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TERMINOLOGY (HIT) 
Table of Contents 
i. Ancient History & Art Culture (PYQs) ............................................................................................................................... i-iii

01. Harappan Civilization ........................................................................................................................................................ 1-2
02. Vedic Age .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2-4
03. Rig Vedic and Later Vedic Age ................................................................................................................................... 5-6
04. Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) .............................................................................................................................. 6-7
05. Jainism ................................................................................................................................................................................. 7-11
06. Buddhism ......................................................................................................................................................................... 12-16
07. Sangam Age ...................................................................................................................................................................... 16-18
08. Magadh Empire ............................................................................................................................................................... 18-19
09. Haryanka Dynasty .................................................................................................................................................... 19-19
10. Shishunaga Dynasty ................................................................................................................................................. 19-19
11. Nanda Dynasty ......................................................................................................................................................... 19-20
12. Alexander’s Invasion ...................................................................................................................................................... 20-20
13. Maurayan Empire (321-185 BC) .................................................................................................................................... 20-24
14. Sunga Dyansty (185-71 BC) ........................................................................................................................................... 24-24
15. Kanva Dynasty (72 BC – 27 BC) .................................................................................................................................... 24-24
16. Kharavela- Chedi Dynasty ............................................................................................................................................. 24-25
17. Satavahanas (235 BC) ...................................................................................................................................................... 25-25
18. Indo Greeks ...................................................................................................................................................................... 25-25
19. The Parthians (19 – 45 AD) ............................................................................................................................................ 25-25
20. The Sakas (90 BC – 1st AD) ............................................................................................................................................ 25-26
21. Kushans ............................................................................................................................................................................ 26-26
22. Gupta Empire (320 – 540 AD) ........................................................................................................................................ 26-29
23. The Vakatakas (250-500 AD) .......................................................................................................................................... 29-29
24. The Hunas ........................................................................................................................................................................ 29-29
25. Harsha Vardhana (606-647AD) ..................................................................................................................................... 29-30
26. Maukhari Dynasty .......................................................................................................................................................... 30-30
27. Maitraka Dynasty ............................................................................................................................................................ 30-31
28. Pallavas ............................................................................................................................................................................. 31-33
29. Chalukyas ......................................................................................................................................................................... 33-33
30. Pandyas ............................................................................................................................................................................. 33-34
31. Rashtrakuta Dynasty ...................................................................................................................................................... 34-34
32. Pratihara Dynasty ........................................................................................................................................................... 34-35
33. Pala Dynasty .................................................................................................................................................................... 35-35
34. Senas Dynasty .................................................................................................................................................................. 35-35
35. Imperial Cholas Dynasty ............................................................................................................................................... 35-36
36. Socio-Cultural Tradition in Kashmir ............................................................................................................................ 36-37
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37. Age of Rajputs .................................................................................................................................................................. 37-37
38. Tomars Dynasty ........................................................................................................................................................ 37-37
39. Gahadavalas of Kannauj .......................................................................................................................................... 37-37
40. Chauhans Dynasty .................................................................................................................................................... 37-38
41. Chandellas Dynasty .................................................................................................................................................. 38-38
42. Parmaras of Malwa ................................................................................................................................................... 38-38
43. Chalukyas/Solanki Rajputs ...................................................................................................................................... 38-38
44. Other Personalities .......................................................................................................................................................... 38-38
45. Eminent Personalities of Ancient India ....................................................................................................................... 39-40
46. Literary Activities in Ancient India .............................................................................................................................. 40-41
47. Kannada and Telugu Literature .................................................................................................................................... 41-41
48. Books on Sciences ............................................................................................................................................................ 41-41
49. Drama ................................................................................................................................................................................ 41-41
50. Lyric Poetry ...................................................................................................................................................................... 41-41
51. Prominent Authors .......................................................................................................................................................... 41-42
52. Temples and Builders ..................................................................................................................................................... 42-43
53. Important Court Scholars ............................................................................................................................................... 43-43
54. Political Terms .................................................................................................................................................................. 43-44
55. Economic Terms ............................................................................................................................................................... 44-45
56. Buddhism ......................................................................................................................................................................... 45-46
57. Jainism ............................................................................................................................................................................... 46-46
58. Hinduism .......................................................................................................................................................................... 46-49
59. Script, Language and Literature ................................................................................................................................... 49-49
60. Mauryan Literature ......................................................................................................................................................... 49-50
61. Vedic Corpus .................................................................................................................................................................... 50-55
62. Instruments to Spread Bhakti ........................................................................................................................................ 55-55
63. Ideologies of the Bhakti Movement .............................................................................................................................. 55-56
64. History of Coinage in India ........................................................................................................................................... 56-60
65. Invasions in India ............................................................................................................................................................ 60-63
66. Kushanas .................................................................................................................................................................... 63-64
67. Huns Invasion ............................................................................................................................................................ 64-65
68. Arabs ........................................................................................................................................................................... 65-66
69. Mahmud Ghazni ....................................................................................................................................................... 66-66
70. Muhammad Ghori .................................................................................................................................................... 66-67
71. Mongol Invasions ...................................................................................................................................................... 67-69
72. Timur Invasion .......................................................................................................................................................... 69-70
73. Mughals ...................................................................................................................................................................... 70-71
74. Nader Shah ................................................................................................................................................................ 71-71
75. Ahmad Shah Abdali ................................................................................................................................................. 71-73
76. Sikhs and the Afghan Menace ................................................................................................................................ 73-73
77. Inscriptions in India ........................................................................................................................................................ 73-75
78. Major Edicts ..................................................................................................................................................................... 75-79
79. Gupta ................................................................................................................................................................................. 79-80
80. Post Gupta ....................................................................................................................................................................... 80-80
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History in Terminology (HIT)
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF MK YADAV SIR & VEER PRATAB SIR
Ancient History & Art Culture (PYQs)

1. Which one of the following describes best the 6. With reference to the cultural history of India,
concept of Nirvana in Buddhism? (2013) which one of the following is the correct
(a) The extinction of the flame of desire description of the term 'paramitas'? (2020)
(b) The complete annihilation of self (a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts written in
aphoristic (sutra) style.
(c) A state of bliss and rest
(b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the
(d) A mental stage beyond all comprehension authority of Vedas.
2. With reference to the cultural history of India, (c) Perfections whose attainment led to the
the memorizing of chronicles, dynastic Bodhisattva path
histories and epic tales was the profession of
who of the following? (2016) (d) Powerful merchant guilds of early medieval
south India.
(a) Shramana (b) Parivraajaka
7. Which of the following phrases defines the
(c) Agrahaarika (d) Maagadha nature of the 'Hundi' generally referred to in
3. With reference to the religious practices in the sources of the post-Harsha period? (2020)
India, the "Sthanakvasi" sect belongs to: (2018) (a) An advisory issued by the king to his
(a) Buddhism (b) Jainism subordinates
(c) Vaishnavism (d) Shaivism (b) A diary to be maintained for daily accounts
4. With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in (c) A bill of exchange
India during the Gupta period, which of the (d) An order from the feudal lord to his
following statements is correct? (2019) subordinates
(a) It was considered a source of income for the 8. With reference to the history of India, the terms
State, a sort of tax paid by the people. “kulyavapa” and “dronavapa” denote (2020)
(b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh (a) measurement of land
and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.
(b) coins of different monetary value
(c) The forced labourer was entitled to weekly
wages. (c) classification of urban land
(d) The eldest son of the labourer was sent as (d) religious rituals
the forced labourer. 9. With reference to the period of Gupta dynasty
5. In which of the following relief sculpture in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura
inscriptions is 'Ranyo Ashoka' (King Ashoka) and Chaul were well known as (2020)
mentioned along with the stone portrait of (a) ports handling foreign trade
Ashoka? (2019) (b) capital of powerful kingdoms
(a) Kanganahalli (b) Sanchi (c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture
(c) Shahbazgarhi (d) Sohgaura (d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres
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i
10. With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, 14. The national motto of India, 'Satyameva Jayate'
Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as: inscribed below the Emblem of India is taken
(2023) from (2014)
(a) capital cities (a) Katha Upanishad
(b) ports (b) Chandogya Upanishad
(c) centers of iron-and-steel making (c) Aitareya Upanishad
(d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras (d) Mundaka Upanishad
11. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called 15. With reference to the cultural history of India,
the term ‘Panchayatan’ refers to (2014)
Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas.
What is the difference between the two? (2013) (a) an assembly of village elders
(a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya (b) a religious sect
is the dwelling place of the monks (c) a style of temple construction
(b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara (d) an administrative functionary
is the dwelling place of the monks 16. With reference to India’s culture and tradition,
(c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, what is 'Kalaripayattu? (2014)
while Vihara is the hall axial to it (a) It is an ancient Bhakti cult of Shaivism still
(d) There is no material difference between the prevalent in some parts of South India
two (b) It is an ancient style bronze and brasswork
12. In the context of cultural history of India, a pose still found in southern part of Coromandel
in dance and dramatics called 'Tribhanga' has area
been a favourite of Indian artists from ancient (c) It is an ancient form of dance-drama and a
times till today. Which one of the following living tradition in the northern part of
statements best describes this pose? (2013) Malabar
(a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly but (d) It is an ancient martial art and a living
oppositely curved at waist and neck tradition in some parts of South India
(b) Facial expressions, hand gestures and make- 17. Kalamkari painting refers to (2015)
up are combined to symbolize certain epic (a) a hand-painted cotton textile in South India
or historic characters
(b) a handmade drawing on bamboo
(c) Movements of body, face and hands are used handicrafts in North-East India
to express oneself or to tell a story (c) a block-painted woollen cloth in Western
(d) A little smile, slightly curved waist and Himalayan region of India
certain hand gestures are emphasized to (d) a hand-painted decorative silk cloth in
express the feelings of love or eroticism. North- Western India
13. A community of people called Manganiyars is 18. The well-known painting “Bani Thani”
well- known for their (2014) belongs to the: (2018)
(a) martial arts in North-East India (a) Bundi School
(b) musical tradition in North-West India (b) Jaipur School
(c) classical vocal music in South India (c) Kangra School
(d) pietra dura tradition in Central India (d) Kishangarh School
ii
19. “Yogavasistha” was translated into Persian by 20. In which one of the following regions was
Nizamuddin Panipati during the reign of: Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a
(2022) prominent Buddhist centre under the
(a) Akbar (b) Humayun Mahasanghikas, located? (2023)
(c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb (a) Andhra (b) Gandhara

(c) Kalinga (d) Magadha

ANSWER-KEY
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. a 5. a 6. c 7. c 8. a 9. a 10. b
11. b 12. a 13. b 14. d 15. c 16. d 17. a 18. d 19. a 20 a
iii
HISTORY IN TERMINOLOGY (HIT)

By Veer Pratab Sir
Harappan Civilization  The Mesopotamian texts mention contacts with

a region called Dilmun. It is identified with
 Chanhudaro – discovered by N. Gopal Bahrain.
Majundar and Mackey. (Indus).  Oman was considered to be Magan.
 Kalibangan – discovered in 1953 AD by A  They used bronze and copper but iron was
Ghosh– Ghaggar – it means Black Bangles. unknown to them.
 Lothal – Man made port in the world and
 They also worshipped fire, pipal trees and
dockyard made of burnt bricks.
Unicorn.
 Discovered in 1953 by S.R. Rao
 Harappan script was Pictographic in nature,
 Ropar – Punjab – sultej – 1953 – Y.D. Sharma. which has not been desciphered so far.
 Indus people used a Gold-Silver mixture called  Bronze dancing girl was told by John Marshall.
Electrum.
 Harappan civilisation extended from Jammu in
 Indus people – 1st to use copper in India. the North to Narmada in the South and from
 They used weights and measures based on 16 Makran coast of Baluchistan in the West to
and its multiples. Alamgirpur in the East.
 Chess- like game of harappans was called Sent.  The considered Northern most point of Indus
 The largest number of harappan sites in post- Valley civilisation was Gumla in Jammu
independent India have been discovered in and the considered Southernmost was
Gujarat. Diambad.
 It is also know as a “Triangle based civilization” Site Excavator
 IVC term coined by Sir John Marshal.  Lothal (on the confluence of S.R. Rao (1957)
 1st to decipher pashupati Mahadeva seal and Sabarmati and Bhogra river,
associate with lord Shiva. Ahmedabad, Gujarat)
 The word ‘Sindhan’ used by the Indus people  Kalibangan or Black Bangles Amlanand Ghosh
denoted Cotton (on the left bank of Ghaggar (1953),
river, Rajasthan) Dr. B.B. Lal and
 The major industry in Chanhudaro was Bead B.K. Thapar (1961)
making
 Chanhudaro, on the left bank of N.G. Majumdar
 Harappan people domesticated oxen, buffaloes, Indus river (Sindh, Pakistan) (1931),
goats, camel, sheeps, domestic fowls and pigs. E. Mackay (1935)
bulls were given special importance.  Rangapur, on the left bank of M.S. Vatsa (1931),
 The ancient name given to Indus region was Mahar river (Near Lothal, Gujarat)
Meluha. S.R. Rao (1953-54)
Site Excavator  The word Aryan means:

 Banawali (Hisar, Haryana) R.S. Bisth (1973-74)  Race or a language group (a debated topic)
 Alamgirpur (Meerut, U.P) V.D.Sharma (1958)  The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the word ‘vid’
 Kot-Diji, on the left bank of Ghurey (1935), which means knowledge.
Indus river (Sindh, Pakistan) Fazal Ahmed (1955)
 Total 4 vedas, they are Rig Veda, Yajurveda,
 Amri, on the left bank of Indus N.G. Majumdar Samaveda and Atharva Veda.
river, (Sindh, Pakistan) (1929)
 Rig veda is the oldest veda.
 Ropar, on the bank of Sutlej Y.D. Sharma
river (Punjab, India) (1955-56)  Trayi – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda.
 Surkotada (Kutchh, Gujarat) J.P. Joshi (1964)  Vedas are collectively known as Sruti (to be
 Suktagendor (Sindh, Pakistan) A Stein (1927) heard)
 Dholavira (Gujarat) J.P. Joshi (1990-91),  Vedangas are collectively known as Smriti (to
R.S. Bisht be remembered)
 Rakhigarhi (Haryana) Amrendra Nath
 Vedangas are six in number. They are
(2014)
 Siksha – Phonetic
Major Imports by the Harappans
 Kalpa – Ritual
Material Source  Vyakarana – Grammar
 Gold Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar  Nirukta – Ethymology
(South India)
 Chhanda – Metrics and
 Silver Afghanistan, Iran
 Copper Baluchistan & Khetri  Jyotisha – Astronomy
(Rajasthan)
 “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven Rivers).
 Tin Afghanistan, Iran These seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus), Vipash
 Agates and Chalcedony Saurashtra (Gujarat) (Beas), Vitasta (Jhelum), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni
 Lead South India (Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and Saraswati.
 Lapis Lazuli Afghanistan  Panis referred to in the Rigveda were the people
 Turquoise Khorasan rich in cattle wealth.
 Amethyst Maharashtra  Pitrs were generally defined as three generations
 Jade Pamir (Central Asia) of male patrilineal ancestors: the father, the
 Carnelian Bharuch (Gujarat) grandfather and the great grandfather.
 Dama was envisaged as a household under the
joint control of the husband and wife, who
Vedic Age were called the dampati (dual).
 Vedic Age is the period of Aryans in India from  During the Vedic age different terms were used
1500-600 BC. for kinsmen of the tribe. These include samana
 Most Probable Home of the Aryans is Central (literally equals), sva (one’s own) or sajata (those
Asia. This theory is of Max Mullar. who shared a common birth).
 Rigveda:  Atharva veda

 There are 1028 hymns. It is divided into ten  It is a collection of spells and incantations.
Mandalas (Chapters). Varna System is  Ayurveda is considered to be a part of
mentioned in the 10th Mandala’s Purusukta Atharva Veda, which deals with medicine.
Hymn.
 The saying “War beings in the minds of
 Rig Vedic Hymns sung by priests were called men” is from Atharva Veda.
Hotris.
 The words ‘Satyameva Jayate’ have been taken
 The line ‘Agnimele Purohitam’ is mentioned from ‘Mundaka Upanishad’.
in the Rigveda.
 Brahdaranya Upanished gives the doctrine of
 Famous Gayatri Mantra is contained in the Transmigration of Soul and Karma.
Rigveda (It is believed to have composed by  Puranas are the part of Smriti literature.
Vishwamitra)
 They are 18 in number 6 vishnupuranas, 6
 Yajurveda: shivapuranas and 6 Brahmapuranas.
 It deals with sacrifices and rituals.  Bhagvata purana is divided into 18 skandas. The
 hymns are by priests called ‘Adhavaryu’. 10th skanda mentions about the childhood of Sri
Krishna.
 Yajurveda is divided into two: Sukla
Yajurveda (white Yajurveda) and Krishna  Brahmapurana is also know as Adipurana.
Yajur Veda (Black Yahurveda)  ‘Visah’ was a cluster of gramas.
 Sama veda  Important tribal assemblies of the Rig Vedic
 It deals with Music. period were Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana.
 hymns are sung by priests called Udgatri or  The Aghanya (Rigveda) refers to cows.
Udgatar.  The Rigvedic religion was primitive animism.
 Indra was the greatest God of Aryans and Pushan  God of Shudras
Agni occupied second position.
Gau  Cow held an important place in
 Indra was known as Purandara/ Destroyer the Rig Vedic culture and
of forts. different names with sufïx Gau
 He was also warlord and raingod. are found in the Rig Veda
 Varuna was God of water and Yama was the Godhuli  Godhuli was used as a term for a
Lord of dead. measure of time
 Savitri was a solar deity to whom the famous Gavyuti  Gavyuti measure of distance.
Gayatri Mantra is attributed to.
Duhitri  It was the term used for
 Prithivi was Earth Goddess.
daughter because she used to
 The battle of ten kings mentioned in the Rig milk the cow.
Veda was fought on the division of water of river
Gavishti  Terms for Conflicts and
Ravi. It was fought on the banks of River Ravi
Gavesana hostilities
(Purushni).
Gavyat
 The people called Panis, during the Vedic period
were cattle breeders. Gauri and  Buffalo
Gavala
 The two priests who played a major part during
the Rig Vedic period were Vasishta and Gomat  Owner of cattle
Vishvamitra.
Gojit  Winner of cows
Hotra or  Rishi who were experts in

Sabha  Assembly that performs judicial
hotri Rigveda were called hotra or
functions.
hotri.
Samiti  Folk assembly in which people of
Udgatri  Udgatri was the expert of
the tribe gathered for transacting
Samaveda.
tribal business
Adhvaryu  Adhvaryu was an expert in the
Sabhavat  Women who attended the
knowledge of Yajurveda.
assembly
Madhyamasi  Mediator in Disputes Terms Related to Agriculture Activities

Sangrahitri  Treasurer Yava  Barley
Vrihi  Rice
Bhagadugha  Tax Collector
 The verbs vap (to sow) and krish (to cultivate)
Akshavapa  Account offïcer occur, along with references to various
Ugra,  Police ofïcial agricultural implements.
Jivagrabha  Phala, langala, and sira are words for the
plough, which must have been made of wood.
Prashnavinak  Judges
Other implements included the hoe (khanitra),
Avrata  people who do not obey the sickle (datra, srini), and axe (parashu, kulisha).
ordinances of the gods.  Fertile fields (urvara), and furrows (sita).
The Sathapatha Brahamana throws light on the

