What is Psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It encompasses a wide
range of topics, including perception, cognition, emotion, motivation, personality, and behavior,
and it can be applied to a variety of settings, such as educational, clinical, and industrial
settings.

The origin of the term "psychology" can be traced back to the ancient Greeks where
philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle wrote about topics that would later become central to
the field of psychology, such as the nature of the mind and the relationship between the mind
and the body.. The Greek word "psyche" means "mind" or "soul," and "logos" means "study of."
Thus, psychology literally means the study of the mind or soul. However, the ancient Greeks did
not have a formal discipline of psychology as we know it today. Instead, their ideas about the
mind and behavior were intertwined with their beliefs about the soul, the afterlife, and the nature
of the universe.

The modern field of psychology as we know it today began to take shape in the late 19th
century. Two key figures in the development of psychology were Wilhelm Wundt and Sigmund
Freud. Wundt is considered the founder of experimental psychology, and he established the first
laboratory for psychological research in 1879. Freud, on the other hand, was the founder of
psychoanalysis, a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy. Both Wundt and Freud
had a profound influence on the field of psychology and their work continues to shape the way
we think about the mind and behavior today.

In the early 20th century, psychology became more focused on the study of behavior and the
application of psychological principles to real-world problems. This led to the development of
different schools of thought, such as behaviorism, which emphasizes the study of observable
behavior, and psychoanalysis, which focuses on the unconscious mind and the role of early
childhood experiences in shaping behavior.

Today, psychology is a diverse and multifaceted field, with many different subfields and areas of
specialization. These include clinical psychology, which focuses on the assessment and
treatment of mental health disorders; cognitive psychology, which examines how people process
and store information; and developmental psychology, which studies how people change and
grow throughout their lives. Each of these subdisciplines has its own unique focus and methods,
but they all share a common goal: to understand and explain behavior and mental processes.

Overall, psychology is a broad field that studies the mind, behavior and experience through
scientific methods, research, and experimentation. It has both theoretical and practical
applications, and contributes to our understanding of human behavior, cognition and mental
processes.
Psychology as a science
What is science

What is an Experiment
An experiment in psychology is a research method that involves manipulating one or more
variables in order to study their effect on behavior or cognition. Experiments are used to test
hypotheses about psychological processes, and to establish cause-and-effect relationships
between variables. It is the process of carrying out a test or investigation. It's an attempt to do
something different or novel. It's an attempt to create something new. It is possible to plan and
carry out an experiment on the basis of a hypothetical assumption or a natural occurrence. An
experiment produces something new, whatever it is. An experiment is basically a situation that
the experimenter makes up to test his natural curiosity. Depending on the experimenter's
previous experiences, a curiosity may be naturally sparked. Whatever it is, an event is caused
or occurs in a planned situation with the intention of observing the consequences of the event.
However, an experimenter-caused event is distinct. In a controlled laboratory setting, the
experimenter is causing the events and is curiously awaiting the outcome. With the intention of
observing the outcomes that follow, the experimenter might alter the pattern of what causes the
events.
He may be manipulating the materials used in his experimentation in varied ways. These are
common characteristics of an experiment. These are applicable to any physical sciences and
also Psychology.
There are several key features of experiments in psychology. One of the most important is the
use of a control group, which is a group of participants who are not exposed to the independent
variable being studied. This allows researchers to compare the results of the experimental
group (the group that is exposed to the independent variable) to a group that is not exposed to
it, and thus to determine whether any observed changes in behavior or cognition are due to the
manipulation of the independent variable or to other factors.

Another key feature of experiments in psychology is the use of random assignment. Random
assignment is the process of assigning participants to the experimental or control group at
random, which helps to ensure that the groups are similar in terms of important characteristics
such as age, gender, and IQ. This helps to control for extraneous variables and increases the
internal validity of the study.

In addition, experiments in psychology typically involve the use of a dependent variable, which
is the variable that is being measured, and one or more independent variables, which are the
variables that are being manipulated. The experiment is designed in such a way that a change
in the independent variable should cause a change in the dependent variable.
Overall, experiments are a powerful research method in psychology, allowing researchers to
establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables, and to draw valid conclusions about
the underlying causes of behavior and cognition.

Experimentation and scientific method

History

symbols and terms used in experimental method

In a psychological experiment one obvious require- ment is an organism to serve as subject by
responding to stimuli. If we desig- nate the stimulus (or stimulus complex, Or stimulating
situation) by the letter S, an^ the subject’s response by the letter R, we can best designate the
subject or or- ganism by the letter O. We shall use the italicized letter O in this way. The letter E
stands for the experimenter. A psychological experiment, then, can be symbolized by S — O —
R, which means that E (understood) applies a certain stimulus (or situation) to O’s receptors and
observes O’s response. This formula suggests a class of experiments in which E’s aim is to
discover what goes on in the organism between the stimulus and the motor response.
In experimental methods, some other common symbols and terms include:

Independent variable (x): the variable that is being manipulated or changed in an experiment.

