IS A SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR
MORAL AGENCY?
 It will suffice if the agent has the
capacity to conform to some of the
external requirements of morality.
 Kantian version, it is also essential that
the agents should have the capacity to
rise above their feelings and passions
and act for the sake of the moral law.
THE PURPOSE-DRIVEN MORAL AGENT
Where do you go (quo vadis), moral
agent?
 Thomas Aquinas "Every human act is
directed toward an end.
 Aristotle Summun bonum, the highest
good.The highest good is happiness.
ALFREDO PANIZO (1964) THE 3 LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
THOMISTIC PRINCIPLE REGARDING THE
END OR PURPOSE OF THE MORAL
AGENTS:
1. Every agent that perform as action acts for
the sake of the end or purpose to be attained.
2. Every agent acts for an end for an ultimate
end.
3. Every agent has the power of moving for
an end which is suitable or good for him.
THE FOUNDAMENTAL OPTION
 The foundamental Option is "the stance or
position I decide to take vis-á-vis the
Absolute Value (God) which then
influences ultimately all by other individual
actions and decisions.
NO PRE-FIXED PLAN FOR MAN
 According to some 20th century thinkers
there are no pre-existing directions.
 For the existentialist, like Jean Paul
Sartre,a human person is or becomes
what he/she makes of himself/herself by
choice he/she is nothing, no "essence",
until he/she starts his/her "existence" by
making choices.
THE THREE STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT
the five stages may be reduced to three as
follows:
 THE AMORAL STAGE - egocentric,
hedonist and prudential considerations.
 THE PRE-MORAL STAGE - a new dress, so I will help mom wash
authoritarian, ego-idealist, social and
reciprocal considerations.
 THE MORAL STAGE - personal,
autonomous, altruistic, rational,
independent and responsible
considerations
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 the process through which a human
person gains his/ her beliefs, skills and
dispositions that make him/her a morally
mature person.
 Kohlberg (2013) describes the moral
development in 3 stages, namely:
 Level 1 - Preconventional morality,
 Level 2- Conventional morality, and
 Level 3 - Post-Conventional
morality.
 Each level has two stages each so that
there are six stages of moral
development.
LEVEL I: PRE-CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
 lowest level of moral development in
Kohlberg's theory.
 children don't have a personal code of
morality.
STAGE 1. OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT
ORIENTATION
 The child/individual does good in order
to avoid being punished.
 If he/she is punished, he she must
have done wrong.
 Children obey because adults tell them
to obey.
STAGE 2: INSTRUMENTAL ORIENTATION
 Right behavior is defined by whatever
the individual believes to be in his/her
best interest.
 They account for individual points of
view and judge actions based on how
they serve individual needs. It also
focuses on self-reward.
 For example, a child may think, 'I want
the dishes. Reciprocity is possible at
this point in moral development, but
only if it serves one’s own interests.
LEVEL II. CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
 a child's sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships.
  Children continue to accept the rules
of authority figures, but this is now due
to their belief that this is necessary to
ensure positive relationships and
societal order.
 Adherence to rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid during these stages and
a rule's appropriateness or fairness is
seldom questioned
STAGE 3. "GOOD BOY, NICE GIRL’’
ORIENTATION
 children want the approval of others and
act in ways to avoid disapproval.
 Emphasis is placed on good behavior
and people being "nice" to others.
 Good behavior means having good
motives and interpersonal feelings such
as love, empathy, trust, and concern for
others.
STAGE 4. LAW AND ORDER ORIENTATION
 The child/individual becomes aware of
the wider rules of society, so judgments
concern obeying the rules in order to
uphold the law and to avoid guilt.
 The individual is concerned about
obeying the rules in order to uphold the
law and to avoid guilt (McLeod, 2013;
Corpuz et.al. 2013).
LEVEL 3. POST CONVENTIONAL
MORALITY
 This is the level of full internalization,
morality is completely internalized and
not based on external standards
STAGE 5. SOCIAL CONTACT
ORIENTATION
 The child individual becomes aware that
while rules / laws might exist for the good
of the greatest number.
STAGE 6. UNIVERSAL ETHICAL
PRINCIPLE ORIENTATION
 Individuals at this stage have developed
thier own set of moral guidelines which
may or not fit the law.
DEVELOPMENT OF CONSCIENCE BASED
MORAL DECISION
 Moral development includes
development of conscience based moral
decision. This is in the post
Conventional level of Kohlberg's stages
of moral development.
THE FORMATION OF CONSCIENCE
 FIRST CONSCIENCE - formation begin
with the deep-seated decision to seek
moral truth one adopts, as a way of life
the habit of seeking out answers to
question about right and wrong.
 SECOND A SOUND CONSCIENCE -
Must stand on the firm foundation of
Integrity, Sencerity and forth rightness.
duplicity personal Inconsistency and
dishonesty Undermine any hope of
forming a properly functioning conscience.
 THIRD CONSCIENCE FORMATION - is
sustained by the habit of consistently
educating oneself by exposure to
objective moral norms and the rationale
behind those norms.
THE HUMAN ACT
ACT OF MAN VS. HUMAN ACT
HUMAN ACT
 those of which a man is a master, which
he has the power of doing or not doing as
he pleases. (Fr. Coppins, 2017)
 acts which proceed from a man rational
being (Panizo, 1964)
 those acts of a moral agent.
ACT OF MAN
 actions committed by
unconsciousness and insane persons,
infants, or by those who are physically
forced to do something
 actions which merely happen in the
body or through by the body without
the awareness of the mind or the
control of the will
THE DETERMINANTS OF THE MORALITY
OF HUMAN ACT
TO KNOW WHETHER AN INDIVIDUAL
HUMAN ACT IS MORALLY GOOD, THREE
THINGS ARE CONSIDERED (COPPENS,
S.J)
THIS ARE CALLED THE DETERMINANTS
OF MORALITY:
a. object of the act- the thing done.
b. the end, or purpose- intention
c. circumstances- accountability
ACCOUNTABILITY OF MORAL ACT
MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY
 The ability to understand and act on
moral principles and values. The ability to
make moral choices and decisions. The
willingness to take responsibility for one's
actions and the consequences of those
actions.
THREE BASES FOR MORAL
ACCOUNTABILITY
 KNOWLEDGE - human act must be done
knowingly.
 FREEDOM - must be done freely.
 VOLUNTARINESS - must be done
voluntarily (intentional or negligent)
MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACT
IGNORANCE
 “the absence of knowledge”
 traditional ethics classifies them as
vincible, invincible, affected and supine
or gross ignorance.
 VINCIBLE - form of ignorance which
can easily be corrected through
ordinary diligence.
 INVICIBLE - form of ignorance that
cannot be easily alleviated, fix, or
resolve.
 AFFECTED - form of ignorance that is
intentionally kept in order to escape
responsibility and accountability
 SUPINE OR GROSS - occurs when
scarcely any effort has been exerted.
PASSION
 refers to positive emotions like love,
desire, delight, hope, and bravery and
negative emotions like hatred, horror,
sadness, despair, fear and anger
FEAR
 disturbance of the mind of a person
due to an impending danger or harm to
himself of loved ones.
VIOLENCE
 refers to any physical force extended
on a person by another free agent for
the purpose of compelling said person
to act against his will.
FEELINGS AS A MODIFIER OF MORAL
DECISION-MAKING
FEELINGS IN DECISION-MAKING
 Feelings, in general, is an emotional
state or reaction, experience of physical
sensation, like feeling joy, feeling
warmth, love, affection, tenderness, etc.
 Feelings are instinctive and trained
response to moral dilemma.
ADVANTAGES OF EMOTIONAL DECISION
MAKING
 A totally emotional decision is very fast in
comparison to a rational decision.
 Emotions may provide a way for coding
and compacting experience, enabling
fast response selection.
 Emotions often drive us in directions
conflicting with self-interest.
NEGATIVES OF EMOTIONAL DECISION
MAKING
 We make quick decision without
knowing why, and then create rational
reasons to justify a poor emotional
decision.
 Intensity of emotions can override
rational decision-making in cases
where it is clear needed.
 Immediate and unrelated emotions can
create mistakes by distorting and
create bias in judgments.
MORAL STATEMENTS AS EXPRESSIONS
OR FEELINGS
  EMOTIVISM - the view that moral topic is used as evidence to support an
judgments do not function a argument or when the authority is used
statements of facts but rather as to say that the claim is true, as
expressions of the speaker’s or writer’s authorities can be wrong.
feelings.