Rig Vedic and Later Vedic Age

eastward expansion of the Aryans under
 Types of marriages Videha Mahadeva with the help of Agni till they
reached river Sandira (Gandak).
 Brahma: Marriage of duly dowered girl with
the man of the same class.  The later veda divide India into 3 broad division
 Daiva: The father gives a daughter to a  Aryavarta (northern India)
sacrificial priest as a part of a fee.
 Madhyadesa (central india)
 Arsa: A token bride-price of a cow and a
 Dakshinapatha (south india)
bull is given in place of dowry.
 Prajapatya: The father gives the girl without  Important terms mentioned in the Rigveda
dowry and without demanding the bride-  Rajya - 1 times
price.
 Vis/clan
 Gandharva: Marriage by consent of the two
 Jana
parties (love marriage)
 Asura: Marriage in which the bride is bought  Ganga
from the father. It was looked down upon  Shudra
with disfavor by all sacred texts though the  Vidatha
arthasashtra allows it with criticism.
 Samiti
 Rakshaana: Marriage by capture was
practiced especially by warriors  Sabha
 Paishacha: Marriage by seduction  Yamuna

 Anuloma: Marriage of a man in his own  Krishi.
varna or below his varna  There were 16 Sacraments or samskaras (make
 Protosoloma: Marriage of a man from higher list).
than his varna.
 Pushan (protector of cattles) became the god of
 Vratyastoma: A ritual through which the people shudra.
of non-vedic fertility cult were brought to the
 Public assemblies: Gana, sabha, Samiti, Vidatha.
Aryan fold.
 The earliest reference to 4 Ashramas/ 4 Stages  Ratnis: Important officials, some were
of life is found in the Jabala Upanishad.  Ahishi: Chief queen
 Nishadas were non-aryans, lived in their own  Suta: court minstrel(musician) or charioteer.
villages and had their own rules.
 Kshta: Chamberlain (supervisor).
 Vratyas were Aryans outside the pale of
 Akshavapa (accountant)
Brahmanism. They did not observe the
Brahminical rules and spoke prakrit.  Takshan (carpenter)
 Education began with Investiture ceremony  During Rigveda there were 33 gods divided into
(upanayana). Initiation or Upanayana was not 3 division of the universe
allowed to the Shudras.
 Terrestrial - Prithvithana
 The age of Upanayana was 8 Years for
 Atmospheric - antarikshasthana
Brahmins, 11 years for Kshatriyas and 12
Year for Vaishyas.  Celestial - dyusthana
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MK YADAV SIR
Terms  Mention of the ‘Gotra’ is found in the

Atharvaveda.
 Aranyani: Imp. Female goddess - Rigvedic
 Origin of Kingship is found in Aitareya
 GodHume - wheat Brahmana.
 Yava - barley  ‘Soma’ was in intoxicating drink mentioned in
 Vrihi - rice the 9th Mandala of the Rig Veda.
 Sita - ploughed field  Mention about the Varna-shramadharama is

found in the Jabla Upanishad.
 Urvara/Kshetra - Cultivated field
 The Doctrine of Trimurti is found in the
 Duhitiri - Milker of cows
Maitrayani Upanishad.
 Ashrama system is mentioned in the Jabala
 Mention about topics in the Rig Veda (10 th
Upanishad. Mandala):
 Sabhavat: Women who attended the assembly  origin of Universe
 Madhyamasi: Mediator in Disputes  varna system.
 Sangrahitri: Treasurer  The officer who enjoyed authority over the
 Bhagadugha: Tax Collector pasture land was called Vrajapati.
 Akshavapa: Account officer  The king’s power increased during the Later
Vedic Period.
 Ugra, Jivagrabha: Police official
 Manusmriti was translated into English by
 Prashnavinak: Judges
William Jones.
 A-vrata: People who do not obey the ordinances  Bali was a tax, which the king used to collect
of the gods from the people of the Vedic period.
 Gavishti, Gavesana, Gavyat Terms for Conflicts  Aryans used iron for the first time India.
and hostilities
 Prajapati was the god who occupied supreme
position in the Later Vedic Period
Later Vedic Period
 Rudra was regarded as preserver and protector
(1000-600 BC) of the people
 Later Vedic people used particular type of poetry  The most important functionary who assisted
called Painted Grey Ware (PGW). the Vedic King was Purohita.
 The term ‘Rashtra’ which indicates territory first  Republic and Monarchy was the normal form
appeared in the later vedic period. of Government in the vedic period.
 Mention of the word ‘Sudras’ – Rigveda  Each Tribal republic was headed by Ganapati
(10 th Mandala) (Brahmana, Kshatriya and or Jyeshtha.
Vaishya were present from the rigvedic times  The Vedic Education system revealed through
itself). ‘Frog Hymn’ in the Rigveda.
 Mention of the word Varna is found in  The ‘Wedding Hymn’ of Rigveda describe the
Rigveda. oldest marriage rituals.
 Six system of Indian Philosophy 3. Parasparopagraho jivanam: The function of

souls is to help one another.
1. Samkya  Sage Kapila
4. ‘Mohaniya’: These are delusion-causing
2. Yoga  Patanjali karmas. According to Jainism the jiva has
three main qualities—consciousness (chaitanya),
3. Vaisheshika  Kannada
bliss (sukha), and energy (virya). Jaina doctrine
4. Nyaya  Akshapada (Gautama) holds that jivas transmigrate due to karma, but
its ideas of transmigration and karma are unique.
5. Vedanta  Shankaracharya Karma is understood as consisting of material
6. Mimasa  Jaimini particles loating about in space. Karmic matter
is of different kinds; some have a directly
negative effect on the jiva, others do not. The
Original Homes of the Aryans According major culprits are the mohaniya (delusion-
to Different Scholars causing) karmas.
Homeland Scholar 5. Asrava: Asrava is the cause, which leads to the

influx of good and evil karma which lead to the
 Arctic Region Bal Gangadhar Tilak
bondage of the soul. Asrava may be described
 Tibet Swami Dayanand as an attraction in the soul toward sense objects.
Saraswati
The following are causes of Asrava or influx of
 Central Asia Max Muller good and evil karma:
(Boghazkoi Inscriptions)
a. Mithyatva: Ignorance
 Turkistan Hun Feldt
b. Avirati: Lack of self restraint
 Bactria J.C. Rod
c. Kasaya: Passions like anger, conceit, deceit,
 Sapta Sindhu Dr. Avinash Chandra Das and lust
Dr. Sampurnanand
d. Yoga: Activities of mind, speech, and body
 Kashmir & Himalayan Dr. L.D. Kala
region 6. Bandha: Bandha is the attachment of karmic
 Europe Sir William Jones matter (karma pudgala) to the soul. The soul has
had this karmic matter bondage from eternity
 Steppes (S. Russia) P. Nehring
because of its own ignorance. This karmic body
 Western Siberia Morgan is known as the karmana body or causal body
or karma.
7. Gunasthanas’: In Jainism the ladder leading
Jainism from ignorance to omniscience is visualized as
having 14 rungs or stages of purification called
Philosophy gunasthanas.
1. Jina: Literally ‘victor’; a Jaina saint a. One who has entered the 13th stage of kevala
2. Jiva: A word with many meanings in different jnana is known as an arhat.
traditions; in the context of Jain philosophy, b. An arhat who has also already acquired the
variously translated as sentient essence, life capability of teaching the doctrine is known
monad, or soul as a tirthankara.
c. The 14th stage is achieved by an arhat include vows of noninjury, abstention from
immediately before his death, when he is lying and stealing, chastity, and renunciation
liberated from all activity and from the last of all possessions.
few remaining karma particles. The final b. For the layman, the basic discipline consists
abode of liberated souls is a world called of the anuvratas, which are a modified form
siddha-loka. of the mahavratas of monks and nuns.
8. Aparigraha: In the Jain tradition, aparigraha c. The first three vows are the same as those
means renunciation, literally non-acquisition or enjoined on members of the sangha, but the
non-grasping. It means avoiding all acquisitive last two are replaced by chastity and limiting
attachments, even to people, since such one’s wants. Theoretically, the lay path
possessive clutching inevitably leads to greed, cannot lead to salvation. But Jainism
jealousy, selfishness, and violence, thereby managed to negotiate the tightrope between
binding the soul to the cycle of birth and monasticism and the householder’s life quite
death. well. There was close integration of the
monastic and lay community, right from the
9. Ganadhara: In Jainism, the term Ganadhara is earliest times.
used to refer to the chief disciple of Tirthankara.
12. Triratna: Literally, ‘the three gems’; in Jainism,
10. Úrâvaka: In Jainism, the word Sravaka or refers to the triple path of right faith, knowledge,
Savaga is used to refer to the Jain ordinary and conduct.
people (householders). The word sìravaka has
a. These are Three Principles for attaining
its roots in the word sìravana, i.e. the one who
Nirvana.
listens (the discourses of the saints).
b. In Jainism the three jewels (also referred to
11. Anuvratas & Mahavratas: In Jainism vows as ratnatraya) are understood as
(vratas) govern the activities of both monks and
i. samyag darsana (“right faith”),
laymen.
ii. samyak jnana (“right knowledge)
a. The Mahavratas or five “great vows,” are
undertaken for life only by ascetics and iii. samyak charitra (“right conduct”).
c. One of the three cannot exist exclusive of the It believes that idol worship is not essential in
others, and all are required for spiritual the path of soul purification and attainment of
liberation. The Triratna is symbolized Nirvana/Moksha.
frequently in art as a trident.
a. The sect is essentially a reformation of the
13. Anekantavada: The Jaina doctrine of the one founded on the teachings of Lonkashah,
manifold nature of reality. It is literally the a fifteenth-century Jain reformer.
doctrine of ‘non-onesidedness’ or ‘manifoldness’
b. Sthanakvasi accepts thirty-two of the Jain
or ‘non absolutism’.
Agamas, the Svetambara canon.
a. It holds that reality is very complex and has
c. Svetambaras who are not Sthanakavasins are
multiple aspects.
mostly part of the Murtipujak sect.
b. It is one of the basic principles of Jainism that
5. Yapaniya: Yapaniya was a Jain order in western
encourages acceptance of relativism and
Karnataka which is now extinct.
pluralism.
a. The first inscription that mentions them by
c. It emphasize on the relativity of all
Mrigesavarman (AD 475–490) a Kadamba
knowledge.
king of Palasika who donated for a Jain
d. The essential point behind anekantavada is temple, and made a grant to the sects of
that reality cannot be grasped in its entirety Yapaniyas, Nirgranthas (identifiable as
and complexity. Digambaras), and the Kurchakas.
14. Syadavada: Literally ‘doctrine of maybe’; the b. The Yapaniyas followed Digambara nudity
Jaina doctrine of the partial nature of all along with several Svetambara beliefs.
statements about reality
Literature
Sects 1. ‘Purvas’: They are the doctrinal texts of Jainism,
1. Theras: They were the chief preceptors of the which contain the original doctrines of
Jain order after Mahavira. Mahavira had eleven Mahavira.
disciples known as Ganadharas or heads of a. The Pûrvas form a type of scripture, which
schools. Jains believe predates the surviving holy
texts.
a. Arya Sudharma was the only Ganadhara
who survived Mahavira and became the first b. Recording the teachings of the 24th Jina
‘Thera’ (chief preceptor) of the Jaina order. Mahavýra’s closest followers, the Pûrvas
He died 20 years after Mahavira’s death. were lost centuries before the scriptures were
first written down.
b. The Jain order in the days of the late Nanda
King was administered by two Theras: a) c. According to tradition, they were lost nearly
Sambhutavijaya, and b) Bhadrabahu. 200 years after the final liberation of
Mahavira, early in the fourth century BCE.
c. The sixth Thera was Bhadrabahu, a
contemporary of the Maurya King d. This category of texts provides a good
Chandragupta Maurya. example of how Jains view the beginnings
of their scriptural tradition.
2. Digambara: Literally ‘sky-clad’; a Jaina sect
e. It shows how they are aware that this
3. Shvetambara: Literally ‘white-clad’, a Jaina sect
tradition is not eternal and could undergo
4. Sthanakavasi: It is a sect of Svetambara Jainism. losses in the course of time that cannot be
recovered. This contrasts with, for instance, b. Sallekhana is a vow available to both Jain
the Hindu doctrine that the Vedas are eternal. ascetics and householders
2. Curnis: Jain literature is known by the collective Jainism (For solving sure shot questions on Jainism
term, Agamas. They are written in & Buddhism – refer the free revision card uploaded
Ardhamagadhi, a form of Prakrit similar to on theiashub.com)
the Buddhist literature written in Pali.  Vardhamana Mahavira was believed to have
a. The Agama literature: Is voluminous, born in 540/599 BC in Kundala Grama in Vaishali
comprising 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 4 Mulas, the capital of Vajji. Now it is in Muzaffarpur
2 Chulika Sutras, 6 Cheda Sutras, and 10 district in Bihar.
Prakirnakas.  He belonged to Jnatrika Kshtriya clan.
b. Agamas have commentaries like the  The word ‘Jaina’ was originated from the word
Niryuktis and Bhasyas which are in poetry ‘Jina’ which means conqueror.
style, while the commentaries written in  Jainism has 24 thinthankaras.
prose style are known as Curnis.  JAIN THIRTHANKARAS (Write Birth
3. Niruktis: Commentaries on the Jain Agamas Place)
written in poetic style are called Niruktis. 1. Rishabhdev or Adinatha
4. The Kalpa Sutra is a Jain text containing the 2. Ajitnath
biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras, notably 3. Sambhavnath
Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Traditionally
4. Abhinandannatha
ascribed to Bhadrabahu, which would place
it in the 4th century BCE, it was probably 5. Sumatinatha
put in writing years after the Nirvana 6. Padmaprabhu
(Moksha) of Mahavira. 7. Suparsavanath
8. Chandraprabh
Festivals and Ceremonies
9. Pushpadanta/Suvidhinatha
1. Paryushana: Paryushana is the most important
10. Shiatanatha
annual holy event for Jains and is usually
11. Shreyanshanath
celebrated in August or September in Hindi
calendar Bhadrapad Month’s Shukla Paksha. 12. Vasupujya
a. Jains increase their level of spiritual intensity 13. Vimalnath
often using fasting and prayer/meditation to 14. Anantnatha
help. 15. Dharmanath
b. The five main vows are emphasized during 16. Shantinath
this time- Ahimòsa, Satya, Asteya, 17. Kunthunath
Brahmacharya, Aparigraha.
18. Arnath
2. Sallekhana: Samlekhna, santhara, samadhi- 19. Mallinath
marana or sanyasana-marana, is a
20. Munisurvrata nath
supplementary vow to the ethical code of
conduct of Jainism. 21. Naminatha
22. Neminatha
a. It is the religious practice of voluntarily
fasting to death by gradually reducing the 23. Parshvanath
intake of food and liquids. 24. Mahavira
 Mahavira was the 24th Thirthankara, who is  Jainism does not condemn the Varna system.
considered as the founder of Jainism. Mahavira believed that all individuals
 Various puranas like Bhagavatapurana, irrespective of caste can strive for liberation
Vishnupurana, Vayupurana, etc. mentions about through good deeds and living.
Rishabhadeva.  Jainsim was divided into two sects
 Mahavira is also known as ‘Vaishalia’ as he was Swetambaras and Digambaras after the first Jain
born in Vaishali. Council.
 He got Kaivalya at the age of 42 under a Sal tree  Digambaras are sky-clad or naked and
on the bank of river Rajpalika near Village swetambaras are clad in white.
Jimbharikagrama.  Gomateshwara statue is situated in Sravana
 At first Mahavira followed the practice of an belgola.
ascetic group called Nirgrandhas, which earlier  ‘Syad Vada’ and Anekvada is Jain phijosophy
led by Parswanath. of Knowledge.
 Makhali Gosala was a contemporary of  Kharavela of Kalinga gave patronage to
Mahavira. Who later founded the Ajivika Jainism.
sect.  Temple on the Mount Abu in Rajasthan is a
 Mahavira attained Nirvana at the age of 72 at famous centre of Jain worship constructed in
Pavapuri near Rajagriha. solanki style.
 Jain sacred texts are called Angas.  Jain Temple at Sravanabelgola is known as ‘Kasi
of the Jains’.
 Jain texts were written in the Prakrit language
of Ardhamagadhi.  Chandragupta Maurya the founder of the
Mauryan Empire, abdicated the throne towards
 ‘Ahimsa Paramo Dharma’ is the sacred hymn
the end of the life, accepted Jainism reached
of Jainism.
Sravanabelgola and performed Sallekhana/
 Ahimsa, Satya, Asateya, Aparigriha and Santhara (fast until death).
Brahmacharya are the five major principles of
Jainism. Niruktis
 Brahmacharya is the principle added by  Commentaries on the Jain Agamas written in
Mahavira. poetic style are called Niruktis.
 Mahvira taught the three Jewels of Jainism
(Triratna) – Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Arasparopagraho Javanam
Right Conduct (KFC)  The function of souls is to help one another.
 The Jains repudiated the authority or infallibility
of the vedas. Ganadhara
 They were scientific in nature wherein they  In Jainism, the term Ganadhara is used to refer
rejected the concept of Universal soul or a to the chief disciple of Tirthankara.
supreme power as the creator and sustainer of
the Universe. Samvara
 Their concept of soul considers Animate and  The method that stops fresh karma from
Inanimate soul. attaching into the soul is called samvara.
4. Madhayamaka: A major Mahayana school