Dependent variable (y): the variable that is being measured or observed in an experiment. It is
dependent on the independent variable.

Control group: a group of subjects or samples that do not receive the experimental treatment,
used for comparison.

Experimental group: a group of subjects or samples that receive the experimental treatment.

Randomization: a technique used to ensure that the subjects or samples in the experimental
and control groups are similar, and that any differences between the groups are due to the
experimental treatment.

Replication: repeating an experiment multiple times to ensure the validity and reliability of the
results.

Confounding variable: a variable that may affect the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables and needs to be controlled.
Null hypothesis (H0): the statement that there is no significant difference between the
experimental and control groups.

Alternative hypothesis (Ha): the statement that there is a significant difference between the
experimental and control groups.

P-value: the probability of obtaining the observed results or something more extreme, if the null
hypothesis is true.

Significance level (alpha): the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true.

Confidence interval: a range of values that is likely to contain the true value of a population
parameter, with a certain level of confidence.

Hypothesis
Hypothesis is the basic and most fundamental aspect of an experiment in Psychology. A
hypothesis is a suggested explanation for a group of phenomena or facts, either accepted as a
basis for further verification or accepted as likely to be true. A hypothesis may be also stated as
a testable statement that is evolved as a possible or latent solution to a problem. Therefore, in
formulating hypotheses, the experimenter should formulate suitable hypothesis. He should have
gained sufficient knowledge in certain specific area. Therefore, the experimenter first of all
should review as far as possible all the available pyschological literature. While reviewing the
psychological literature the experimenter or researcher can observe the works carried out earlier
similar to his works or theme. From these he can select the relevant topic or title with problem,
the independent and dependent variables quite suitable to the study. The experimenter should
not choose the same topic or problem that he observed in the literature. It is for the
experimenter to evolve something new, not attempted earlier for his experiment or research. A
hypothesis may be pertaining to anything. There is no limitations or restrictions about what can
be hypothesized. Therefore, a hypothesis is a tentative statement about some phenomena that
the experimenter or researcher wanted to verify and accept it or reject it. A hypothesis also may
be evolved from some ideal sources. We may find that some people wanted to do research or
experiment on their own ideas. Hypothesis define the relationship between at least two
variables, and are testable. Other researchers must be able to replicate the findings that support
or refute a hypothesis for it to work properly.
There are two kinds of hypotheses: A directional hypothesis makes a claim, whereas a
descriptive hypothesis asks a question. The researcher has an intuitive understanding of a
phenomenon that serves as the foundation for certain hypotheses or guesses. By gathering
data that will allow you to determine whether your assumption was correct, these are put to the
test.
In an experiment, the relationship between two variables is defined by a hypothesis.
The answer to a question is the goal of a hypothesis. We will be forced to consider the kinds of
outcomes we should look for in an experiment if we have a formalized hypothesis. Hypotheses
are important in psychological research as they guide the design and execution of studies, and
help to generate new knowledge and understanding about human behavior and mental
processes.

Some examples of hypotheses in psychology include:

● People with higher levels of self-esteem will report greater life satisfaction.
● Children who are exposed to violent media will show increased aggressive behavior.
● Individuals with depression will have higher cortisol levels than individuals without
depression.
● Individuals with a high need for achievement will be more likely to persevere on a task
when given feedback that they are performing well.
According to Townsland (1935), A hypothers is a suggested answer to the problem.

According to F.J. Mc bulgan (1969), A hypothesis is a testable statement of a potential

relationship between two or more variables.

According to Edward (1959) Hypothesis is a statement of a possible relationship between two or

more variables, it is a tentative answer to the question of what the relationship is.

Types of Hypothesis:
1. Null Hypothesis : A null hypothests is a general statement which states no relationship
between two vaulables or two phenomena. It is usually denoted by H0.
2. Alternative Hypothesis: An alternative hypotheses is a statement which states some
statistical significance between two phenomena.The Alternative further branches into
directional and non- directional.
3. Simple Hypothesis: A simple hypothesis is also known as composite hypothesis. It
predicts relationship between two variables i.e. the dependent and the independent
variable.
4. Complex Hypothesis: A complex hypothesis examines relationship between two or more
independent variables and two or more dependent variables.
5. Working or Research Hypothesis: A research hypothesis is a specific, clear prediction
about the possible outcome of a scientific research study based on specific factors of the
population.
6. Logical Hypothesis: A logical hypothesis is a planned explanation holding limited
evidence.
7. Satistical Hypothesis: A statistical Hypothesis, sometimes called confirmatory data
analysis, is an assumption about a poplation parameter.

