PLANT KINGDOM

ALGAE:

Algae are nonvascular photosynthetic aquatics which form accessory spores for asexual
reproduction,unicellular or multicellular nonjacketed sex organs for sexual reproduction and
it’s embryo stage is absent in the life history.
Differences between green,brown and red algae

Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae

1 Unicellular,colonial, multicellular Rarely unicellular

siphonaceous,multicellular and
palmelloid,mostly
multicellular
2 Chloroplast is surrounded Phaeoplast is Rhodoplast is
by double membrane surrounded by four surrounded by double
covering. membranes membrane
3 Chlorophyll a,b present Chlorophyll a,b Chlorophyll a ,d
present
4 Fucoxanthin if present ,is Fucoxanthin Fucoxanthin is
very small in present.phycobillins absent,phycobillins
amount,phycobillins are absent absent
present.
5 Reserve food starch, also Laminarin and Floridean starch
proteins are contained mannitol
besides starch in
pyrenoids.
6 Flagellation isokont heterokont Flagellation absent

Phycocolloids-(polysaccharides found on the cell wall of seaweeds that can be extracted with hot
water)
Agar-It is the phycocolloid obtained from Gelidium, Gracilaria, Gelidella, Ceramium etc.Agar
yielding algae are called agarophytes.Agar is used as culture medium, stabiliser and thickener in many
food items because it forms gel at room temperature even when the concentration is only 1%.It is also
used in the preparation of gelatine capsules,base for cosmetics,dental impressions, rapid setting jellies
etc
Carrageenin- It is rhodophycean phycocolloid obtained from Chondrus . Used for clearing
liquors,finishing leather and preparation of icecreams, sauces, chocolates ,toothpastes,cosmetics, etc.
Alginic acid- Phycocolloid obtained from a number of brown algae like Fucus, Laminaria,
Macrocystis. It is used as thickener, emulsifier and gelating agent. In a number of products like
toothpastes, shaving creams, ice-creams, emulsion paint, shampoo, cosmetics etc
N.B- Coralline algae-Some red algae develop an incrustation of lime. They deposit limestone and
part of coral reef.

Reproduction

1.Vegetative Reproduction-cell division,fragmentation,stolon, tubers ,storage cells.

2.Asexual Reproduction-By zoospores,autospore,aplanospores, hypnospore,palmellaspores,akinetes
and daughter colonies.
3.Sexual Reproduction-
Isogamous-union between two morphologically and physiologically similar gametes.
Anisogamy-union between structurally similar gametes which differ in size and behaviour.
Oogamy-union between a large food laden nonmotile ovum and small male gamete.
Life cycle of Algae:

What is Haplontic Life Cycle

The haplontic life cycle is a type of life cycle with a dominant haploid stage. The zygote of
the organisms with a haplontic life cycle undergoes meiosis immediately after karyogamy in
a process called the zygotic meiosis. Hence, the organism ends up in a haploid stage.
The mitotic cell division of these haploid cells allows the formation of a multicellular
organism with a mass of haploid cells.

BRYOPHYTES

Characteristics-

1) Bryophytes are the amphibians of plant kingdom.

2) The plantbody is gametophyte ,green,flat and dichotomously branched. It is the dominant
phase in the lifecycle.
3) They lack the vascular and supporting tissue.
4) The plantbody is not differentiated into roots,stems and leaves.It is thalloid in Riccia sp
and is differentiated into rhizoids,stem and leaves in mosses.
5) The sex organs are antheridia and archegonium.
6) Male gametes (antherozoids) are motile and archegonium is flaskshaped having venter and
a long neck.
7) Presence of water is necessary for fertilization.
8) The zygote develops into a sporophyte which is dependent on the gametophyte
completely or partially for its nutrition.

Bryophyta is advanced over algae-

a) The plant body of bryophyte is gametophytic bearing distinct male and female gametes.
b) The plant body is differentiated into rhizoids, stem and leaves.
c)Land habit.
d)Multicellular, jacketed sex organs and embryo formation.
f) Sporophyte throughout life remains organically attached to and dependent for nutrition on
parent gametophyte.

Liverworts

They are found in moist, shady regions such as marshy ground, banks of streams, damp soil,
bark trees and deep in the woods

Plant body is thalloid (Marchantia). The thallus is dorsiventral. The leafy members have
small leaf-like appendages on steam-like structures

Asexual reproduction is through fragmentation or formation of gemma. During sexual

reproduction female and male sex organs are produced on the same or different thalli

The sporophyte is differentiated into foot, seta and capsule. Post meiosis the spores are
produced within the capsule. These spores germinate for the formation of free-living
gametophytes

Mosses

Gametophyte has 2 stages – protonema stage and the leafy stage. It consists of slender axes,
upright arranged leaves spirally. When they are attached to the soil through branched and
multicellular rhizoids, the stage bears the sex organs

Fragmentation and budding is observed in secondary protonema in the vegetative

reproduction while in sexual reproduction, the sex organs are produced at the apex of leafy
shoots

Sporophytes in mosses are more elaborate than that in liverworts. Capsules comprise of
spores formed after meiosis. Some examples – Funaria, Sphagnum
Pteridophyta

Characteristics-

a) The sporophyte is conspicuous while gametophyte is small.

b) The sporophyte is a herbaceous plant and is mostly differentiated into root, stem and leaves.
c) They possess well developed system of conducting tissue.
d) The sporophyte reproduces asexually by spores. Gametophyte is called prothallus which is mostly
independent and carries sex organs.
e) The sex organs are antheridia and archegonium. The antherozoids are multiciliate.
f) Fertilization occurs with the help of water.