Buddhism founded by Nagarjuna, in which the idea of
shunyata (emptiness) is of great importance
Philosophy
5. Theravâda Buddhism: One of the oldest
 Ariya-sachchani: The Four Noble Truths school of Buddhism. It is closest to the original
related to suffering; an important part of the teachings of the Buddha. Theravada Buddhism
Buddha’s teaching
developed in Sri Lanka and subsequently
 Dhamma: A Pali word (Sanskrit, dharma), spread to the rest of Southeast Asia. It is the
referring to the ideal conduct of an individual dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos,
living in society Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
 Patichcha-Samuppada: Pali, the law of 6. Vajrayana Buddhism: Vajrayana means “The
dependent origination; a part of the Buddha’s Vehicle of the Thunderbolt”, also known as
teaching. Tantric Buddhism. This Buddhist school
 Parajika (defeat): Parajika (defeat) in Buddhism developed in India around 900 CE. It is
refers to the four most serious offences grounded on esoteric elements and a very
involving expulsion from the sangha were: complex set of rituals compared with the rest
sexual intercourse, taking what is not given, of the Buddhist schools.
killing someone, and making false claims of
11. Prajñaptivâda: Another Mahâsâmghika sect
spiritual attainment.
was named Prajñaptivâda. They were known
for the doctrine that viewed all conditioned
Sects and Schools
phenomena as being mere concepts.
1. Hinayana: Literally ‘the lesser vehicle’; a sect
of Buddhism. Also known as Abandoned Enlightment and Followers
Vehicle or Defective vehicle. It believes in the
1. Bodhisattva: A person who attains nirvana by
original teaching of Buddha or Doctrine of
working for the welfare of the world and
elders. It does not believe in Idol worship and
voluntarily postpones release from rebirth;
tries to attain individual salvation through self-
also regarded as an incarnation of the Buddha,
discipline and meditation. Theravada is a
prior to his own birth in the world.
Hinayana sect.
a. In the Early Buddhist schools as well as
2. Mahayana: The term Mahayana is a Sanskrit
modern Theravada Buddhism, a
word which literally means “Great Vehicle”.
bodhisattva (bodhisatta) refers to anyone
It believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and
who has made a resolution to become a
Idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas
Buddha and has also received a
embodying Buddha Nature. It originated in
confirmation or prediction from a living
northern India and Kashmir and then spread
Buddha that this will be so.
east into Central Asia, East Asia and some
areas of Southeast Asia. Buddhist schools b. In Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva
embedded in China, Korea, Tibet and Japan refers to anyone who has generated
belong to the Mahayana tradition. bodhicitta, a spontaneous wish and
compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood
3. Yogachara: A major Mahayana school which
for the benefit of all sentient beings.
attached great importance to meditation as a
means of attaining the highest goal 2. Sravaka: Direct disciple of Buddha.
Architecture upright, in his lap, and his right hand touching

the earth. This represents the moment of the
1. Chaitya: It is a sacred enclosure - later took the
Buddha’s enlightenment.
form of a hall and became an essential focus of
Buddhist worship together with the stupa. 2. Dharmachakra Mudra:The Gesture of Teaching
(Dharmachakra Mudra) is formed when the
2. Vihara: Buddhist monastery. thumb and index finger of both the hands touch
3. Torana: The gateway of a stupa at their tips to form a circle.
4. Atthamahathanani: In the Pali texts, the term 3. Varada Mudra: The Gift bestowing Gesture of
‘Atthamahathanani’ refers to the Eight Great Compassion (Varada Mudra), the right-hand
Places of Buddhist Heritage. pendant with the palm turned outwards.
(a) These places are connected with important 4. Vitarka Mudra: Vitarka Mudra is the mudra or
events of the life of Buddha from the time of a gesture representing the discussion and
his birth, enlightenment reaching dhamma transmission of the teachings by the Buddha.
to suffering humanity, till he passed away Various Buddhas and Boddhisattvas
(Mahâparinirvâna) at the age of 80 years.
1. Avalokiteshvara: Avalokiteshvara is the
(b) This is a living heritage that still continues bodhisattva who embodies the compassion of
to inspire millions of people to walk and find all Buddhas. One of these avatars is called
peace, happiness, harmony and solace Padmapani, the one who holds the lotus
5. Kutagarshala: A place where the philosophers (padma).
held discussions. We get a glimpse of lively 2. Vajrapâni: (“Vajra in his hand”) is one of the
discussions and debates from Buddhist texts, earliest-appearing bodhisattvas in Mahayana
which mention as many as 64 sects or schools Buddhism. He is the protector and guide of
of thought. Gautama Buddha and rose to symbolize the
Buddha’s power.
(a) Teachers travelled from place to place, trying
to convince one another as well as 3. Maitreya: Or Metteyya is regarded as a future
laypersons, about the validity of their Buddha.
philosophy or the way they understood the 4. Manjusri: Within Vajrayâna Buddhism,
world. Manjusri is a meditational deity and considered
(b) Debates took place in the kutagarashala – a fully enlightened Buddha.
literally, a hut with a pointed roof – or in 5. Ksitigarbha: Bodhisattva regarded as guardian
groves where travelling mendicants halted. of purgatories.
If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one 6. Amitâbha: Amitâbha means “Infinite Light”,
of his rivals, the followers of the latter also and Amitâyus means “Infinite Life” so Amitâbha
became his disciples. So support for any is also called “The Buddha of Immeasurable
particular sect could grow and shrink Light and Life”. He is also called the Buddha of
heaven.
Mudras
Pavarana Ceremony
1. Bhumisparsha Mudra: (The earth witness
Buddha) is one of the most common iconic  Confession by monks of their offences
images of Buddhism. It depicts the Buddha committed during their stay in the monasteries
sitting in meditation with his left hand, palm during the rainy season.
Pravrajya “The Buddha of Immeasurable Light and Life”.

He is also called the Buddha of heaven.
 Ceremony to mark a person’s going forth from
home into homelessness and his/her becoming
Sopadisesa Nibbana/ Nirvana
a novice under a preceptor.
 Nibbana is realised in life with the body
Upasampada remaining.
 Ordination ceremony when the novice becomes
a full-fledged member of the monastic Anupadisesa Nibbana/Nirvana
community. The eight personal possessions  When an Arhat attains nibbana after the
allowed to a monk comprised three robes, an dissolution of his body, without any remainder
alms bowl, razor, needle, belt, and water strainer. of physical existence.
Uposatha
Sravaka
 Fortnightly meetings of the Buddhist monastic
 Sravaka direct disciple of Buddha.
assembly.
Upasakas Arhat/Arahant
 Male followers who have taken refuge in the  Arhat is one who has gained insight into the true
Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha, but who have nature of existence and has achieved nirvana.
not taken monastic vows.
Zen Buddhism
Pratitya Samutpada
 It is a school of Mahayana Buddhism that
 Theory of ‘dependent origination’ is at the core originated in China during the Tang dynasty.
of Buddhist thought.
 Meditation is the most distinctive feature of this
Buddhist tradition.
Parajika (Defeat)
 Parajika means (defeat) in Buddhism Navayana Buddhism (New Vehicle)
Vasa  It refers to the re-interpretation of Buddhism by
modern Indian jurist and social reformer B. R.
 ‘Vasa’ was the retreat of the Monks during the
Ambedkar.
four months of the rainy season.
Kathina Sthavir Nikaya/Sthaviravada

 Alms-giving ceremony of the Buddhist.  From the Sthaviras arose the Sarvastivada sects,
the Vibhajyavadins, the Theravadins, the
Atthamahathanani Dharmaguptaka and the Pudgalavada sects.
 The term ‘Atthamahathanani’ refers to the Eight
Great Places of Buddhist Heritage. Lokottarvadin
 Lokottarvadin emerged from the
Amitabha
Mahasanghikas whose philosophy was based on
 Amitabha means “Infinite Light”, and Amitayus the concept of Lokottara Buddha or Supernatural
means ‘Infinite Life’ so Amitabha is also called Buddha.
 Gautama Buddha the founder of Buddhism was  Buddha died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at
born in Lumbini in Kapilavashtu on the border Kushinagara in UP. This was known as
of the Nepal in 563 BC. MahaParinirvana.
 Buddha’s mother Mahamaya died seven days  His considered last words were All composite
after his birth. He was brought up by his aunt things decay, strive diligently.
Mahaprajpati Gautami, hence he got the name  Four noble truths of Buddhism are:
‘Gautama’ (Go- Cow, tema – the best it means
the best among the cows).  Life is full of misery, desire is the cause of
misery, killing desires would kill sorrows,
 First Buddhist nun was Gautami. Desire can be killed by following the eight-
 Budhas original name was Sidhartha (one who told path.
will achieve his goal of life).  The eight fold path of Buddhism are:
 Buddha belonged to the Sakhya clan of  Right Belief, Right Thought, Right Speech,
Kshatriyas. Right Action, Right Living, Right Effort,
 Four sights changed his mind and initiated him Right Recollection, Right Meditation
to spiritual life they were death, old age, disease  The ‘three jewels’ of Buddhism are– Buddha
and monk. Dhamma and Sangha.
 He left home at the age of 29 along with his  Upagupta converted Ashoka to Buddhism.
charioteer Channa and favourite horse Kandaka.
 Ashvagosha was first biographer of Buddha
This incident is known as Mahabhinishkramana
who wrote Budhacharitam in Sanskrit.
(the great renunciation).
 Vasubandu is known as Second Buddha.
 Buddha got enlightenment at the 49th day of his
meditation at Bodha Gaya, on the banks of  Ashoka is known as the Constantine of
Niranjana/Nilanjana river in Bihar at the Age Buddhism.
of 35.  Ashoka accepted Buddhism after the battle of
 After enlightenment Buddha came to be Kalinga in BC 261-262.
known as ‘thathagatha’. He is also known as  Buddhist worshipping centre is known as
‘Sakhyamuni’. Pagoda.
 Buddha made his first sermon after  Viharas are the Buddhist monasteries.
enlightenment at a deer park at Saranath in
Uttar Pradesh to his 5 disciples. This incident is  Vajrayana was a sect of Buddhism which
known as ‘Dharmachakra Pravarthana’/ believed in achieving salvation through Mantras
Dhammachakkapavattana. and spells.
 Buddha’s first teacher was Alara Kalama and  ‘Jataka stories’ describe the stories related to the
second teacher Udraka Ramaputra. birth of Buddha. They are more than 500 in
number.
 During his first sermon at Sarnath, Buddha
described the ‘four noble truths’ (Aryasatya)  Holy book of Buddhism is Tripitika –
and the eight fold path (astangika marga) Vinayapitika, Suttapitika and Abhidhamapitika
are collectively known as Tripitika.
 Buddha made his sermons in Pali language and
early Buddhist texts also written in Pali  Bimbisara of Magadha was contemporary of
language. Buddha.
Kanishka who worked to spread Buddhism like


Ashoka is known a Second Ashoka.
Sangam Age
 Ashoka sent his son and daughter, Mahendra  ventar (crowned kings)
and Sanghamitra to Srilanka to spread  velir chiefs of hill tribes
Buddhism.
 The velir chief is also found to have held land
 Edvin Arnold’s ‘Light of Asia’ was translated independent of the crowned kings
into Malayalam by Nalappad Narayanamenon. (muvendar). The kilar was a ruling elite who
 The Bodhi tree at Gaya was cut down by held or possessed land in villages.
Sasanka, a Bengal ruler.
 The chief Buddhist monastery was at Manram/Podiyil
Nalanda, which was under the patronage of Pala  Site of traditional assembly of elders.
kings.
 Previous Buddhas as known as ‘Bodhisatvas’. Nadu Kal
 Milandapanho as book a Nagasena describes  These are hero stones erected to commemorate
how Greek king Menandar accepted Buddhism. brave warriors during the Sangam Era.
 Mara is considered as Devil by the Buddhists.
Sangam Rulers
 Three daughters of 'Mara' are lust, emotion
and desire Cheras Cholas Pandyas
Capital Vanji or Karur Uraiyur Madurai

5 Symbols of Buddha
Emblem Bow and Arrow Tiger Fish
 Birth  Lotus and Bull
Famous Musiri, Tondali Puhar, Korkai,
 Renunciation  Horse Ports Kaveripatam, Saliyur
Pompuhar
 Enlightenment  Bodhi tree
Sangam Polity
 First Sermon  Dharma Chakra
 Hereditary Monarchy
 Nirvana (Death)  Foot prints
 King took advice of his ministers, court poets,
and the imperial court
Buddhist Councils  Assumed lofty titles
S.No. Year Place Presided King  Dynasties had a royal emblem
First 483 BC Rajgriha Mahakasapa Ajatshatru
Sangam Administration
Second 383 BC Vaishali Sabakami Kalashoka
 Each ruler had a regular army and their
Third 246 BC Pataliputra Moggali Ashoka respective Kodimaram (Tutelary tree; relating
250 BC Putta Tissa
to guarding or protection)
Fourth 100 BC Kundalavana Vasumitra Kanishka
Kashimir & his deputry
 Land revenue and War Booty
Ashvaghosha  Roads and Highways were maintained
Officials  Korkai was the main seaport of the Pandayas.
 Amaichar : Ministers  Megasthenese described Pandya Kingdom as

‘Pearl’ as it was ruled by women.
 Anthanar : Priests
 Kaveripumpatnam/Puhar/Poompuhar
 Senapathi : Military Commanders (constructed by Karikala) was the main sea port
 Thuthar : Envoys of the Cholas.
 Orrar : Spies  Silapattikaram as written by Ilango Adigal. It
describes the love story of Kovalan and
Tolkappiyam Kannaki.
 Tolkappiyam refers to four castes namely arasar,  Nendujelian is the Pandyan king mentioned in
anthanar, vanigar, and Vellalar. The ruling class Silapatikaramaram.
was called arasar, anthanars vanigars were  Satanar wrote ‘Manimekhalai’ which is also an
engaged in trade and commerce, Vellalars were epic and tells about the story of the daughter of
the agriculturalist. Kannaki and Kovalan.
 Sangam was an Assembly of literature held at  Manimekhalai gives reference about Buddhism.
Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyan  II and XII rock edicts of Ashoka mention about
rulers. the South Indian kingdoms.
 References to the Sangham Age can be found
 Karikala most prominent among early Cholas is
in the inscriptions of Ashoka, and Kharavela of
known as the master of seven notes of musics.
Kalinga and in the indica of Megasthenese.
 ‘Bharatam’ was a Tamil version of Mahabharata
 In the Sangham Age, the most common form of
sung by Perundevanar.
government was hereditary monarchy. The
village was the fundamental unit of  ‘Manimekhalai’ is looked upon as the Tamil
administration. Odyssey.
 Small Village Assemblies during the Sangham  Thirukkural is known as Tamil Bible compiled
Age were known as Arai. by Thiruvalluvar. His statue is seen in
Kanyakumari.
 People of the Sangham Age mainly worshiped
‘Murugan’.  The greatest of the Chera rulers was Senguttuvan
 The greatest work of the Tamil literature of the chera also known as ‘Red Chera’. He built a
Sangham Age is Tolkappiam written by temple for Kannaki.
Tolkappiam.  The famous Chera port Muziris was a great
 Tolkappiam is considered as the earliest centre of Indo-Roman Trade.
surviving Tamil literary work. It is a book  The tax collected during the Sangam period in
on Tamil Grammar. the form of land tax was called Karai.
 The Capital of the Pandyas was at Madurai.  Rajendra Chola is also as ‘Gagaikonda Chola’.
 Uraiyur was capital of Cholas, known for cotton He later named his capital as ’Gangaikonda
trade. Cholapuram’.
 Vanchi(karur) was the capital of Cheras.  Raja Raja I built ‘Brihadeswara temple’ at
Tanjore.
 Silapattikaram, Manimegalai and Jeevaka-
chintamani are the three epics of Sangam  The Utharameroor inscription tells about the
literature. local self-government under the cholas.
 Jivaka Chintamani the third epic of the Tamil  Land classified according to its fertility
was written by Tirukkadevar. Marudam was the most fertile land.
 Roman king built a temple of Augustus at  Menpulam – fertile land
Muziris.
 Pinpulam – dry land
 Avai – imperial court.
 Vanpulam – hardland
 Small village assemblies known as Arai.
 Kalarnilam/uvarnilan – salty land.
 Megasthenes described the pandyan kingdom
as “Pearl” as it was ruled by woman.  Market:
 Angadi – the market
 Tittles of Sangam dynasties –
 Nalangadi – Morning bazaar
 Chola – Senni, Valavan, Killi
 Allangadi – evening bazaar
 Pandya – Thennavar, minavar,  Occupational caste according to
Panchavar. tolkapiyam– panar, eyinar, pulaiyar etc.
 Chera – Vanavar, Villavar, Kuttuvar existed in the society.
 Devarinda was a term used to describe a
 Manram – village assemblies during this group of 5 gods- Murugan, shiva, Krishna,
period to manage local affairs. balrama and indra.
 Urs – town
 Karikala was known as the Master of 7 notes
 Perur – big villages of music.
 Sirur – small villages.  The Utharameroor inscription tells us
 The author of Periplus of Erythrean sea about the local self government under the
gives most valuable information about this cholas.
trade, important ports mentioned are:
 Noura  Kannur
Magadh Empire
 Tyndis  Ponnani  Contemporary mahajanapadas of buddha that
were left after political struggle - Vatsa, avanti,
 Muziri  kodungallur
kosala and Magadha.
 Nelcynda  Kottayam
 Prasenjit gave Kashi as dowry to Bimbisara as
 Colchi  korkai Dowry after their marriage.
 Camara  kaveripattanam  4 Major Mahajanapadas - Haryankas of
 Poduka/  Pondicherry. Magadha, the Ikshvakus of Kosala, the
arikamedu Pauravas of Vatsa and the Pradyotas of Avanti.
 King: Absolute despotism
 Madurai and uraiyur were important centers
for textile industry.  Bali: Became compulsory payment and was
collected by Ballisadhakas
 Korkai was important center for pearl
trade.  Sabha and Samiti disappeared
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 Parishad: Advisory council to king and had only  Retained Kashi and added Vaishali
Brahmins  Used Innovative military weapons
 Kammikas: Custom officials  Mahashilakantaka: Stone Catapults
 Shulkadhyaksha: Toll officals  Rathamusala: Chariot with mace
 Amatyas / Mahamatras:  Fortified Rajgriha
Executive/Judicial/Military powers
 Buddha died suring his reign
 Mantrin: Minister
 Patronised 1st Buddhist Council
 Sennayaka: Incharge of districts
 Succeeded by Udayin/Udaybhadra who
 Ayuktas: Incharge of Districts founded Pataliputra as new Capital
 Vassakara: Influentional Ministers  Magadha became a supreme power in North
India under Ajatasatru (invented Rathamusala
Haryanka Dynasty & Mahashilakantaka)
 Pataliputra and Rajagriha/Girivraja were the Udayin

capitals of Magadhan Kingdom.  Ajatasatru’s successor Udayin was the founder
 Magadha falls in the Patna region of Bihar. of the city of Pataliputra. Their capital was also
known as Jaladurga (Waterfort).
Bimbisara
 Ruled for 52 years
Shishunaga Dynasty
 Killed and succeeded by his son Ajatashatru
Shishunaga
 Prominence of Haryanka Dynasty
 Founded Shishunaga dynasty
 Conquered Anga by defeating Brahmadatta
 Temporarily shifted capital to Vaishali
 Gave viceroyalty of Champa to Ajashatru
 Defeated Avanti
 Friendship with Avanti King Pradyota by
sending Jivaka to cure Jaundice Kalasoka
 Matrimonial Alliances with Lichchavis, Kosala  Successor of Shishunaga
and Madra clan  Also known as Kakarvarna
 Contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira Capital  Patronised 2nd Buddhist Council at Vaishali
at Rajgriha which was surrounded by 5 hills
 Bimbisara founded the dynasty by defeating the Nanda Dynasty
Brihadratha.
 Bimbisara was a contemporary of Buddha. Mahapadma Nanda
 Founded Nanda Dynasty
Ajatashatru
 Established first Non Kshatriya dynasty:
 Most powerful and aggressive Adharmika
 Annexed Kosala ruled by prasenjit  Also called Ugrasena/Ekarat/
 Sarva-Kshatrantaka : Uprooter of Kshatriya  In 326 BC Alexander defeated Porus