Variables
A variable, as the name implies is something that varies. This is the simplest way of defining a
variable. For example, a characteristic value, time, number etc. In the majority of psychological
experiment you will want to see whether a change in one thing (variable 1) can causes any
change in another one (variable 2) - and then interpret this dependency or its absence. A
behavioural scientist attempts to define a variable more precisely and specifically. Kerlinger
(1986) defined variable 'a property that taken as different values.' According to D'Amato (1970)
variables may the defined as those attributes of objects, events, things and beings, which can
be measured. According to Postman & Egan (1949) a variable is a characteristic or attribute that
can take on a number of values, for example, number of items that an individual solve on a
particular test. Webster says that a variable is "a thing that is changeable" or "a quantity that
may have a number of diffrent values." However, it is also important that the values of the
variable be observable. Thus, if what is being studied is a variable, it has more than one value &
each value can be observed.
Different Types Of Variables are:-

Independent Variable:-
In psychology, an independent variable is a variable that is manipulated or changed in an
experiment in order to observe the effect on a dependent variable. In other words, an
independent variable is the cause, and the dependent variable is the effect. For example, in a
study investigating the effects of sleep deprivation on memory, the independent variable would
be the amount of sleep the participants get, and the dependent variable would be their memory
performance. In an experimental study, the independent variable is the treatment or condition
that the researcher is interested in studying, while the dependent variable is the outcome that is
being measured, such as a change in behavior or cognitive performance.
Any variable that can be directly or selectively manipulated by E(experimenter) to determine its
effects on a behavioral measure is considered an independent variable.

Dependant Variable:-
Characteristics of behaviour which are measured in an experiment are dependent variable.
According to D'Amato (2007), any measured behavioural variable of interest in a psychological
investigation is called dependent variable. In other words, dependent variable is the variable
whose value is observed an experiment. If a causal relationship exists, then the value of
dependent variable depends, at least to some extent, on the level of the independent variable
(Bordens and Abbott, 2005). However, the value of the dependent variable also depends on
some other factors, like participants characteristics.Therefore, rather than the value of the
independent variable, the value of the dependent variable is significantly influenced by the
subject's behavior.. According to Postman and Egan (1967). dependent variable refers to the
variable about which the experimenter makes prediction on the basis of experiment'.

Confounding variables:-
A non-experimental variable with unequal distributions across various experimental conditions is
a confounding variable. A confounding variable is a variable that is not of interest to the
researcher, but may affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
With the help of the independent variable, these variables may occasionally be erroneously
manipulated. As a result, the experimenter draws incorrect conclusions. Confounding variables
can introduce bias into the results of a study and make it difficult to determine the true
cause-and-effect relationship between the variables being studied. For example, in a study on
the effect of a new teaching method on test scores, a confounding variable could be the
students' prior knowledge of the material, which could affect the test scores regardless of the
teaching method used.

quantitative vs qualitative:-
Qualitative variables in psychology frequently relate to aspects or properties of the organisms
being studied, such as animal species and strain membership and human race, religion,
occupation, and personality classification. The categories of a qualitative variable do not lie on a
dimension that enables us to make statements such as "Category A possesses a greater
magnitude of the variable than category B." We define qualitative variables as those that are
made up of categories that cannot be compared to magnitude.

On the other hand, quantitative variables always refer to characteristics of objects or things that
embody magnitude as an essential characteristic. As a result, inquiries regarding "how much"
make sense when dealing with these variables. As a result, age, intelligence, the number of
trials required to learn an experimental task, and the intensity of an auditory stimulus are all
quantitative variables because individuals may differ in age, intelligence, and the number of
trials required to learn a particular task, as well as in the magnitude of an auditory stimulus. In
summary, a quantitative variable is any one that can be ordered by magnitude.

It goes without saying that in scientific work, quantitative variables are preferred because they
can be measured with much greater precision and success than qualitative variables.
Qualitative variables also have little power to explain things. When a qualitative independent
variable has an effect on a quantitative dependent variable, it makes sense to look for a
quantitative variable that is somehow related to the manipulated qualitative variable to explain
the effect on the latter. As an illustration, it is well known that the response time to sound is
typically quicker than the response time to light. One possible interpretation of this result is that
sound stimuli activate their receptors in the cochlea faster than light stimuli excite their
corresponding receptors in the retina (rods and cones) because relatively slow photochemical
processes are involved in the latter (Woodworth & Schlosberg, 1954, p. 18). Thus, differences in
RT brought about by manipulation of a qualitative independent variable, type of stimulus, are
explained by referring to differences in an associated quantitative variable, time to excite the
respective receptors.