Heterospory-It is the phenomenon where two types of spores are formed in some plants
which differ significantly in their size and function. The microspores are formed in
microsporangia and megaspores in megasporangia. Heterospory is preconditioning for
seed habit.

Seed Habit in Selaginella-

a) Heterospory
b) Formation of male and female gametophyte
c) Gametophyte nutritionally dependent on parent sporophyte
d) Gametophytic development endospermic.
e) Single megaspore develops into megasporangium
f) Megaspore develops within megasporangium
g) Seed formation does not occur in Syemensis, the megasporangium is surrounded by integuments
Adiantum known as walking fern-Whenever it’s leaf tip comes in contact with soil , it develops
adventitious roots and forms a new plant –hence known as walking fern.

Differentiate between prothallus and protonema

Prothallus –Small green, heart-shaped gametophytic generations of fern. It bears sex organs
and numerous rhizoids.
Protonema-It is a branched, filamentous structure. It arises from the germination of spore.
In moss plant. It is an early stage of moss gametophyte and its lateral buds on germination
gives rise to moss

Life cycle of pteridophytes:

Gymnosperm Characteristics-

a) They are tiny group of tall plants with naked seeds.

b) They grow in cool as well as well as warm climate, in hills and plains.
c) The plant body is sporophytic. The stems are erect, branched or unbranched .
d) The plant produces cones or strobilus.
e) Plants are heterosporous.
f) The megaspores enclosed in megasporangium.
g) In phloem, sieve cells are without companion cells and xylem lacks vessels.
h) Pollination is carried by wind.
i) Polyembryony present.
  They include medium-sized trees or tall trees & shrubs. Ovules are not enclosed by
any ovary wall and remain exposed, before and after fertilization.
 The roots are generally tap roots. Roots in some genera have a fungal association in
the form of mycorrhiza (Pinus), while in some others (Cycas) small specialised roots
called coralloid roots are associated with N2- fixing cyanobacteria.
 The stems are branched (Pinus, Cedrus) or unbranched (Cycas).
 The leaves may be simple or compound. The leaves in gymnosperms are well-adapted
to withstand extremes of temperature, humidity and wind. In conifers, the needle-like
leaves reduce the surface area. Their thick cuticle and sunken stomata also help to
reduce water loss.
 They are heterosporous, strobili bear two kinds of spores- those bearing
microsporophylls and pollen bearing microsporangia are called microsporangiate or
male strobili. Microspores develop into male gametophyte which is highly reduced
and is confined to only a limited number of cells.
 Strobili bearing megasporophylls and ovules or megasporangia are called
megasporangiate or female strobili.
 Unlike earlier forms, in gymnosperms, the male and the female gametophytes do not
have an independent free-living existence.

Life cycle of gymnosperms:

ANGIOSPERMS:
First appeared about 200 million years ago (Jurassic) and became dominant plant group by
the end of the Cretaceous (70 million yeas ago). First pollinating insects appeared about 50
million years ago. Flowers attract pollinators and allow more efficient dispersal of pollen
Fruits protect seeds and aid in seed dispersal Endosperm provides additional nutrition for
developing embryo
Monocots: one cotyledon - “seed leaf” parallel venation in leaves lateral meristems rare - no lateral
growth flower parts in multiples of 3 few annual species many with bulbs or underground storage
organs no true wood (secondary xylem)
Dicots: two cotyledons netted venation in leaves lateral meristems common flower parts in multiples
of 4 or 5 many annual species few underground storage organs true wood in many species.

QUESTIONAIRE
1 Mark question

1.Name an alga which is used in laboratory culture media?

2. Define protonema stage.
3. Name the different pigments found in algae.
4. Define haplontic lifecycle.
5.Why are bryophytes called plant amphibians?

2 Marks questions

6. What is heterospory?State its significance

7. State the differences between Red algae and Brown algae.
8. Describe syngamy
9. Differentiate between homospory and heterospory.
10. State the significance of water in the sexual reproduction of bryophytes.

3 marks questions

11.Why do mosses generally occur in regions which are moist?

12. Differentiate between prothallus and protonema
13. Give few characteristics of conifer leaves and roots that make them well adapted for dry
conditions.
14. List the various factors that contributed for successful distribution of flowering plants all
over the world.
15. Differentiate between syngamy and triple fusion.

5 Marks questions

16. Describe the main three types of life cycles that are seen in plants.
17. What is the process of double fertilization.Give its significance.
18. Diagrammatically represent homosporous and heterosporous lifecycles of fern.
19. State the significance of heterospory in pteridophyta.