(Purushothama) considered the ruler of Punjab
 Added Kalinga to Magadha
and Captured Taxila through the battle of
 Acquired Kosala Hydaspes on the banks of river Jhelum.
 Irrigation works  Ambhi the ruler of Taxila allied with Alexander.
 Alexander died at the age of 33 in 323 BC while
Dhanananda he was in Babylon.
 Known as Agrammes / Xanderames in Greek  Alexander was cremated at Alexandria.
 Invented Nandopakramani : A measuring  Alexander was known as Shehansha in Persia

standard and Sikhandar-I-Asam in Indo-Pak region.
 The Last general of Alexander in India was
 Arrogant and Oppressive ruler and imposed
Eudamas.
heavy taxes
 Alexander’s first General in India was Selucus
Nikator.
Alexander’s Invasion
Maurayan Empire (321-185 BC)
 Alexander was born in 356 BC as the son of King
Philip-II of Macedonia. Central Administration
 Epirus or Olympias was Alexanders mother.  Bhuvyist (Majority Verdict) Kautilya in
 Aristotle was Alexander’s teacher. Arthashastra mentions that the work should be
 He became the king in 336 BC carried out according to the majority verdict
(Bhuvyist) in the council.
 He defeated the Persian ruler Darius III.
 Tirthas: Eighteen departments (Tirthas) of the
 Alexander founded the city of Alexandria in central government mentioned in the
Egypt Arthashastra.
 Karmantika Officer who looked after the Sancharah

industries.
 spies who are mobile.
 Antarvamsika Officer who looked after the
Kings security. Cara, Gudhapurushah
 Sannidhata Officer who looked after the  Secret agents mentioned in Arthashastra.
treasury.
Kantakashodhana
Army Administration
 Courts which decided upon matters related to
Chaturangabala individuals and the state.
 Kautilya has referred to Chaturangabala (i.e. Dharmasthiya

infantry, cavalry, chariots and elephants) as the
 Courts which decide personal disputes.
main components of the army- each under a
commander. Economy, Trade & Commerce
Ayudhagaradhyaksha Karshapana coins
 Chief of the department to look after the  Punched Marked Coins that do not specify the
production and maintenance of a variety of issuing authority.
armaments.
 Rathadhyaksha to look after the construction of Tadaga
a chariot.  Water reservoir.
 Hastyadhyaksha looked after the elephant force.
Sarthwah
Espionage and Justice System  The convoy of merchants were called as
 Justice System and Punishment: The Arthashastra Sarthwah which is described in ‘Arthashastra’
is full of codes listing punishments for various by Kautilya.
offences. There were various kinds of courts to
Chandragupta Maurya
try the offenders of law or settle disputes at
various levels. If the Gramika had judicial  Founder of Mauryan dynasty
powers at the village level there were also courts  Chanakya/ Kautilya/ Vishnugupta associated
at the level of Janapada and the centre. Two
 Greek literature mentions him as Sandrocottus
kinds of courts are mentioned in the Arthasastra
are Kantakashodhana & Dharmasthiya.  Defeated Seleucus Nikator and married her
daughter Helena
Pulisani  Seleucus sent megasthenes
 gathered public opinion.  According to Parishistaparvan written by
Hemchandra - Chandragupta Maurya adopted
Pativedaka Jainism and went to Shravanbelagola to perform
 Special reporter, access to king at any hour. Santhara
 He conspired with Chanakya (Kautilya or
Sanstha
Vishnugupta) the minister of Nanda to
 Spies at palace. overthrew the last Nanda ruler Dhana Nanda.
 Major sources for the study of Mauryan Empire  Sent Mahendra and Sanghmitra to Sri Lanka
are the Arthasastra of Kautilya and Indika of
 Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra
Megasthenes.
 Considered 1st ruler to issue edicts in India
 Chandragupta Maurya ascended the throne in
BC 321.  Ashokan inscriptions were written in Kharoshti
and Brahmi scripts.
 He fought against Selucus in 305 BC. Selucus
surrendered before him and sent an ambassador,  Ashokan inscriptions were deciphered by James
Megasthenese to the court of Chandragupta Princep.
Maurya.  Ashoka was initiated to Buddhism by Upagupta
 Chandragupta’s Governor Pushyagupta or Nigrodha a disciple of Buddha.
constructed the famous Sudarshana lake in
 For the propagation of Buddhism Ashoka started
Junagadh (Gujarat)
the institution of Dhammamahamatras.
 Chandragupta Maurya was converted to
 The IV Major Rock Edict of Ashoka tells about
Jainism, abdicated the throne in favour of his
the practice of Dhamma.
son Bindusara, passed his last days at
Sravanabelagola (Near Mysore) where he  The Major Rock Edict XII of Ashoka deals with
died. the conquest of Kalinga.
 Ashoka held the third Buddhist council at this
Bindusara capital Pataliputra in 250 BC under the
 Greek literature refers him as Amitrochates presidentship of Moggaliputa Tissa.
(destroyer of foes)
 He sent his son and daughter to Sri Lanka for
 Mahabhasya as Amitraghat (Killer of enemies) the spread of Buddhism (Mahendra and
 Antiochus (Syrian King) sent an ambassador Sanghamitra)
named Deimachus  Ashoka spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka and
 King Ptlolemy II (Egypt) sent an ambassador Nepal.
named Dionysious  He is known as the Constantine of Buddhism.
 Stretched territories upto Karnataka  Majority of Ashokan inscription are in prakrit
 Bindusara was a follower of Ajivika sect. language and Brahmi script. Also in– prakrit and
kharoshti script & Greek and language (script
Ashoka and language).
 4 year succession conflict and got corronated  Pliny mentions that another Greek king Ptolemy
with the help of Radhagupta Philedelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as
 Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain ambassador to India (Bindusara).
 Known as Buddha Shaka / Ashoka(Maski  Mogliputta tissa died at 80 age and in 26th
Edict), Dharmasoka (Sarnath Inscription), year of Ashoka reign. His relics were enshrined
Devanampiya Piyadassi (Dipvamsa in the stupa at sanchi along with 9 other
Mahavamsa) arahants.
 Proponent of Buddhism: Converted to  In buddhism, A arhant is who has gained insight

Buddhism after Kalinga war by Upagupta. into the true nature of existence.
 Mahayana have used the term for people far  Asvadhyaksha – cavalry
advanced along the path of enlightment, but  Hastyadhyaksha – elephants
who may not have reached full Buddhahood.
 Rathadhyaksha – chariot
 The head of municipal administration was the
Nagarika. Kautilya deotes a full chapter in  Megasthenes says Mauryan administration was
arthasashtra for municipal administration. under a council of 30 members divided into 6
committee of 5 members each.
 The Mauryan empire was divided into 4
provinces each under a governor. Uttarapatha  Agranomoi – special officers with responsibility
(Taxila), Avantiratha (Ujjain), dakshinapatha of laying and maintanence of roads.
(Suvarnagiri), Kalinga (tosali/dhauli).  Antyavasin – these are 5 mixed castes
 Mauryan administration– living at the end of the society according to
Kautilya.
 Tirthas – highest level of functionaries, it
included Mantri, Purohita, Senapati and  Hinajah – people who lived beyond the pale of
yuvraja. Aryan society.
 Sannidhat – treasurer  Megasthenes – 7 castes – philosophers, farmers,

soldiers, herdsman, artisans, magistrate and
 Samharta – tax collector
councilors.
 Adshapataladhyaksha – accountant general
 Lomas rishi & Sudama caves (barabar hills)–
 Sitadhyaksha – supretendent of crown have sculptors similar to wood carving the
land. details of these caves show a clear influence of
 Sulkadhyakasha – supretendent of customs wooden architecture.
and tolls.  Takshashila students – kautilya, Jivika, Charaka,
 Samsthadhyakasha – sup. of market. Panini, Prasenjit.
 Akaradhyaksha – mines  Torans surrounding the stupa where each

of them represent – love, peace, trust and
 Koshadhyaksha – treasury courage.
 Lakshanadhyaksha – coin mint  Barhut stupa – originally established by the
 Pautavadhyakasha – sup of weights and Mauryan king asoka, but many works of
measures. art were apparently added during the Sunga
period.
 Panyadhyakashas – state trade
 The 4th major rock edict – practice of dhamma.
 Rujukas – land officers
 In his Kalinga Edict he mentions “All man are
 Gopa – land officer
as my children”.
 Durgapala – head of royal fort
 Ceylones ruler Devanmpriyaa Tissa was
 Pradesikas – head of district. Ashoka’s first convert to Buddhism.
 Prahasti – head of prisons.  Ashoka ruled for 40 years and died in 232 BC.
 Under Senapati there were several  The emblem of the Indian Republic has been
adhyakshas adopted from the four lion capital of one of
 Padadhyaksha – infantry Ashokas pillars which is located in Saranath.
 Brihadratha the last Mauryan ruler was killed Bhagabhadra

by Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga
 5th King: Bhagbadra
Dynasty in 185 BC. as per
 Megasthenese the foreign traveller to India  9th King: Bhagvata
mentions about the existence of seven castes in  Besnagar Pillar Inscription of Heliodoros
India during the Mauryan period. (Vidisha, MP)
 Sthanika in Mauryan administration refers to
tax collector. Devabhuti
 Also known as Devabhumi
Sunga Dyansty (185-71 BC)  Last ruler
 Harshacharita by Banabhatta mentions that
Post Mauryan Period Devabhuti was killed by his Brahmana minister
 Sunga Dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra Vasudeva Kanva
Sunga the commander-in-chief of last Mauryan
king, Brihadratha. Kanva Dynasty (72 BC – 27 BC)
Pushyamitra Sunga (PS) Vasudeva
 Killed Brihadratha and founded Sunga Dynasty  Founded Kanva Dynasty
 Former Commander in chief of Mauryan  Descendant of RIshi Kanva
army.
 Sungabhrityas: Servants of Sungas
 Revived orthodox Brahmanical traditions
 Ayodhya stone inscription of King Dhana Susharmana
mentions that he performed 2 Ashwamedha  Last Kanva ruler
sacrifices  Killed by Simuka who established Satvahana
 Malvikaagnimitram mentions conflict between Dynasty
Pushyamitra and Yajnasena of Vidarbha  During his time Central Asian groups invaded
 Defeated King Demetrius ( Bactrian Greek) North Western Regions
 Patanjali wrote Mahabhasya and was

contemporary of Pushyamitra Kharavela- Chedi Dynasty
 Divyavadana mentioned about cruelty of
Cheta (Cheti) Dynasty of Kalinga
Pushyamitra towards Buddhists
(Odisha)
Agnimitra  The Cheti Dynasty was believed to have founded
 Malvikagnimitram written by Kalidasa by Maha Meghavahana
mentions him  The Hatigumbha inscription of Kharavela, of the
 Hero of the story (Viceroy of Vidisha) Kalinga ruler gives details about the Chedis of
Kalinga.
 Play tells about the story of love of Agnimitra
for Malvika  Kharavela was a follower of Jainism.
 After Ashoka Kharavela - Important king (1st  Used Matronyms : Gautampiputra,

century BCE) Vashishthiputra
 Hathigumpha Inscription situated at Udaygiri  Had three system of feudatories : Raja>
Hills (Bhubhaneshwar) Mahabhojha > Senapati
 Kharavela: Bhikshu Raja : Follower of Jainism
 Made cave shelters for Jaina Monks Indo Greeks
 The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was
Satavahanas (235 BC) Menander with his capital at Sakala in Punjab
(Modern Sialkot)
 Satavahanas were the most powerful ruling
 Menander was converted into a Buddhist by
dynasty after the Mauryas.
Buddhist monk Nagasena.
 Satavahanas were also known as Andhras.
 Indo-Greeks were the first to issue coins bearing
 Source of information - Puranas the figure of kings (Potrait coins).
 Satavahanas – a matrilineal dynasty  Demitrius, the king of Bacteria invaded India
 Most important Satavahana ruler was about 190 BC. He is considered as Second
Gautampputra Satakarni. Alexander (But the Indian ruler who accepted
the name second Alexander (Sikandar-i-sani)
 Satavahanas were Brahmanas.
was Alauddin Khilji)
 Nagarjuna Konda and Amravati in
 Indo-Greeks were the first to introduce
Andhrapradesh became important seats of
military governorship (system of Strategos) in
Buddhist culture under the Satavahanas.
India.
 Satavahanas mostly issued lead coins.
 Satvahananas/ Andhras (Brahmana descent) The Parthians (19 – 45 AD)
succeeded Mauryas in Deccan and Central India
 Founded by Simuka  Parthians also known as Pahalavas were Iranian
People.
 Capital at Pratishthana (Paithan, Aurangabad)
 Gondophernes was the greatest of the Parthian
 Defeated Kanvas
rulers.
 Prominent Seaports
 St. Thomas is said to have came to India for the
 Bhrigukachcha ( Broach) propagation of Christianity during the period
 Kalyan of Gondophernes.
Suparaka (Sopara)
The Sakas (90 BC – 1st AD)

Polity & Satavanana

 Sakas were also known as Scythians.
 Assumed Titles: Dakshinapathapati
 The first Saka king in India was Maues or Moga
 Made royal land grants to Brahmins and who established Saka power in Gandhara.
Buddhist monks
 The most famous of the Saka rulers in Western
 Naneghat cave inscription of Naganika India was Rudra Daman-I. His achievements are
highlighted in his Junagarh inscription written  Kanishka patronised Mahayana form of

in 150 AD. Buddhism.
 Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman was in  Kanishka is righy called the ‘Second Ashoka’.
chaste Sanskrit (pure form).
Gupta Empire (320 – 540 AD)
Kushans
 Gutpa Empire was founded by Sri Gupta.
 Kushans are also known as Yuch-chis or  Ghatotkacha was the second ruler.
Tocharians.
 Chandra Gupta-I was the real founder of the
 Kushans came to India from North Central Asia. Gupta Empire. He came to the throne in 320 AD.
 First great Kushana king was Kujala Kadphises
 He was the first ruler to adopt the title
or Kadphises-I then Wima Kadphise or Kadphise
Maharajadhiraja.
II.
 Samudra Gupta succeeded Chandragupta-I
 The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka.
 He became the ruler in 78 AD and started Saka  The Allahabad Pillar inscription composed by
Era in 78 AD. Harisena contains information about
Samudragupta’s conquests.
 The Capital of Kanishka was Peshawar or
Purushapura.  Allahabad Pillar inscription is also known as
‘Prayagaprasasti’.
 Kanishka convened the fourth Buddhist council
in Kashmir.  Samudra Gupta is also known as ‘Lichchavi
 Scholars like, Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Dauhitra’. (Grandson of the Lichchavis of Terai)
Charaka and Nagarjuna were the courtiers of  Samudra Gupta is described as ‘Indian
Kanishka. Napoleon’ by V.A. Smith
 The Gandhara School of Art received royal  Samudra Gupta composed ‘Vahukabita’ and
patronage under the Kushans. had the title ‘Kaviraja’.
 Samudra Gupta was an accomplished Veena  Dhanvantri: Physician

player.  Ghatakarapara: Sculpture and Architecture
 Sanskrit was the court language of the Gupta’s.  Kahapanaka: astrologer and writer
 India became “Greater India” under Jyotisyashastra
samudragupta.  Shanku: Architect, Shilpashastra
 C 2 adopted the tittle of “Sakari” after his victory  Vararuchi: Grammarian and Sanskrit scholar
over Rudradaman II of Gujarat.
 Vetala Bhatta: Magician and wrote
 And also the tittle of vikramaditya after Mantrashastra
defeating the saka kshatraps.
 9 gems in C2 court – Kalidasa, kadakarbhara, Kumaragupta I
kashapanaka, Vrahamira, Vararuchi,  Title : Shakraditya and Mahendraditya
Vethalabhatta, Dhanvantri, Amarsimha,
Sanku.  Performed Ashvamedha sacrifice
 Period of Gupta age is compared to the  Founded the Nalanda University

“Periclean age of Greece“, “Augustan age of  Worshipper of Lord Kartikeya
Rome” and “Elizabeth age of England”.  Reference in Bilsad inscription
 Vaghbhatta – A renowned physician of Gupta
period. Pustapala
 Kalidasa is called, “Indian shakespere” and the  An offïcer who maintained the records of the
Prince of Indian Poets. land transactions in the district.
 Varahamira – Laghu Jataka, panchsiddhantika,
brihat smahita and brihat jataka. Mahadanda Nayaka
 Dharmashastras speak of Apaddharma or  Chief Justice: Though the supreme judicial
conduct to be followed in the period of powers were vested in the King, he was assisted
Varnasamkara. by the Mahadandanayaka (Chief Justice)
The ancient painting reached its zenith in the


Bhuktis
ajanta paintings – fresco method paintings–
dying princess, the flying apsara etc. are  Empire was broadly divided into provinces.
examples but directly not associated to the
Gupta rulers. Vishayas
 Vishayas are the units below the bhuktis.
Chandragupta II - Navratnas
 Kalidasa: Sanskrit poet, Abhijnanshakuntalam, Uparika
Vikramorvasiyam  Uparika was in charge of a Bhukti.
 Amarasimha : Sanskrit poet , wrote Amarakosha
Vishyapati
 Varahmihira: Mathematician and astrologer,
wrote Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita, Brihat  Head of the Visayas. His appointment was made
Jataka by the provincial governor.
Sandhi Vigraha  Pustapala: An officer who maintained the

records of the land transactions in the district.
 A high official called Sandhi Vigraha is
mentioned in several Gupta inscriptions, most
probably a minister of foreign affairs.
Society and Economy
Taxes
Polity
 Shulka, Uparikara, Vishti
 King was focus: titles like Parameshwara,
maharajadhiraja, parama-daivata  Uparikara— Levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken
 Decentralised Administration Mainly, Had from one city to another.
many feudatories  Shulka— Commercial tax paid by the
 Kingship was normally Hereditary though organisation of the traders. Non-payment of
primogeniture was absent which resulted in cancellation of the right to
 Less elaborate Bureaucracy trade and a fine amounting to eight times of the
original Shulka.
 Emperor had standing army
 First time civil and criminal laws were  Vishthi— Practice of Forced labour
demarcated
Types of Lands
Administration
 Kshetra  Cultivable land
 Province: Bhukti
 Khila  Waste land
Officer: Uparika
 Aprahata  Jungle or waste
 Districts: Vishyas land
Officer: Vishyapati
 Vasti  Habitable land
 Sub Districts: Vithis
 Gapata Saraha  Pastoral land
 Village: Gram
 Bhumichhidranyaya  Non agricultural
Officer: Gramika land during the
Gupta period.
Officials
 Mahabaladhikrita: Commander in Chief Measures of Land
 Bhatashvapati : Commander of cavalry  The angula (probably ¾ inch) was the smallest
 Nagara Shreshthin : Chief Merchant measure.
 Prathama Kulika : Chief Artisan  The hasta (cubit) is the standardized distance
 Prathama Kayastha : Chief Revenue Collection between the tip of the elbow and the middle
finger (18 inches).
 Mahadandanayaka : Chief Justice
 Larger units of measure included the dhanu/
 Mahapratihara: Chief of palace guards
danda and nala.
 Sandhivigraha : Foreign affairs Minister
 The land measures used in eastern India
 Pratihara : one who regulated ceremonies
included the adhavapa (3/8– 1/2 acre),
 Dutakas : Spies dronavapa (1½–2 acres), and kulyavapa
 Akshapataladhikrita : Keeper of Royal records (12–16 acres).
 These were the areas required to sow one  The founder of the dynasty was Vindhyasakthi.
adhaka, drona, and kulya of grain respectively.  Vakatakas were Brahmins.
Pataka and Pravartavapa

The Hunas
 Measures of land during the Gupta times. Pataka
seems to have been equivalent to 60–80 acres.  The Huns were a nomadic and barbaric race of
Pravartavapa was much smaller than a Central Asia.
kulyavapa.  They were defeated by Skanda Gupta.
 Toramana and Mihirakula were important
Land Tenures
Huna leaders.
 Nivi-dharma, akshaya-nivi and aprada-dharma:
Technical terms pertaining to land tenure.
Harsha Vardhana (606-647AD)
 Kalidasa works:
 Meghdutam  The Pushyabhuti dynasty also known as the
 Abhijana Shakuntalam Vardhana dynasty, ruled parts of northern India
during 6th and 7th centuries.
 Kumarasambhava
 The dynasty reached its zenith under its last
 Raghuvamsa ruler Harsha-Vardhana (c. 590-647 CE)
 Ritusambara  The Pushyabhuti dynasty originally ruled a
 Malvika-agnimitram small area around their capital Sthaneshvara
 Sushruta Samhita – A Sanskrit text on all the  Harshavardhana belonged to the Pushyabhuti
major concepts of Ayurvedic medicine with Dynasty, also known as Vardhana Dynasty.
innovative chapters on surgery dates to the  Harsha came to power in 606 A.D. (Harsha Era).
Gupta period, Written by Sushruta.
 He made Kanauj his new capital from
 It is considered as the “classical age of Hindu Thaneshwar/Sthaneshwar.
art and literature”.  He was also known as Siladitya.
 Famous eras :  Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited India
 Vikram era  58 BC during his reign.
 Saka era  78 AD  Harsha summoned a religious assembly at