 The EMOTIVIST thus goes further by

saying that ethical statements being
emotional expressions are not verifiable.
 “De gustibus non dispuntandum est.”
One cannot argue with one’s taste,
emotion.

REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS

MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR AD MISERECORDIAM
MORALITY  appeal to pity is a fallacy in which
0someone tries to win support for an
MORALITY - principles concerning the argument or idea by exploiting one’s
distinction between right and wrong or good opponent’s feelings of pity or guilt. it is
and bad behavior. a specific kind of appeal to emotion.

IMPARTIALITY - equal treatment of all rivals

or disputants; fairness.

SCOTT RAE’S 7 STEPS OF MORAL

REASONING

1. GATHER THE FACTS

2. DETERMINE THE ETHICAL ISSUES
(STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM)
3. DETERMINE WHAT VIRTUES/
PRINCIPLES HAVE A BEARING ON THE
CASE
(IDENTIFYING THE RELEVANT FACTORS)
4. LIST THE ALTERNATIVES OR DEVELOP
A LIST OF OPTIONS
5. COMPARE THE ALTERNATIVES WITH
THE VIRTUES/ PRINCIPLES
6. CONSIDER THE CONSEQUENCES OR
TEST THE OPTIONS
7. MAKE A DECISION

FALLACIOUS REASONING SUCH AS

AD HOMINEM
 means “against the man,” and this type
of fallacy is sometimes called name
calling or the personal attack fallacy.

AD VERECUNDIAM
 an argument from authority, also called
an appeal to authority, or argumentum
ad verecundiam, is a form of fallacy
when the opinion of a non-expert on a