continuous vs discrete:-
Quantitative variables are separable into continuous and discrete variables, the majority of
quantitative variables in psychology falling in the former category. A continuous variable may be
defined as a quantitative variable which can be measured (ie., ordered with respect to
magnitude) with an arbitrary degree of fineness, usually depending only on the precision of the
available measuring instrument. Reaction time is plainly a continuous variable; it can be
measured with any degree of fineness or exactness that one chooses, subject only to the
limitations of the currently available measuring tools. At one time, because of the limitations of
the then existing instruments, RT could be measured at best in milliseconds; today, if required, it
could be measured in microseconds, a thousandfold reduction in the size of the measuring unit.
Take into account the number of siblings as a variable. This is a discrete variable because no
matter how much measuring equipment or methods are improved, a value of, say, 21 children
cannot be achieved. In a similar vein, the number of digits that can be quickly remembered and
the number of heads that can be obtained by tossing ten coins are both discrete variables. In
psychology, discrete variables are those whose values can be determined by counting, and their
description typically begins with "the number of." However, it is important to make a careful
distinction between how the quantitative variable is measured and its fundamental nature. The
number of correctly answered questions on a final exam, for instance, can be used to gauge a
student's level of success in an algebra course at college. Despite being measured by the
number of correctly answered questions on a final exam, the underlying variable, course
achievement, is clearly a continuous variable. In point of fact, counting is the physical
measurement of all continuous variables. Weight, height, and age are all continuous variables.
are frequently measured in terms of the number of months they have been alive, the height in
inches, and the weight in pounds. However, in contrast to true discrete variables, these
variables can be measured in terms of the number of days of age, the number of hundredths of
an inch in height, or the number of grams in weight almost indefinitely.
Type-E independent variables may be qualitative, continuous, or discrete variables, and the
same holds true for type-S independent variables. Dependent variables are sometimes
qualitative, as often found in studies involving personality projective tests, though most often
they are quantitative, in particular, continuous, variables.

types of experiments
True Experiment:-
A true experimental design is a research design in which the researcher manipulates an
independent variable and measures its effect on a dependent variable while controlling for other
variables. The key characteristics of a true experimental design are:

● Random assignment of participants to experimental and control groups.

● Manipulation of the independent variable in the experimental group.
● Control of extraneous variables through random assignment, matching or statistical
methods.
● The use of a control group that does not receive the manipulation of the independent
variable, this allows the researcher to compare the results of the experimental group with
the control group and to infer causality.
● The use of a pre-test and post-test to measure the effect of the independent variable on
the dependent variable.
True experimental design is considered the most rigorous type of research design and allows
the researcher to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables. This design is
often used in fields such as medicine, psychology, and education.
Types of True Experimental Research Designs
1. Pre test- Post test Control group Design
2. Post-test only control group Design
3. Solomon Four group Design
4. Factorial Design

Quasi Experiment:-
Like true experimental design, the term experimental in this design validates the fact that quasi
experimental designs involve the manipulation of independent variable. However the prefix
‘quasi’ which means ‘false’ reflects the fact that these experiments lack the key feature of
random assignment. Moreover, the researcher lacks full control over the experimental
conditions. Quasi-experiments in psychology often employ subject variables. These variables
are measures such as age, IQ, mental health, height, hair color, sex, and the myriad other
characteristics that differ from one person to the next. Such variables are determined after the
fact, since they are often inherited dispositions (or at least, people come to the psychological
study with the variable already determined). Because it is not possible to assign people
randomly to the conditions of interest, studies that use subject variables are inherently
correlational in nature.
Some of the key characteristics of a quasi-experiment include:

● The manipulation of the independent variable, similar to a true experiment.

● The lack of random assignment of participants to groups, which means that the groups
may note equivalent at the start of the study.
● The use of a control group, but the control group is not always a true control group as it
may not be selected randomly.
● The use of a pre-test and post-test, similar to a true experiment.
● Control of extraneous variables through statistical methods, matching or by measuring
them and controlling for them in the analysis.

The most common quasi-experimental designs are:

1. Nonequivalent groups design: This design uses a pretest and posttest for participants to
gauge cause and effect.
2. Regression discontinuity design: Regression discontinuity design assigns participants to
a particular treatment using the propensity score of a pretreatment variable.
3. Interrupted time series design: In this design, researchers track participants for a
lengthy period, both pre-intervention and post-intervention.
Advantages of Quasi Experimental Research Design
● Most practical and feasible research design especially in nursing.
● Less time consuming. Resources needed for experimentation are also reduced.
 ● Enable to compare with other groups.
Disadvantages of Quasi Experimental Research Design
● It provides comparatively weaker evidence of effect of an intervention.
● Unexpected factors might affect the results.

Lab Experiment:-