Prayag.
 Gupta  320 AD
 Harsha’s biography Harsha Charita was written
 Hijri  622 AD
by his court poet Banabhatta. He also wrote
 Kollam  825 AD Kadambari.
 Illahi  1583 AD  Harsha Vardhana was a poet and dramatist.
Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda are
The Vakatakas (250-500 AD) the works of Harshavardhana.
 Harsha Vardhana fought a war with Chalukyan
 The Vakatakas established their power in king Pulikeshin II.
Deccan.
 After Harsha, the Karkotas of Kashmir
 Their capital was Vidarbha. established their power.
 Mahendravarman I and Pulikeshin II were the  Hinduism received state support

contemporaries of Harshavardhana.  The Aphsad inscription of Adityasena mentions
 Matanga, Divakar, Jayasena and Bhartrihari the military successes of kings of the Later Gupta
were the famous scholars in the court of dynasty against the Maukharis, themselves past
Harshavadhana. victors of the Hunas
 The first three Maukhari kings are mentioned
A brief Timeline
in the inscriptions as Maharaja
600-750 AD 750 - 1000 AD 1000-1200 AD
 Successors assumed more pompous titles
North India Pushyabhutis Pratiharas Rajput showing the increase in power.
Maukharis Palas Kingdoms
Maitrakas Rashtrakutas  Ishanavarman was the first Maukhari ruler to
adopt the title Maharajadhiraja
South India Pallavas Imperial Yadavas
Chalukyas Cholas Kakatiyas
Pandyas Hoysala Maitraka Dynasty
Key Officials  The Maitraka dynasty ruled western India (now
Gujarat) from approximately 475 to
 Mahaprathihara Chief of the Palace Guard approximately 776 CE from their capital at
 Simhananda Senapati Vallabhi.
 Kuntala The commandant of the cavalry  Their origin is uncertain but they were probably
 Dirghadvajas Royal messengers Chandravanshi Kshatriyas.
 Skandagupta Commandant of the elephant  Following the decline of the Gupta Empire,
forces Maitraka dynasty was founded by Senapati
(general) Bhatarka, who was a military governor
 Avanti Minister of foreign relations
of Saurashtra under Gupta Empire
and war
 Maitrakas set up a Vallabhi University which
 Banu Keeper of Records
came to be known far and wide for its scholastic
 Sarvagata Secret Service Department pursuits and was compared with the Nalanda
University
Maukhari Dynasty  They came under the rule of Harsha in the mid-
7th century, but retained local autonomy, and
 Post-Gupta royal Indian dynasty that controlled regained their independence after Harsha's death
vast areas of Northern India  I Tsing observation Vallabhi as a great center of
 Served as vassals of the Guptas and later of learning including Buddhism. Gunamati and
Harsha's Vardhana dynasty. Sthiramati were two famous Buddhist scholars
of Vallabhi in the middle of the seventh century.
 The dynasty ruled over much of Uttar Pradesh
and Magadha
Administration of Maitrakas
 The Maukharis were staunch Hindus.
 There were administrative divisions managed by
 They tried to enforce and maintain the head of the division and helped by his
traditional social order among the people. subordinates.
 The highest division Vishaya were headed by  Throughout their reign, they remained in
Rashtrapati or Amatya and the lowest division constant conflict with both the Chalukyas of
Grama (equivalent to village) was headed by Badami in the north, and the Tamil kingdoms of
Gramakuta. Chola and Pandyas in the south. The Pallavas
were finally defeated by the Chola ruler Aditya
I in the 9th century CE
Harsha Vardhana (606-647AD)
 Noted for their patronage of architecture
 Became king at 16  Shore Temple, Mamallapuram
 Titles: Siladitya, Sakaluttarpathanatha  Kancheepuram or Kuchi served as the capital
of the Pallava kingdo
 Captured Magadha, Gauda and Odissa (North
& East India)  Dandin the author of Dasakumaracharitam,
lived in the court of Narasimhavarman II.
 Defeated Dhruvasena II of Maitrakas which is
written in Nausasi Copper plate inscription
Mahendravarman I
 Follower of Shaivism and patronised Buddhism  During his reign, the Chalukya king Pulakeshin
 Composed text of Madhuban and Banskhera II attacked and defeated the Pallava kingdom.
inscription  He constructed the Mahabalipuram Lighthouse
 Accomplished Flute player and Kanchi University where Vedas, Buddhism,
Jainism, Painting, Music & Dance were taught.
Pallavas  He was the pioneer of the Rock-cut Architecture
amongst the Pallavas
 The Pallava dynasty was an Indian dynasty that
 He was also the author of the play Mattavilasa
existed from nearly 4th AD onwards
Prahasana, a farce concerning Buddhist and
 The Pallavas became a major power during the Saiva ascetics. He is also claimed to be the author
reign of Mahendravarman I (600-630 CE) and of another play called Bhagavadajjuka.
Narasimhavarman I (630-668 CE)
Narasimhavarman I  Aparajita
 Mahendravarma was succeeded to the throne by  Last Pallava King

his more famous son Narasimhavarman I in 630  Defeated Pandya King Varguna II
CE.  In 893 AD Aditya Chola defeated Pallavas
 He defeated Pulakeshin II of Chalukya dynasty
and ransacked the Chalukyan capital city of Pallavas Administration
Vatapi
 Titles like Maharaja, Maharajathi Raja and
 He returned victorious to Kanchipuram, and Dharma Rajathiraja.
was given the title Vatapikondan (one who
 Efficient Council of Ministers in the Pallava
conquered Vatapi)
kingdom. The Ministers were known as
 Narasimhavarman I was also known as Amatyas. They were given titles such as
Mahamalla (great wrestler), and Mamallapuram Uthamaseelan, Brahmarajan and Peraraiyan
(Mahabalipuram) was named after him.
 The highest judicial organization was called
 During his reign, in 640 CE, that the Chinese Dharmasena. The king acted as its head. The
traveller Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchipuram courts in the towns were known as Adikarnas.
 The great Nayanar saints like Appar, The village courts were called as Karnas. The
Siruthondar and Tirugnanasambandar lived village Sabhas also acted as courts in settling the
during his reign civil disputes in the villages
 Had army and Navy too
Narasimhavarman II
 Army had 4 divisions: infantry, cavalry,
 Popularly known as Rajamalla was a ruler of elephants and chariots
the Pallava kingdom
 Mandalam was the biggest unit of the Pallava
 Narasimhavarman reigned from 690 - 725 CE. kingdom and Yuvaraja was appointed as its head
 construction of the Shore Temple, Isvara and by the King.
Mukunda Temples in Mahabalipuram, the  Each Mandalam was further divided into
Panamalai Temple in South Arcot, plus the Kottams (provinces). Officials were appointed
Kailasanatha Temple. by the king to administer it. Tondaimandalam
 Great devotee of Shiva was divided into twenty four kottams.
 Narasimhavarman is generally identified with  The next administrative unit was Nadu and it
as Kalarsinga Nayanar (meaning “one who is consisted of several villages. Nattar was
lion to crowd of evil kings”), one of the 63 Shaiva responsible for its administration Oor was the
saints and also a contemporary to many smallest administrative unit and it was under the
Nayanmar saints like Sundarar, Dandi, Poosalar control of Sabha which was the village committee.
and his great queen Rangapataka, who was  The members of this sabha were known as
known to be a pious queen. perumakkal. “Sabhas were responsible for
 He took many titles like “Ranajaya”, and maintaining the record of village lands and
“Sivachudamani”. local affairs were maintained by them. The
several committees were formed within the
Other Pallava Kings sabha and they were known as variyam.
“Each variyam was held responsible for
 Nandivarman II particular works like temple administration,
 Defeated Pandyas irrigation tanks etc.
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MEDHA ANAND AYAN JAIN VAIBHAV A. SHARMA BENJO P JOSE MUSKAN SRIVASTAVA G SAHI DARSINI
 Devdhana was the granting of lands to temples  Pallavas Won against Mahendrvarman
and Brahmadeya was the land grants given to
 Lost against Narasimhavarman and got killed
Brahmans.
 Taxes were known by different names such as Vikramaditya II
Kaanam, Irai, Paatam, and Poochi. For example,
 733 AD-743 AD
the term Kusakaanam refers to the tax on potters
and Than Irai to the tax on weavers  Defeated Nandivarma II
 Victory pillar inscription is in Kailashnatha
Chalukyas temple Kanchipuram
 The Chalukyas can be divided into four:  Checked invasions of Arabs Dantidurga rose to
prominence under him
 The Chalukyas of Vatapi
 Dantidurgan defeated Kirtivarman II and
 The later Chalukyas of Vatapi
Established Rashtrakuta Dynasty.
 The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
 The Later Western Chalukyas of Kalyani Administration
 Pulkeshin I founded the empire in 543 AD  Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term
 There were three distinct but related Chalukya Karnatabala when referring to the powerful
dynasties. Chalukya armies
 Badami Chalukyas: The earliest Chalukyas  The empire was divided into
with their capital at Badami (Vatapi) in
 Maharashtrakas (provinces),
Karnataka. They ruled from mid-6th They
declined after the death of their greatest  then into smaller Rashtrakas (Mandala),
king, Pulakesin II in 642 AD.  Vishaya (district),
 Eastern/Vengi Chalukyas: Emerged after  Bhoga (group of 10 villages) which is similar
the death of Pulakesin II in Eastern Deccan to the Dasagrama unit used by the
with capital at Vengi. They ruled till the 11th
Kadambas.
century.
 Taxes were levied and were called the herjunka–
 Western/Kalyani Chalukyas: Descendants
tax on loads, the kirukula – tax on retail goods
of the Badami Chalukyas, they emerged in
in transit, the bilkode – sales tax, the pannaya –
the late 10th century and ruled from Kalyani
(modern-day Basavakanlyan). betel tax, siddaya – land tax and the
vaddaravula– tax levied to support royalty.
 Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan
architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture
Pandyas
Pulakeshin II
 The Pandya kingdom was revived by king
 Most powerful and famous Kadungon (r. 590–620 CE) towards the end of
 Victories mentioned on Aihole Inscription by the 6th century CE
Ravikriti  In the Velvikudi inscription, a later copper-
 Defeated Harshvardhana and took the title of plate, Kadungon appears as the "destroyer" of
Dakshinpatheswara the "anti-Brahmanical" Kalabhra kings
 From 6th century to 9th century CE, the Amoghavarsha I

Chalukyas of Badami, the Pallavas of Kanchi,
and Pandyas of Madurai dominated the politics  814-878 AD
of south India  Most famous emperor known as Sarva
 Sendan (r. 654-70 CE), the third king of the  Also called as Ashoka of South
Pandyas of Madurai, is known for expanding his
 Mentored friendly relations with Neighbours
kingdom to the Chera country (western Tamil
Nadu and central Kerala).  Wrote
 Arikesari Maravarman (r. 670-700 CE), the  Kavirajamarga: Earliest Kannada work om
fourth Pandya ruler, is known for his battles poetics
against the Pallavas of Kanchi.  Prasnottara Ratnamalika
Book in Sanskrit
Rashtrakuta Dynasty 
 Feudatories of Chalukyas Administration

 Capital : Manyakheta/Malkhed  State: Rashtra
 Involved in the tripartite struggle with Palas and  Officer: Rashtrapati
Pratiharas
 District: Vishya
 Dantidurga established Rashtrakuta dynasty
 Officer: Vishyapati
Dantidurga  Krishna I Dhruva Govind
 Group of Villages: Bhukti
III  Amoghavarsha  Krishna III
 Officer: Bhogapati
Dantidurga
 753-758 AD Pratihara Dynasty
 Founder of Rashtrakuta Empire
 The Pratiharas are also called Gurjara–
 Title : Maharajadhiraja Pratiharas - belonging to the clans of
Rajputs.
Krishna I
 Pratihara- Door keepers
 Extended Rashtrakuta Empire
 Primarily pastoralists and fighters
 Gave final blow to Pallavas
 Claimed descent from Lakshman
 Built Kailashnath Temple at Ellora
 Instrumental in containing Arab armies
Dhruva  Founded by Brahmana - Harichandra
 780-793 AD  Nagabhatta II made Kanauj his capital.
 First king to take part in Tripartite struggle  Pratihara ruler Mihir Bhoja adopted the title
 Defeated Adivaraha.
 Nagabhatta II of Pratiharas  Sultan Muhammed of Ghazni entered Kanauj

during the period of the Pratiharas.
 Dharmapala of Palas
Mihir Bhoja Other Rulers

 836-855 AD  Mahipala: Defeated by Rajendra Chola
 Most successful and popular  Ramapala: Last significant Pala ruler
 Capital: Kannauj (referred as Panchala)
 Devotee of Vishnu Senas Dynasty
 Title: Adivaraha  The Sena dynasty was founded by Vijayasena
towards to end of 11th century. (1093)
Yashpala  About the middle of 13th century the senas were
 1024AD-1036 AD overthrown by the Deva dynasty.
 Last ruler
 Gahadavalas conquered Kannauj
Imperial Cholas Dynasty
 Founded by Vijayalya Chola
Pala Dynasty  Feudatories of Pallavas Capital at
 8th to 12th century  Thanjavur/Tanjore
 Pala : Protector  Had strong navy and conquered outside India
 Bengal and Bihar region  Sri Lanka
 Followers of Buddhism ( Mahayana and Tantric)  Maldives
 Gopala  Java
 Dharampala  Sumatra
 Devapala  Malaysia
 Mahipala I
Raja Raja I
 Ramapala
 985-1014 AD
Gopala  Greates Chola ruler
 Founded Pala Empire  annexed North Sri Lanka
 Khalimpur copper plate inscription of  Destroyed Cheras and Pandyas

Dharampala  Constructed Raja
 Follower of Buddhism  Rajeshwara/Brihadeshwara temple in
Thanjavur, which is devoted to Lord Shiva
 Built famous monastery at Odantapuri
 Ulakalanda Perumal: One who measured the
Dharampala Earth like Vishnu
 Raja Raja I (985-1014) adopted the titles of
 Revived Nalanda University
Arumudivarman, Mammudichodadeva,
 Founded Vikramshila University in Bhagalpur Jaykonda, Marthanda Chola, Mamudichola etc.
 Founded Somapuri Monastery in Paharpur  The Uttaramerur inscription gives details about
Bangladesh the local self-government.
Rajendra Chola I UR
 1014-1044 AD  It was the general assembly of the village
 Title Gangaikondachola where local residents discussed their matters
 Completed victory over Ceylon without any formal rule or procedure. The Ur
 Started expedition towards North and reached consisted of the tax-paying residents of an
till Ganga ordinary village.
 Defeated Pala ruler Mahipala I
Administration Socio-Cultural Tradition in

 Erivariya : Committee for water distribution
 Nattar : Assembly of leading men
Kashmir
 Nagaram/Nagarattar : Assembly of Merchants
 Kadamai : Land revenue collected in kind Mohras
 Antarayam : Revenue collected in Cash  Mohras were the memorial stones raised in the
 Dharmasana : Royal court of Justice honour of dead persons. In the cultural
 Ur- nattam / Ur Irrukai : Residential quarters of traditions of Jammu and Kashmir, the tradition
landowning farmers of laying memorial stones for the members of
 Kudavolai: system of election the family was a common practice.
 Nettal : compulsory labour
Kudavolai System Autar Mohras
 Uttaramerur inscriptions talk about the  Tradition was laying stones for the members of
Kudavolai system. It was an election system to the family who die as childless.
elect members of local committees during the
period of the Chola Empire. Shilavantis’ Sybatis
Vetti  The ‘Mohras’ of ladies called Satis, Shilvantis,
 It was a type of tax paid in the form of forced Syabatis are some of the most commonly found
labor in the Chola administration. forms of memorial stones.
Part-2
 Patronised both Hindu temples and
Age of Rajputs Buddhist Monasteries
 Highest stage of feudalism

Jaichandra
 North India was divided into 1200 smaller
regional kingdoms  Last great king
 Age of Rajputs begin  Contemporary of Prithviraj Chauhan
 Decline of Partiharas  Defeated by Lakshmansena of Bengal
 Gahadavalas of Kannauj
 Ghori defeated him in Battle of Chandawar
 Chauhans of Ajmer
(1194 AD)
 Paramars of Malwa
 Chandellas of Bundelkhand
 Solankis and Chalukyas of Gujarat
Chauhans Dynasty
 Tomars of Delhi  Chauhans of Shakambhari/Sambhar
Rajput Polity  Ruled from 7th to 11th c AD
 Clan Based society  Capital later moved to Ajmer and became
 Attachment to land / family /Honor famous as Chahmanas of Ajmer
 Land grants to Brahmans  Founded by Simharaja
 Treated war as a sport
 The four Agnikula Rajputs were the
 Sense of Brotherhood and egalitarianism Pratiharas, Chauhans the Solankis and
 Sense of brotherhood not extended to Non Paramaras.
Rajputs
 Chauhans had their capital at Ajmer and
Delhi.
Tomars Dynasty
 Ruled in Haryana: Capital Dhillika Prithviraj Chauhan
 Feudatories of Pratiharas  1172 AD - 1192 AD
 Anang Tal in Lal Kot (Mehrauli) was built by
 Known as Rai Pithora
Anangapala II
 Suraj Kund Reservoir in Faridabad was built  Expedition against Chandellas of Bundelkhand
by Surajpala (Mahoba) - Alha and Udal (Chandella Warriors)
lost their lives
Gahadavalas of Kannauj  Defeated Muhammad Ghori in 1st Battle of
Tarain in 1191 and got defeated by Ghori in 2nd
 Chandradeva founded in around 1090 AD
Battle of Tarain in 1192 AD
Govindchandra raised Kannauj (AKA
Kanyakubja or Mahodaya) to glory  Chand Bardai - Prithviraj Rasso
Ajayraja II  Founded an alliance against the Kalyani

Chalukya king Jayasimha II, with Rajendra
 Founded Ajayameru (Ajmer) after defeating
Chola and Gangeya Deva Kalachuri
Paramara and Capturing Ujjayini
Vigraha Raja IV Chalukyas/Solanki Rajputs

 Captured Delhi from Tomars
 Ruled parts of Gujarat and Kathiawar
 Moved capital to Ajmer
 Branch - Chalukyas of Lata (South Gujarat)-
 Authored a famous play Harikeli Nataka
Bhrigukachcha
 Commissioned a Sanskrit college building in
Ajmer- Arhai Din ka Jhopra  Mularaja I founded another branch whose
capital was at Anahailapataka
Chandellas Dynasty Bhima I

 Feudatories of Pratiharas  Built the sun temple of Modhera
 Founded by Nannuka  His wife Udaymati built Rani ki Vav (Queen's
 Capital is at Khajuraho (Kharjjuavahaka) step well)
 Temple Architecture prominent  Vimal Vasahi (Adinatha) temple dedicated to

 Yashovarman : Lakshmana Temple Jain lord RIshabha was built in 1031 AD by
Vimalsha, a minister of Bhima I
 Dhanga Dava : Vishvanatha Temple
 Mahmud of Ghazni overran Gujarat and
 Vidyadhara: Kandaria Mahadeva Temple
plundered Somnath in 1025 CE
Parmaras of Malwa Jayasimha

 Originally based at Mt Abu region of Rajasthan  Siege of Junagadh by Jayasimha
 Capital at Dhar, Madhya Pradesh  Captured by him along with Ranakdevi, wife of
 Paramara means slayer of enemies the Raja Rakhengar
 Feudatories of Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta  Rudra Mahal temple was built during his reign
and destroyed by Allaudin Khilji
 Paramaras were essentially Shaivites
 Patronised Jaina Scholars tooo
Other Personalities
Bhoja
 Kumarapala  Rebuilt the Somnath Temple
 Most celebrated ruler
 Bhima II  Defeated Muhammad Ghori
 Title of Parameshwara and Parambhattaraka
Defeated Aibak – Abhiav Siddharaj
 Defeated Chalukyas of Lata in Gujarat
 Vaghelas
 Established Bhoja Shala for Sanskrit studies
 Yadavas
 Founded city of Bhojpur and Bhojeshwar Temple
Kharavel: Ruler of Kalinga. The Famous

Eminent Personalities of

Hathigumbha inscription belonged to him.
Ancient India  Kanishka: (I century AD): Most powerful
Kushan king. Started Shaka Era. Organised
 Alexander: He was the ruler of Macedonia in
fourth Buddhist council at Kundalvana near
Greece. He attacked India in 326 BC and
Kashmir.
captured upto river Beas.
 Karikala: Chola ruler who founded the city of
 Ajatasatru: Son of Bimbisara.
Puhar (Kaveri patanam).
 Arien: Greek historian who wrote about
Alexander’s Indian invasion.  Kautilya also known as Vishnugupta or
Chanakya. He wrote Arthasasthra, which is
 Ashwaghosh: Wrote Buddha charita,
compared to the prince of Machiavelli.
Sutralankar and Sandaranand.
 Kalidas: Famous Sanskrit poet who wrote,
 AmarSimha: Sanskrit scholar in the court of
Raghuvamsa, Kumara Sambhavam, Abhigyana
Chandragupta who wrote Amarakosha.
Shakuntalam, Vikramorvashiyam and
 Aryabhatta: He analysed the reasons for Solar Malavikagnimitram. He also wrote Meghadootam
and Lunar eclipses and declared that the Earth
and Rituisamharam.
is round. Wrote Aryabhattiyam.
 Kamban: A Tamil poet of 11th century who
 Bimbisara: Founded the Magadhan Empire or
wrote Ramayan in Tamil.
Haryanka dynasty. He was the first influential
king of ancient India.  Mihir Bhoja: Famous Pratihara ruler of 9th
century.
 Banabhatta: Court poet of Harshavardhana and
author of Harsha Charita and Kadambari.  Kalhana: Famous Kashmiri poet and historian.
 Charak: He was an Ayurvedic expert wrote He wrote RajaTarangini.
Charak-Samhita  Marco Polo: Venitian Traveller to India in 13th
 Amoghavarsha: He was a famous Rashtrakuta century.
ruler.  Menander: He came to India as a foreign
 Patanjali founded ‘Yoga Shastra’, a school of aggressor in II Century BC. Milinda Panho, a book
Hindu philosophy during this period. written by Nagasena, is about him.
 Dhanananda: He was a powerful king of  Nagarjuna: Famous Buddhist monk. He
Magadha. Alexander did not go forward to propounded the philosophy known as
invade Magadha only after hearing his Madhyamika.
reputation.
 Makkali Gosala: Philosopher of 6th Century BC.
 Darius I: The ruler of Iran (Persia) who invaded He was the founder of Ajivika sect.
India in 6th century BC.
 Mihirkula: Huna conqueror defeated by
 Gautami Putra Satakarni: He was the most
Yashodharma.
famous Satavahana king in 2nd Century.
 Skand Gupt: Last mighty Gupta ruler.
 Harisena: He was the writer of Prayaga
Prashasti of Allahabad Pillar Inscription–  Shushrut: He was a doctor. Wrote the Shusruta-
Samudragupta. samhita
 Pulikeshin II: Most powerful king of Chalukyas  Dasakumaracharitam  Dandin

of Vatapi who defeated Harshavardhana in  Vasavadatta  Subandu
North and Mahendravarman of South.
 Brihat Kathamanjari  Kshemendra
 Pushya Mitra Sunga: He killed the last Mauryan
 Kathasaritsagara  Somadeva
ruler and laid the foundation of Sunga dynasty
in 185 BC.  Panchathantra  Vishnusharma
 Pliny: He was a Roman historian who wrote the  Hitopadesha  Naryan Pandit
Natural History. He wrote about the Mauryas of  Fo-kyo-ki  Fa-hien
India.
 Si-yu-ki  Hiuen Tsang
 Panini: Sanskrit scholar specially of Grammar.
 Panchasidhantika  Varahamihira
He wrote Ashtadyayi.
 Suryasidhantika and Aryabhatiyam 
 Varahamihira: He was famous astronomer who
Aryabhatta
wrote Brihat Samhita.
 Nitisara  Kamandaka
 Sankaracharya: He was born in Kaladi in Kerala.
He propagated Advaita Philosophy.  Charak Samhita  Charaka
 Hastayurveda  Palkapya
Literary Activities in  Mitakshara  Vigneswara
Ancient India  Dayabhaga  Jimutavahana
 Sidhanta Siromani  Bhaskaracharya
 Ashtadhyayi by Panini (5th C.BC) the earliest
grammar book also called Bhagavati sutra.  Nigahantu  Dhanvantari
 Mahabhashya was written by Patanjali.  Mudrarakshasa  Vishakadatta
 Manusmriti was a law book  Prabhanda Chintamani  Meruthunga
 Arthashastra by Kautilya  Geography of India  Ptolemy
 Indica by ‘Megasthenes’ is a source of Mauryan  Brihat Kathakosh  Harisena

society and administration.  Mrichakatika  Sudraka
 Chandsutra was written by Pingala.  Prithviraj Vijaya  Jayanak
 Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha  Nala Vemba  Pugalendi
 Raghuvamsa by Kalidasa  Vakpati wrote the Prakrit Gaudavaha
 Naishad Charita by Sri Harsha (8thcentury) about Yashovarman of Kanauj.
 Kamasutra and Arya Manjushree   Royal biographies in Tamil include the
Vatsyayana anonymous Nandikkalambakkam (9th
 Pavandhoot  Dhoyi century), a long poem about the events of the
reign of the Pallava king Nandivarman III.
 Swapna Vasavadatta  Bhasa
 An 11th century work, the Kalinkattupparani
 Matavilasa Prahasana  Mahendravarman I
by Cheyankontar, is based on the war between
 Harshacharita  Written by Banabhatta
the Chola king Kulottunga and Anantavarman
 Vikramadeva charita  written by Bilhana. Chodaganga, the ruler of Kalinga.
 Sandhyakara Nandi’s Ramacharita is a  Kamasutra  Vatsya yana

Sanskrit work with double meaning,  Panchasiddhantika Varahamihira
simultaneously narrating the story of the
 Ashtanga Hridaya  Vaghbhatta
Ramayana and of Ramapala, an11th/12th
century king of Bengal.  Hastyurveda  Pulkapya
 Sankhyakarika  Iswarkrishna
Kannada and Telugu Literature

Drama
 The earliest Kannada inscriptions date from
the 5th/6th century onwards  Natyashastra by Bharatamuni is the earliest
 The oldest survivingpiece of literature in this known work in Sanskriti.
language is the Kavirajamarga (The Royal  Malavikagnimithram, Vikramorvashiyan and
Road of the Poets), a 9th century work on Abhinjana Syakuntalam are dramas written by
poetics Kalidas.
 The best known poets of the 10th century were  Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika are
Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna, all of whom wrote dramas written by Harshvardhana.
Jaina Puranas.
 Pampa, author of the Adi Purana (an account
Lyric Poetry
of the life of the first tirthankara Rishabha or
Adinatha), also wrote the Vikramarjunavijaya,  Meghadutam by Kalidasa
based on the Mahabharatastory.
 Srinagarashataka, Nitishataka and
 Ponna wrote both in Sanskrit and in Kannada, Vairagyasataka were written by Bhartrihari.
and was given the title of Ubhaya-kavi-
 Gita Govinda was written by Jayadeva.
chakravarti (imperial poet in both languages).
 Chavunda Raya, a general and minister under
theGanga kings, wrote the Trishashtilakshana Prominent Authors
Mahapurana, an account of the 24 Jaina saints,
incontinuous prose. In the 12th century, Kalidasa
Nagachandra or Abhinava Pampa wrote the
Ramachandracharitra Purana, one of many  He was a Classical Sanskrit writer, extensively
Jaina versions of the Rama story. considered as the greatest poet and dramatist
of Gupta Period.
 The interesting Kannada works of the 12th
century include Neminatha’s Lilavati, in mixed  The six major works of Kalidasa are
verse and prose, whichtells the love story of a  Abhijnanashakuntala
Kadamba prince and a beautiful princess.
 Vikramorvashi
Books on Sciences  Malavikagnimitra
 The epic poems Raghuvamsha
 Chandra Vyakaran  Chandragomin
 Amar Kosh  Amar Singh  Kumarasambhava
 Niti Shastra  Kamandak  Meghaduta/Meghadutan

Vishakhadatta Magha
 The famous plays of Vishakhadatta are  Sisupala was written by Magha in 7th century
AD
 Mudrarakshasha means “Ring of the
Demon” and it recites the ascent of  It is regarded as one of the Sanskrit
Chandragupta Maurya to throne. Mahavakyas.
Shudraka Dandin
 The famous Sanskrit plays contributed by him
 Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita were
are
the famous work written by Dandin.
 Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart)
 Dasakumarcharita ‘The Tale of the Ten Princes’
 Vinavasavadatta which represents the adventures of 10 princes.
 Bhana (short one-act monologue)
Vyasa
 Padmaprabhritaka
 Vyasa has written Vyasabhasya, it was a work
on Yoga philosophy
Harisena
 Harisena was a panegyrist, Sanskrit poet, and Vatsyayana
government minister.  Vatsyayana was the author of Nyaya Sutra
 He wrote poems praising the bravery of Bhashya and Kamasutra.
Samudra Gupta, which is engraved on  The Nyaya Sutra Bhashya is regarded as the
Allahabad pillar. first commentary on Gautama’s Nyaya Sutras
Bhasa
Temples and Builders
 He wrote 13 plays which echo the lifestyle of
the Gupta Era along with its prevalent beliefs  Kailas Temple at Ellora  Krishna I
and culture.  Chunnakesava Temple, Belur 
Vishnuvardhana
Bharavi  Rathas at Mahabilipuram Narashimha-
 He is known for Kiratarjuniya, which talks varman I
about the conversation of Shiva and Arjuna.  Brihadeswara Temple, Tanjavur  Raja Raja
Chola
 Kiratarjuniya, an epic style Kavya is
considered to be among the greatest works in  Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram  Narasimha
Sanskrit. Varman II
 Lingaraja Temple, BhuvaneswarEastern
Bhatti Gangarubs
 Bhammikâvya which is also known as  Karjuraho Temples  Chandellas
RavaGavadha was written by Bhatti.  Rajarajeshwara Temple, Tanjavur  Raja Raja I
 Meenakshi Temple at Madhurai  Nayaka  Ashtakula-Adhikarana: Administrative body

Rulers  Kshatrapa: Associated with the administrative
 Shiva Temple at Tanjavur  Raja Raja Chola title of satrap.
Officials
Important Court Scholars
 Amatya: Official designation for a high official
 Kalidasa  Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) used right from the Mauryan Period.
 Banabhatta  Harshavardhana
 Ayukta: Designation of an officer frequently
used in the Mauryan period.
 Alberuni  Muhammed Ghazni
 Kumaramatya: An official designation of a high
 Firdausi  Muhammad Ghazni official.
 Amir Khusru  Alauddin Khilji  Mahakshatrapa: ‘Great governor’, a title taken
 Todarmal  Akbar by rulers, mainly by Saka kings.
 Tansen  Akbar  Rajuka: An official designation used in the
Mauryan period.
 Birbal  Akbar
 Adhyaksha: Superintendent/government
 Mansingh  Akbar
official of importance
 Abul Fazal  Akbar
 Mahasamanta or Samanta: Rule or governor but
 Ashva Ghosha  Kanishka subordinate to“an overlord.
 Amara Simha  Chandragupta II  Ranaka: Rank or status given to a landed
 Chand Bardai  Prithviraj Chauhan
intermediary
 Senapati: Commander of the army.
 Ravikirti  Pulikeshin II
 Dhanwantari Chandragupta II Representative Bodies

 Harisen  Samudra Gupta
 Sabha: A tribal assembly mentioned in Vedic
 Tenali Rama  Krishnadeva Raya texts; the assembly of a Brahmana village in early
medieval South India
Political Terms  Samiti: A larger assembly of commoners.
Nature of State
Administration
 Chiefdom stage: A transitional stage between a
 Kottam: Settlement clusters in the Pallava pre-state kinship society and a civil state society.
kingdom, similar to the nadus
 Gana: A word which has many meanings,
 Nadu: The locality, consisting of several including an oligarchy.
settlements, in early medieval South India.
 Sangha: A word with many different meanings
 Mandalam: An administrative unit, frequently including oligarchy, the Buddhist monastic
used in South India. order, and the Jaina monastic order
 Valanadu: Administrative unit in south India  Janapada: Literally, ‘foothold of a tribe’; a
 Bhukti: An administrative unit of a kingdom, territorial state; a region consisting of urban and
frequently referred to in the Gupta period. rural settlements, along with its inhabitants
 Mahajanapadas: The great states of the 6th b. Satamana: A silver coin which weighed about
century BCE 180 grains
 Segmentary state: A state marked by the c. Cowries: Marine shells, once used as currency
segmentation of power; originally put forward in many parts of the world; in India cowries from
by Southall with reference to the African Alur the Maldives islands were used as currency from
tribe, subsequently applied by Stein to the states ancient times till the colonial period
of early medieval South India. d. Hundikas: Bills of exchange used by traders in
early medieval India
King Related
e. Devadana: Donated revenue assigned to a
 Maharajadhiraja ‘Great king of kings’, an temple.
imperial title. f. Stri-dhana: ‘Women’s wealth’; various types of
 Rajasuya sacrifice performed to enhance royal moveable property given to a woman on various
or chiefly status occasions during her life-time, passed on from
mother to daughter.
Political Philosophy
Trade Routes
 Arthashastra The theory of polity; also the title
a. Uttarapatha: The major trans-regional trade
of a treatise on the subject by Kautilya,
route of northern India
belonging to the Mauryan period.
b. Dakshinapatha: The great southern trade route
 Matsyanyaya A political theory where, in a state
of anarchy, the strong devour the weak. Land Related
a. Agrahara: Land or village gifted by a king
Economic Terms
b. Ur: A non-brahmadeya village of South India;
Coinage, Finance and Wealth the corporate assembly of such a village
c. Vellanvagai: Non-brahmadeya villages of early
a. Pana: A term used for coin
medieval South India; same as ur
d. Kara-shasanas: Tax-paying agraharas

e. Nagarakkani: Land owned managed by the
Buddhism
nagaram
f. Nagarams: Market or commercial centres in
1. Architecture
early medieval South India  Chaitya a sacred enclosure - later took the form
g. Nagarattar: The corporate organization of the of a hall and became an essential focus of
nagaram Buddhist worship together with the stupa.
h. Taniyur: A special status given to certain  Vihara Buddhist monastery.
brahmadeyas in early medieval South India,
 Torana: The gateway of a stupa
making them independent of the nadu wherein
they were located
2. Sects and Schools
i. Bhogta one who enjoys: Used by extension for
those who enjoyed revenue rights over certain  Hinayana: Literally ‘the vehicle’; a sect of
lands Buddhism
j. Kani rights: Rights over land in early medieval  Mahayana: Literally 'the greater vehicle', a sect
South India, sometimes also associated with of Buddhism
certain duties and obligations
 Yogachara: Amajor Mahayana school which
Communities attached great importance to meditation as a
means of attaining the highest goal
a. Setthi: Pali (Sanskrit sreshthin); a high-level
businessman associated with trade and money-  Madhayamaka: A major Mahayana school
lending founded by Nagarjuna, in which the idea of
b. Banjaras: Generally cattle pastoralists who were shunyata (emptiness) is of great importance
also carriers of goods exchanged in trade
c. Banya member of a trading community
3. Enlightenment and Followers
d. Kayastha: A jati associated with revenue  Bodhisattva: A person who attains nirvana by
records, first found in the Mauryan period and working for the welfare of the world
frequently mentioned in the medieval period. and voluntarily postpones release from rebirth;
e. Gahapati: Pali for Sanskrit grihapati, i.e., also regarded as an incarnation of the Buddha,
householder; a wealthy property-owner. prior to his own birth in the world.
f. Kassaka a cultivator, not as well-off as the  Arhat: A person who has attained enlightenment.
gahapati.  Nibbana: A term used often in the Buddhist
g. Manigramam: A powerful merchant guild of tradition for liberation from the cycle of birth
early medieval South India. and death.
h. Ayyavole: A powerful merchant guild of early  Paramitas: Perections whose attainment led to
medieval South India the bodhisattva path; a Mahayana idea.
Others  Parinibbana: The passing away of the“Buddha.
a. Feudalism school: With reference to early  Upasaka: A male lay follower of the“Buddha's
medieval India, a school that argues that this was teaching
a period of political and economic fragmentation  Upasika: A female lay follower of the“Buddha's
b. Artha livelihood/economy teaching.
 Vassavasa: The monsoon retreat of Buddhist  Tirthankara: Literally, translates to ‘ford

monks builder’; a Jaina saint
 Bhikkhu: Pali (Sanskrit bhikshu),“literally 'one  Triratna: Literally, ‘the three gems’; in Jainism,
who lives by begging“alms'; a Buddhist refers to the triple path of right faith, knowledge,
monk. and conduct.
 Bhikkhuni: A Buddhist nun.

Hinduism
4. Buddhist Philosophy
 Ariya-sachchani: The Four Noble Truths related Jati, Varna and Caste
to suffering;“an important part of the“Buddha's  Varna: Literally ‘colour’; the concept of four
teaching hereditary classes-Brahmana, Kshatriya,
Vaishya, and Shudra. Four-fold division of
 Dhamma: A Pali word (Sanskrit, dharma),
Hindu society.
referring to the ideal conduct of an individual
living in society  Jati: A word with several meanings including
caste, birth, and type.
 Dhammachakka-Pavattana: “Pali, literally
‘turning the wheel “of dhamma’; the Buddha’s  Dvija: Literally ‘twice born’; referring to the first
birth which is the physical birth and the second
first sermon in the deer park near Sarnath.
the initiation into educational status. They were
 Patichcha-Samuppada: Pali, the law of entitled to the performance of the Upanayana
dependent origination; a part of the Buddha's (sacred thread) ceremony, which is considered
teaching analogous to a second birth, viz., the upper three
varnas, namely the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and
 Dhamma-mahamatas: A new cadre of officials
Vaishyas.
created by Ashoka to propagate dhamma.
 Brahmanas: Members of the premier varna in
 Paribbajaka: Pali, literally, ‘wanderer ’,
the Brahmanical varna order; prose explanations
renunciant.
of the Vedic Samhitas
Kshatriya: The vama associated with warfare
Jainism 
and rulership
Sects  Vaishya: The varna associated with agriculture,

animal husbandry, and trade
 Shvetambara: Literally ‘white-clad’, a Jaina sect
 Shudra: The fourth varna, which was supposed
 Digambara: Literally sky-clad’; a Jaina sect to serve the upper three vamas
 Chandala: A group from among the outcast
Philosophy
section of society, gradually regarded as
 Jina: literally ‘victor’; a Jaina saint untouchable.
 Anekantavada: The Jaina doctrine of the  Mlechchha: Outside the pale of caste society/
manifold nature of reality impure.
 Syadavada: Literally ‘doctrine of maybe’; the  Anuloma: Literally, in the direction of the body
Jaina doctrine of the partial nature of all hair, therefore observing the caste hierarchy even
statements about reality in marriages across castes.
 Gotra: The clan system of the Brahmanas;  Vesara: A style of temple architecture which has
sometimes also applicable to non-Brahmanas. a blend of elements associated with the Nagara
and Dravida styles; also referred to as Karnata-
 Varna-Samkara: The mixture of varnas due to
Dravida.
inter-varna unions.
 Mithuna figures: Amorous couples that occur
 Pravara: The names of one, two, three, or five
often in the sculptural decoration of shrines
supposed ancestral rishis, connected with the
gotra system of the Brahmanas  Matha: A hospice or a monastery attached to a
temple and often a centre of education
Sects and Religious Symbols  Shikhara: Tower surmounting a temple.
 Nayanmars/Nayanars: The Shaiva saint-poets of  Antarala: The vestibule or antechamber of a
early medieval South India temple
 Pasupati: A Saivite sect.  Ardhamandapa: The hall preceding the sanctum
in a temple
 Kalamukha: A Shaiva sect
 Garbha-griha: The inner sanctum of a temple,
 Kapalika: A Shaiva sect
where the image of the main deity is placed and
 Shivaism (Shaivism): The worship of Shiva as worshipped.
a supreme god
 Mukhamandapa: The porch of a temple
 Lingam: The phallic symbol, associated with the
 Vimana: The sanctum of a temple and its
worship of Shiva
superstructure
 Varaha: The boar incarnation of the god
 Nataraja: The dancing Shiva
Vishnu.
 Sandhara: A temple style with an enclosed
 Garuda: A fantastic bird, the vehicle of
passage for circumambulation
Vishnu.
 Alvars: The Vaishnava saint-poets of early Ashrams
medieval South India
 Ashrama(s): The four stages of life-
 Gaja-Lakshmi: A popular representation of the brahmacharya (celibate studenthood), grihastha
goddess Lakshmi, flanked by two elephants, (the householder stage), vanaprastha“(partial
sometimes holding jars in“their trunks. renunciation), and sannyasa (complete
 Avatara: An incarnation of the“god Vishnu. renunciation); can also mean a hermitage.
 Bhagavata: A worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna.  Brahmacharya Celibate studentship, the first of

the four stages (Ashramas) of life.
Architecture  Grihastha: The householder stage in the
 Nagara style: The northern style of temple ashrama scheme
architecture, marked, among other things, by a  Vanaprastha: The stage of partial renunciation
curvilinear shikara (tower) in the ashrama scheme
 Dravida: The southern style of temple  Sannyasa: The stage of complete renunciation
architecture, marked, among other things, by a in the ashrama scheme ranking in the caste
pyramidalshikhara (tower) hierarchy.
Philosophy  Samskaras: Literally ‘preparation’,

‘arrangement’; rituals marking important life
 Darshana: Literally, ‘view’; philosophy stages.
 Karma: The doctrine according to which actions  Sapindas: People who are held to be related to
have consequences that manifest themselves in each other, an important category in
present and future lives Dharmashastra discussions on rules of marriage,
 Nyaya: Philosophical school concerned inheritance, and rules of purity and impurity to
primarily with logic and epistemology. be observed among relatives when a person died
 Purva Mimamsa: A school of Vedic exegesis  Yajamana: The person for whom the yajna
(sacrifice) is performed and who bears its
 Samkhya: A very ancient philosophical school expenses.
which views the world as consisting of two
 Agnikula Certain Rajput clans who claim to
fundamental categories of purusha (the spiritual
have emerged from Yajna Havana-Kunda.
principle) and prakriti (matter or nature).
 Dakshina sacrificial fee; the southern direction
 Shakha: A recension of a Veda.
 Dana donation/votive offering
 Upanishads: Philosophical texts that are part of
 Kalpa: A day of Brahma equivalent to 4,320
the Vedic corpus.
million earth years.
 Uttara Mimamsa: Also known as Vedanta; a
 Kaliyuga: The fourth and final age of the aeon.
philosophical school that emphasized the path
of knowledge as opposed to that of works or  Maya: Illusion.
sacrifice  Moksha: Release from the cycle of rebirth.
 Vaisheshika: A philosophical school of  Purohita: Chief priest.
pluralistic realism  Yuga: Any of the four ages of the life of the world.
 Yoga: A philosophical school which aimed at  Astika schools: Philosophical schools that
focusing the mind to achieve complete accepted the authority of the Vedas, comprising
tranquility and control. those that later came to be described as the six
classical systems of Hindu philosophy
Other Terms
 Atman: The imperishable ultimate reality within
 Ziarat: A place of pilgrimage the self, according to the Upanishads
 Hagiography: Sacred biography  Charana: School of Vedic study
 Monolatory: A belief in a supreme god while  Henotheism/Kathenotheism: A term used by
acknowledging the existence of other gods Max Muller to refer to the phenomenon in the
Rig Veda, where whichever deity is invoked is
 Monotheism: A belief that there is only one god
spoken of as a supreme god.
 Samana: A Pali word (Sanskrit shramana);  Nagas: Male serpent deities.
literally, ‘one who strives’, a renunciant
 Nagis/Naginis: Female serpent deities, consorts
 Ajivikas: An ancient religious sect, associated of the nagas.
with Makkhali Gosala.
 Nastika schools: Philosophical schools that did
 Charvaka: An atheistic materialist philosophical not accept the authority of the Vedas, e.g.,
school, also known as Lokayata. Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka.
 Niyoga: Levirate; the ancient custom of a widow h. Vatteluttu: An ancient South Indian script used
cohabiting with her brother-in-law or another for writing Tamil.
man in order to produce sons
i. Siddhamatrika: An ancient script, known from
 Viragal: The word for a 'hero stone' in the Tamil the 6th century CE; also known as Kutila.
Nadu area
 Yajna: Sacrifice Languages and Dialects
 Yakshas: Deities associated with water, fertility, a. Apabhramsha: A stage of the later development
trees, forests, and the wilderness. of the Prakrit language up to the end of the 1st
 Yakshis: Female deities associated with fertility, millennium CE
consorts of yakshas
b. Ardha-Magadhi: An eastern dialect of Prakrit;
 Devadasi female slave of the gods, used with the earliest Jaina texts are written in this
reference to women dedicated to the temple dialect
 Shraddha worship of the ancestors at a c. Prakrit: An ancient language belonging to the
particular time of the year. Indo-European family of languages, with
various dialects such as Maharashtri, Shauraseni,
Script, Language and Literature and Magadhi
d. Pali: An ancient language belonging to the Inda-
Scripts European family of languages; the language of
the canon of the Theravada school.
a. Script: A system of visual communication using
signs or symbols associated with specific e. Dravidian: A family of languages, including
meanings or sounds, written on some surface Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada
b. Logo-syllabic script: A script in which each
symbol stands for a word or syllable.
Mauryan Literature
c. Boustrophedon style: A style of writing in which
consecutive lines start in opposite directions.
Kautilya’s ‘Arthasastra’
d. Kharoshthi Script: A script used in north-west
India and derived from the Aramaic script.
 It is an ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on
Ashokan inscriptions of Shahbazgari and statecraft, economic policy and military
Manashera have been written in this script strategy
e. Aramaic: A language and a script. The Aramaic  It is the most important literary source for the
or North Semitic script was the official script of Mauryas.
the Assyrian, Babylonian, Achaemenid empires;
 Composed, expanded and redacted between
inscriptions indicate the use of the language and
script in the north-western part of the Indian the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE
subcontinent.  It includes books on the nature of government,
f. Grantha script: A South Indian script used for law, civil and criminal court systems, ethics,
writing Sanskrit. economics, markets and trade, the methods for
g. Tamil-Brahmi: An ancient script of South India, screening ministers, diplomacy, theories on
consisting of an adaptation of the Brahmi script war, nature of peace, and the duties and
in order to write the Tamil language. obligations of a king.
Megasthenese’s “Indica”: Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of

Hinduism.
 Megasthenese was the ambassador of
Seleucus Nicator in the court of  The Vedas have the status of Shruti
Chandragupta His ‘Indica’ is foremost (literally, ‘that which has been heard’).
among all the foreigners’ accounts for They are thought to embody an eternal,
Maurya. self-existent truth realized by the rishis
(seers) in a state of meditation or revealed
 The original work is now lost, but its fragments
to them by the gods.
have survived in later Greek and Latin works.
 Vedas are called Apaurasheya i.e. not
 The earliest of these works are those by
created by man but God-gifted and Nitya
Diodorus Siculus, Strabo (Geographica),
i.e. existing in all eternity.
Pliny, and Arrian (Indica).
 The first three Vedas are jointly called
 Ceylonese Buddhist chronicles Dipavamsa
Vedatrayi i.e. trio Vedas.
and Mahavamsa describe the part played
by Ashoka in spreading Buddhism to Sri
There are four Vedas
Lanka.
1. Rig Veda: the Rig Veda (Collection of lyrics)
 Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives
is the oldest text.
information about Ashoka and his efforts to
spread Buddhism.  The 10th mandala contains the famous
Purushasakta which explains the 4 Varnas-
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra
Vedic Corpus
 The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by
The Vedas are a large body of religious texts Hotri.
originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic  Book 7 of the Rig Veda Samhita refers to a
Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of battle of 10 kings, in which Sudas defeated
a number of adversaries who had Upanishads are identified as jnana-khanda

confederated against him. (knowledge / spirituality-related section).
2. Sama Veda: It is arranged according to the
needs of musical notation. Smriti Literature
 The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited The category of Smriti (literally, ‘remembered’)
by Udgatri. texts includes:
3. YajurVeda: Contains the details of the 1. Vedangas/Sutras.

performance of rituals. Taittiriya Samhita is a 2. Dharmashastras
layer of text within the Yajurveda.
3. Mahakavyas (Epics)
 Its hymns were recited by Adhvaryus. 4. Puranas
 Both in verse and Prose format. 5. Upvedas
4. Atharva Veda: Latest Veda and contains spells 6. Shad-Dharshanas.
and charms which reflect aspects of popular
beliefs and practices. Vedangas (600-200 BC)
Each Veda has four parts, the last three of which
sometimes blend into each other—the Samhita, There are six Vedangas:
Brahmana, Aranyaka, and Upanishad. 1. Shiksha (Phonetics): Pratishakhya’-the oldest
 Samhita refers to the most ancient layer of text text on phonetics.
in the Vedas, consisting of mantras, hymns and 2. Kalpa Sutras (Rituals): a. Shrauta Sutras: deal
prayers. with the sacrifices, b. Grihya Sutras deal with
 The Brahmanas are prose explanations of the family ceremonies, c. Dharma Sutras: deal
Samhita portions and give details and with Varnas, Ashramas etc.
explanations of sacrificial rituals and their 3. Vyakarana (Grammar): ‘Ashtadyayi’ (Panini)-
outcome. the oldest grammar of the world.
 Yajur Veda-Shatapatha is the oldest and 4. Nirukta (Etymology): ‘Nirukta’ (Yask) based
the largest Brahamana. on ‘Nighantu’ (Kashyap)-a collection of
 The Aranyakas (forest books) interpret difficult vedic words-(Nighantu-the oldest
sacrificial rituals in a symbolic and word-collection of the world: Nirukta’-the
philosophical way. oldest dictionary of the world).
 The Upanishads contain a great variety of 5. Chhanda (Metrics): ‘Chhandasutras” (Pingal)-

philosophical ideas about sacrifice, the body, famous text.
and theuniverse, but are most closely associated 6. Jyotisha (Astronomy): ‘Vedanga Jyotisha”
with the concepts of atman and brahman. (Lagadh Muni)-the oldest Jyotisha text.
Vrihadaranyaka is the oldest Upanishada.
There are 108 Upanishads, among which 13 are Dharmashastras
considered the principal ones.
A special group of Sanskrit texts dealing
The Samhitas are sometimes identified as karma- specifically with dharma are collectively known
khanda (action/ ritual-related section), while the as the Dharmashastra. These texts can be
subdivided into three groups. The first two are d. Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bihshma
the Dharmasutras (composed during c. 600–300 Parvan of Mahabharata. Shanti Parvan is
BCE) and the Smritis (c. 200 BCE–900 CE). The the largest parvan (chapter) of the
third includes brief and elaborate commentaries Mahabarata.
There are six famous Smritis
Puranas
1. Manu Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period) the oldest
 The Purana means ‘the old’.
Smriti text
 There are 18 famous ‘Puranas’.
2. Yajnvalkya Smriti (Pre-Gupta Period)
3. Narad Smriti  The Matsya Purana is the oldest Puranic text.
4. Parashara Smriti  The other important Puranas are the

Bhagavata, The Vishnu, The Vayu and The
5. Brihaspati Smriti
Brahamnda.
6. Katyayana Smriti
 They describe genealogies of various royal
dynasties.
Mahakavyas
 The Puranas are supposed to have five
There are mainly two Mahakavyas (Epics): characteristics (pancha-lakshanas), i.e., they
1. The Ramayana composed by Valmiki (5th-4th are supposed to discuss five topics
c BCE – 3 c CE)  The creation of the world sarga;
a. It is known as ‘Adi Kavya’  Re-creation pratisarga;
b. At present, it consists of 24,000 shlokas i.e.  The periods of the various Manus &
verses (Originally 6,000, Later - 12,000, manvantaras;
Finally -24,000) in 7 Kandas i.e. sections,
1st and 7th Kandas were the latest  The genealogies of gods and rishis
additions to the Ramayana. vamsha;
2. The Mahabharata composed by Ved Vyasa  An account of royal dynasties

(400BC- 400 CE) vamshanucharita
a. The longest epic of the world. At present,

Upavedas
it consists of 1,00,000 shlokas i.e. verses
The Upavedas (the auxiliary vedas) were
b. Originally it had called 8,800 Jaya Samhita,
traditionally associated with vedas:
Later became 24,000- verses & called
Chaturvinshati Sahastri Samhita or
Upvedas Content Association
Bharata. Finally with 1,00,000 it became
Shatasahastri Samhita or Maha Bharata. Ayurveda Medicine Rig Veda
It is with in 18 Parvas i.e. chapters, plus
Gandharvaveda Music Sama Veda
the Harivamsa supplement.
Dhanurveda Archery Yajur Veda
c. The Mahabharata refers to Valmiki and the
Ramayana, and outlines the Rama story in Shilpveda/ The science of Arthaveda
a section called the Ramopakhyana. Atharvaveda craft and wealth
Darshan  Sangam literature is believed to be compiled

between 400 BC and 300 BC. Tolkappiyam is
There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known
said to be the oldest extant Tamil work till date.
as Shad-Darshanas.
 The Tolkappiyam is essentially a work on
Darshana Founder Literature grammar, but it also includes a discussion of
phonology, semantics, syntax, and literary
Sankhya Darshana Kapila Sankhya Sutra
conventions.
Yoga Darshana Patanjali Yoga Sutra
 The Sangam corpus includes six of the eight
Nyaya Darshana Akshapada Nyayaya anthologies of poems included in the
Gotama Sutra Ettutokai (The Eight Collections), and nine of
the ten pattus (songs) of the Pattuppattu (The
Vaishesika Uluka Kanada Vaishesika
Ten Songs).
Darshana Sutra
 These anthologies were collected into the
Mimansa/ Purva Jaimini Purva
super-anthologies (i.e., anthologies of
Mimansa Mimansa Sutra
anthologies) called the Ettutokai and the
Vedanta/Uttara Badrayana Brahma Sutra/ Pattuppattu.
Mimansa Vedant Sutra  Ettutogai and Pattupattu are called
Melakanakku (18 major works) and narrative
Budddhist Literature in form. Patinenkanakku is called
a. Tipitaka: Pali, literally ‘the three baskets’ or Kilakanakku (18 minor works) and did active
‘three collections’, Buddhist canonical texts, the in form.
Pali Tipitaka is the canon of the Theravada  Kural or Muppal, a part of Patinenkilakanakku
school. and written by Tiruvalluvar is called “The
b. Jatakas: One of the 15 books of the Khuddaka Bible of Tamil Land’. It is treatise on polity,
Nikaya, containing stories of the previous births ethics and social norms
of the Buddha.
Sangam Place Patronage Works
Sangam Literature First Madurai Pandyan Perished

a. Sangam literature: Texts in old Tamil, Kings
comprising the earliest parts of the Ettutokai, Second Kapadapuram Pandyan Tolkapiyam
Pattuppattu,and Tolkappiyam Kings written by
Tolkapiyyar
b. Akam: Sangam love poems
Third Thenmadurai Pandyan Ettutogai (i.e. 8
c. Puram: Sangam war poems
Kings anthologies)
 The earliest literature of South India is Pattupattu
represented by a group of texts in old Tamil, (i.e. 10 idylls)
often collectively referred to as Sangam Patinenki-
literature. lakanakku
(i.e.18 didactical
 There were mainly three Sangams called
texts) etc.
Muchchangam.
Poems in Sangam Literature Tamil Bhakti Literature
Name Content  Early medieval Tamil literature includes the

inspired and intense devotional poetry of the
Aram (Inner) Abstract discussion on human
Vaishnava saints (Alvars) and Shaiva saints
aspects such as love, sexual
(Nayanars or Nayanmars) and their
relations, etc.
hagiographies.
Puram (outer) Human experiences such as
heroism, customs, social life,  Vaishnava poetry took off with the
ethics, philanthropy, etc. compositions of Peyalvar, Puttalvar, and
Poikaialvar.
Thirukkural  In the 10thcentury, Nathamuni collected
the Alvar hymns into the canon known as
 First Dravidian work for ethics.
the Nalayira DivyaPrabandham.
 Comprises of 1330 couplets.
 The Alvar Vaibhavam is a sacred
 It has been translated into many languages biography of the Vaishnava saints.
including foreign languages.
 Shaiva devotional literature began with the
 It discusses epics, love, and polity and compositions of Tirumular and Karaikkal
governance. Ammaiyar.
 Authored by Thiruvalluvar.  The hymns of the Nayanmar saints were
Tamil Epics (Composed during 200- 600 ce) compiled in the 10th century by
Nambiyandar Nambi and this
 Silappadikaram (the story of the Anklet)
compilation formed the core of the Shaiva
 Written by Ilango Adigal. canon, the Tirumurai.
 It deals with the story of Kovalan and  Nambi also wrote a work called the
Madhavi of Kaveripattinam. Tiruttondar Tiruvantati about the saints.
 It is called ‘Illiyad of Tamil poetry’.  In the 12th century, the accounts of the
 Manimekalai Shaiva saints were collected in a text called
the Periyapuranam.
 Written by Sittalai Sattanar.
 It deals with the adventures of Other Facts
Manimekalai, the daughter born of  The Sangam work Ahananuru written
Kovalan and Madhavi.
by the poet Mamulanar mentions Nandas’
 It is a sequel of Silappadikaram and wealth.
strongly tinged with Buddhism.
 The Sangam literature talks about the Mauryan
 Sivaga Sindamani (Jivaka Chintamani) invasion of the far south
 Written by Jain Tiruttakrdovas and  Seyon or Murugan is told to be the chief
strongly tinged with Jainism. deity.
Literature (Foreigners) Instruments to Spread Bhakti

Sl. Books Literature Authors
1. Thevaram: The Thevaram volumes contain the
No. (Foreigners)
works of the three most prominent Saiva Tamil
1. History of the War Aristobulus poets of the 7th and 8th centuries: Sambandar,
2. Natural History Pliny Appar, and Sundarar.
3. Geography Ptolemy 2. Bharood: It is a new form of Marathi religious
4. Periplus of the Erythrean Sea W.H. Scoff song introduced by Bhakti saint Eknath from
Maharashtra.
5. Indika Megasthenes
3. Avangas (dohas): Constitutes devotional poetry
6. Historica Herodotus
popularised by Marathi Bhakti saints. Saint
7. Biography of Alexander Oneskitus Tukaram is a well known Saint for his avangas
8. The Travels of Fa hsein Fa-hsein in praise of Vitthala or Vithoba, an avatar of the
9. Records of the Western World Hsuan Tsang
Hindu God Vishnu.
10. Biography of Husuan Tsang Huielly 4. Bijak: Bijak is the best known of the compilations
of the Kabir, and as such is the holy scripture
11. History of Buddhism Lama Taranath
for followers of the Kabirpanthi sect.
12. The Travels of Macro Polo Marco Polo
5. Sankirtan/ Kirtan system: A form of group
devotional songs accompanied with ecstatic
Bhakti Literature dancing popularised by Chaitanya
a. Nalayira Divya Prabandham: A work by Mahaprabhu.
Nathamuni, containing the hymns of the Alvar 6. Piri and Manji System: These systems were
saints established by the Amardas. Manji refers to each
b. Tirumurai: The canon of South Indian Shaiva zone of religious administration with an
bhakti appointed chief called sangatias, with socially
appointed representatives known as masand.
c. Tevaram: A collection of hymns, part of the
Piri was a system to preach doctrines of sikhism
canon of South Indian Shaiva bhakti
among women similar to the Manji system
d. Tiruttondar-Tiruvantai: A work by Nambi which was started for men.
Yandar Nambi, which gives a short hagiography
of the Nayanmar saints
e. Tiruttondar-Tokai: A work by Sundarar, which
Ideologies of the Bhakti
lists 62 Nayanmar saints Movement
f. Periyapuranarn: A 12th century work containing
hagiographies of the Nayanmar saints 1. Advaita (Monism): Propounded by
Shankaracharya (8th cent). In Advaita, the
State Craft reality of the world is denied and Brahman is
a. Saptanga Rajya: Literally ‘the seven-limbed considered as the only reality.
state’, the Arthashastra concept of the state as 2. Vishista Advaitavada (qualified monism):
consisting of seven elements. Propounded by Ramanujacharya According to
b. Nitishastra: Sanskrit works on statecraft. this philosophy God, soul, matter, are real. But
God is an inner substance and the rest are his 11. Dadupanth: Dadu Dayal (1544-1603 CE) is one
attributes. of the major representatives of the Nirguna Sant
3. Prabattimarga: It is the path of self surrender to traditions in Northern India. Later, his followers
God advocated by Ramanujacharya (12th cent). came to be known as the Dadu Panthis who set
up ashrams known as Thambas around the
4. Dvaita: Propagated by Madhavacharya (13th
region.They’ve revered gurus in the Dadupanth
cent). According to this philosophy, the world
tradition are Dadu, Namdev, Kabir, Ravidas, and
is not an illusion but a reality, full of real
Hardas.
distinction. According to Madhava, Brahman
and the world are two equally real entities and 12. Varkari sect: The Varkari Movement is a
not related in any way. Vaishnavite movement centered around the
pilgrimage town of Pandharpur, Maharashtra.
5. Dvaita advaita/ Bheda Abheda (difference/
Prominent saints associated with these sects are
non–difference): Propounded by Nimbarka,
Namdeva, Eknath and other Tukaram.
who was the younger contemporary of
Ramanujacharya. According to him, Brahman
or the supreme soul transforms itself into the History of Coinage in India
souls of the world, which are therefore real,
distinct, and different from Brahman. Like Key Terms
Vishista Advaita, the Bheda Abheda School also
believes that the world and Brahman are both  Numismatics: is the study or collection of
equally real, and that the world is a part of currency, including coins, tokens, paper
Brahman. The difference is in emphasis only. money, medals and related objects.
6. Shudhadvaita (pure monism): Propounded by  Counter-striking: Counter-striking is the
Vallabhacharya (15th cent). In Shuddhadvaita, phenomenon of coins issued by one authority
as in Vishishta Advaita, the world is taken to being re-struck by another authority.
have a real existence, as also Brahman. But it is
 Raktika, ratti, or rati: The basic unit of
said that there is no change of Brahman into the
Indian coin weight systems was a red-and-
world, the world exists as it were as an aspect of
Brahman without undergoing any change and
black seed of the gunja berry (Abrus
it is a part of Brahman. precatorius)
7. Pushtimarg: Philosophy associated with  Hiranya Pada: Gold globules

Shudhadvaita and propounded by  Nishka Griva : Gold Ornaments
Vallabhacharya. It is based on the bhakti/
 Hundika: bills of exchange
worship of lord Krishna.
8. Alwars: The Alwars were Tamil poet-saints of  Karshapana: Refers to ancient Indian coins
South India who espoused devotion to the Lord current during the 6th century BCE
Vishnu.  Karnapana: Coins made of copper
9. Nalayira Divyaprabandham: Compositions of  Purana or Dharana: Coins made of silver
Alwar saints, often described as the Tamil Veda.
 Suvarna: Coins made of gold
10. Nayanars: The Nayanars were a group of 63
saints devoted to Lord Shiva who lived during  Jital: Copper Coin
the 6th to 8th centuries CE.  Tanka: Silver coin
Evolution of Coinage/ Currency  The symbols were struck onto coin blanks
with metal dies that were carefully carved
 The Rig Veda Mentions words such as Nishka
with the required designs.
and Nishka Griva (Gold Ornaments) and
Hiranya Pida (gold globules)  Begun around 4th century BCE
 In Later Vedic period Nishka, Suvarna,  They have been found in large numbers at
Shatmana and Pada were metal pieces of sites such as Taxila and Ujjain.
definite weight.
 Die-struck:
Different Types of Coins in Ancient India  Indo-Greek coins of the 2nd/1st century
BCE.
 The punch-marked coins of northern India
can be divided into four main series on the  These are very well-executed, usually
basis of their weight, the number and nature round (a few are square or rectangular)
of punch marks, and their area of circulation:  Mostly in silver (a few are in copper,
 Taxila Gandhara type of the north-west billon [a silver-copper alloy], nickel, and
with a heavy weight standard and a single lead).
punch type;
 They bear the name and portrait of the
 Kosala type of the middle Ganga valley, issuing ruler on the obverse
with a heavy weight standard and multiple
punch marks;  Svarna Coins:
 Avanti type of western India, with a light  Gold coins called Svarna Rupa
weight standard and single punch mark  It was also a weight standard which
 Magadhan type with a light weight replaced Purana or Dharana in ancient
standard and multiple punches India.
 Uninscribed die-struck coins:  According to Arthashastra one svarna or

 Mostly in copper, rarely in silver. karsha was equal to 80 rattis.
Coins, Legends, Symbols and Facts  Silver jitals of Mahmud of Ghazni with
bilingual Arabic and Sanskrit minted in
 Panini uses the term rupa to mean a piece of
Lahore 1028. with Sanskrit is in Sharada script.
precious metal.
 The Mughal Emperor Babur issued standard
 Panch Nekame: Coins issued by five guilds.
Timurid currency coins known as the
Found at Taxila.
Shahrukhi, named after Shahrukh Mirza,
 Negama: Coins with the word negama Timur’s eldest son.
represent coins issued by merchant guilds.
 The system of tri-metalism which came to
 Non Monarchical State and cities also minted characterize Mughal coinage was introduced
their own coins non-monarchical states such by Sher Shah Suri
as the Arjunayanas, Uddehikas, Ma lavas, and
 Jahangir issued coins with the images of
Yaudheyas.
various zodiac signs to illustrate the date as
 City administration such as cities such as well as portraits of himself with a cup of wine
Tripuri, Ujjayini, Kaushambi, Vidisha, in his hand.
Airikina, Mahishmati, Madhyamika, Varanasi,
 Uniform coinage was introduced in India by
and Taxila
the British in 1835, with coins in the name of
 Coins of the Shakas, Parthians, and Kshatrapas the East India Company, bearing the image of
follow the basic features of lndo-Greek William Ill
coinage, and include bilingual and bi-script.
 Potin (an alloy of copper, lead, tin, and dross)
 The punch-marked copper coins were called coins also found
pana in Mauryan times
 Silver coin of the Maurya Empire, known as Dynasty Symbols/Emblem/
Riipyariipa, with symbols of wheel and Legends
elephant.
 Wheel
 Harikela Coins: A number of silver coins
known as Harikela coins were circulating in  Mauryan Empire  Elephant
Bengal between the 7th and 13th centuries and  Hill & Peacock
these had corresponding local eastern series,
 Kanishka  Illustration of Buddha
issued in the name of various localities
 Pandya  Double carpfish
 Dates appear rarely on early Indian coins.
 Gurjara-Pratihara  Boar, incarnation of
Exceptions are western Kshatrapa coins which
coinage of Bhoja or Vishnu , and solar
give dates in the Shaka era and some Gupta
Mihara, King of symbol
silver coins which give the regnal years of Kanauj, 850-900 CE.
kings.
 Silver coins with legend
 The Yadavas of Devagiri issued Makkotai
‘Padmatankas’ with an eight-petalled lotus on  Legends Kuttuvan
 Cheras
the obverse and a blank reverse. Coin legends Kotai and Kollippurai
refer to names or titles of the issuer in local
 Bow and arrow
scripts and languages.
Dynasty Symbols/Emblem/  Major Indian deities portrayed were Shiva,

Legends Buddha and Kartikeya
 Samudragupta and  Vina playing

Western Kshatrapa
Kumarguptal
 Titles of the Chola  Sungandavirttarulina
 Earliest coins with dates
king Kulottungal I (abolisher of tolls)
Gupta
 Chola  Tiger crest
 Coins had the king on the obverse and a deity
 Pallavas  Lion and Bull Motif
on the reverse side
 Alauddin Khilji  The coin legend
(Sikander-e -Sani)  Socio-political events, like marriage alliances,
translates to ‘Second horse sacrifice, etc. were also depicted
Alexnder’ in
recognition of his
 The Guptas also issued silver coins, but their
military success. copper coins are rare
 Vijaynagar coins  Rama’s incoronation
 Lord Venkateshwara’s
Satvahanas
Image  Copper, silver and lead coins
 Mysore State  Hara Gaura Motif  Portraits and bilingual legends, inspired by
Kshatrapa types
Janapada Period  Motifs of fauna like elephants, lions, bulls,
 6-7th century horses, etc. were punched on these coins
 Mostly Silver and Copper
Post-Gupta Coinage
 Punch Marked
 These were revived by Gangeyadeva the
 Initially issued by Merchant guilds
Kalachuri ruler who issued the ‘Seated
 Usually rectangular, sometimes square or Lakshmi Coins’ which were copied by later
round rulers both in gold as well as in debase form.
lndoGreeks  The Bull & Horseman type of coins were the
 Bilingual and bi-script coins, most common motif appearing on coins struck
by the Rajput clans.
 The name of the issuer appearing on the
obverse in Greek and on the reverse in the
Delhi Sultanate
Prakrit language and usually in the
Kharoshthi script  Coins were struck in gold, silver and copper
Kushana  Coins named Tanka and Jital were introduced.

 Tanka was silver and Jital was a copper coin
 Greek or Kharosthi
 Depicted iconographic forms were drawn Khilji
from Greek, Mesopotamian, Zorastrian and
Indian mythology  Gold, silver, copper coins were issued
Tughluq  The Aryan Chief was very hostile towards the

dasyus.
 Token currency
 The term Dasyuhatya-Slaughter of the dasyus
Vijaynagar Empire is repeatedly used in Rig veda
 Most gold and copper coins were used
Dasas
 Gold coins had a sacred image on the observe
side and a royal legend on the reverse side  Dasas were branch of early Aryans.
 Image of the deity of Tirupati, i.e., Lord  The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas.
Venkateswara was commonly represented on
the coins Regions
 These coins inspired the ‘Single Swami’
The Bactria-Margina Archaeological
Pagodas of the Dutch and French and the
‘Three Swami’ Pagodas of the English East Complex
India Company  Is closely related to Aryan culture dated to 1900
BCE - 1500 BCE.
Maratha
 Three types of Rupees were in circulation: Wars and Battles
 Hali Sicca
The Dasrajana War (Battle of Ten Kings)
 Ankushi rupee
 The battle was fought on the bank of Parushini
 Chandori rupee river (Ravi).
 The coins had the name of Chatrapati Shivaji  Sudas the son of Divodas and the Bharata king
Maharaj minted on them of Tritsu family won over an alliance of ten
tribes (Five Aryans and Five Non Aryans)
Invasions in India
Facts and Evidence
Aryan Invasion  References to the names of Indo-Europeans
Involved Groups languages are found in these inscriptions.
Indo Aryans  Anatolian inscriptions of 1900-1700 BCE
 Indo-Aryan people refers to both the  Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BCE (Iraq)
pastoralist Inda-European people migrating  Mittani inscriptions of 1400 BCE (Syria)
from Central Asia into South Asia in the
 The term asva and several other terms in Rig
second millennium BCE, introducing the
Veda have common roots in various Inda-
Proto-Inda-Aryan language.
Aryan languages.
Dasyus
 Boghazkai Inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey),
 Dasyus were the original inhabitants of India which mentions 4 vedic gods Indra, Varuna,
and an Aryan chief who overpowered them Mitra and Ashown proves Central Asian
was called Trasadasyu. Theory as their homeland.
Persian Invasion Persian Elements Impact in India

Kharosthi script • Used in Northwestern part of
Time Line India
The period from the sixth century witnessed close • Written from right to left
cultural contact of the north-west of India with • Ashoka used it in his inscriptions
Persia and Greece. in the Gandhara region
 The Achaemenian ruler of Iran, took Persian sigloi • The Indian word for coin karsa
(silver coin) (karshpana) is of Persian origin
advantages of the political disunity on the
North-West frontier of India. Edicts and • Mauryan architecture bears
architecture resemblance to the Persian
 Cyrus of Persia (588 BC-530 BC) was the of the imperial architecture.
first foreign conqueror, who penetrated Achaemenid
well into India. He destroyed the city of king Darius
Capisa (North of Kabul). He enrolled Zend Avesta • Zend Avesta is earliest text of
Indian soldiers in the Persian Army. Persians (Modern Day Iran)
• linguistic similarities between Rig
 Darius-I, grandson of Cyrus invaded
Veda and Zend Avesta
North-West India in 516 BC and annexed
Punjab, West of Indus and Sind.
Alexander’s Invasion
 Xerxes, the successor of Darius, employed
Indians in the long war against the
Time Line
Greeks. During Dhana Nanda’s reign, Alexander invaded
north-west India (327-325 BCE). In many ways, the
Evidence invasion by Alexander is a watershed in Indian
history.
 According to Greek historian Herodotus,
 Alexander conquered Kabul in 328 BC.
Gandhara constituted the twentieth and the
richest satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire. The  He moved to India through the unguarded
Khyber Pass.
region continued to be part of the Persian
Empire till the invasion of Alexander the  Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily
Great. submitted to Alexander
Wars
 The inscriptions of Darius I mention the
presence of the Persians in the Indus region 1. Battle of Hydapsas: He got the first and
and include “the people of Gadara, Haravati strongest resistance from Porus. Porus’s
territory spanned the region between the
and Maka” as subjects of the Achaemenid
Hydaspes (Jhelum River) and Acesines
Empire.
(Chenab River), in the Punjab region of the
 The extent of Achaemenid territories is also Indian subcontinent.
affirmed by Strabo in his “Geography” (Book  The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought
XV), describing the Persian holdings along the between Alexander the Great and King
Indus Porus in 326 BCE.
 It took place on the banks of the Jhelum Indo-Greeks

River (known to the ancient Greeks as
Hydaspes) in the Punjab region of the Timeline and Originating Regions
Indian subcontinent (modern-day Punjab, Following the death of Emperor Ashoka and the
Pakistan resulting decline of the Mauryan Empire, parts of
India were subject to the invasion of the
 Alexander defeated Porus in the Battle of
lndo-Greeks, Sakas and Kushanas from West and
Hydaspas on the banks of the river Vitasta
Central Asia.
(Jhelum), but was impressed by his
bravery, so he restored to Porus, his Territories Affected
kingdom and made him his ally.
 Indian accounts of the period refer to the
 The battle resulted in a Greek victory and Yavana invasion of Ayodhya (Saketa) and
the surrender of Porus. further east into the Magadha territory.
 Macedonian Empire annexes large areas
Demetrius II
of the Punjab region from the Hydaspes
to the Hyphasis  Demetrius II, was the first known lndo Greek
king (c. 175 BCE).
 Porus appointed Satrap of the new
provinces.  The coins carried the portrait of the reigning
king on one side with his name.
 After the Battle of Hydapses, Alexander
 Demetrius issued bi-lingual square coins with
proceeded upto Beas with a view to
Greek on the obverse and Kharoshti (the local
conquer the East, but his fatigued army
language of north-western Pakistan) on the
refused to cross the river. reverse.
Impact Menander
 He placed the North-Western India under the  Menander (c.165/145-130 BCE) was the best
Greek Governor Selucus Nikator. known of the lndo-Greek kings.
 Greek settlements were established in the  His capital was at Sakala.
northwest of India.  His coins have been found over an extensive
i. Alexandria near Kabul area ranging from the valleys of the Kabul and
Indus rivers to as far as western Uttar Pradesh.
ii. Boukephala near Peshawar in Pakistan
 King Kharavela of Kalinga, mentioned in the
iii. Alexandria in Sindh
Hathigumpa inscription, was not able to stop
 Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander’s most him.
capable generals, succeeded in making himself  Menander is mainly remembered as the
the master of a vast territory from Phrygia eponymous hero of the Buddhist text,
(Turkey) to the river Indus after 311 BCE. Milindapinha (questions of Milinda), in which
Within a few years, probably around 305 BCE, he is engaged in a question-and answer
Chandragupta waged a war against Seleucus discussion on Buddhism with the teacher
and defeated him. Nagasena.
 He is become a Buddhist and promoted  The Sakas were pushed back from eastern Iran
Buddhism. by the Parthian ruler Mithradates and they
 Antialcidas (or Antialkidas), (c. 110 BCE) then turned to north-western India and finally
settled in the region between the Indus valley
 He is known to us primarily because his
and Saurashtra.
emissary, Heliodorus, who was sent to the
court of King Bhagabhadra erected a pillar  The first Saka ruler in India was Maues or
or garuda-dhvaja with its capital adorned Moa/Moga (c. 80 BCE).
by a figure of Garuda, in honour of God
 They adopted Hindu names and religious
Krishna (Vasudeva).
beliefs, so much so that their coins had
 Heliodorus had evidently become a representations of Hindu gods on one side.
follower of Vishnu. (The pillar stands in
isolation in the middle of an open ground  The Sakas appointed kshatrapas or satraps as
in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.) provincial governors to administer their
territories
Facts Rudradaman
 Rock Edict of Ashoka mentions five yavana
 One of the most famous of the Saka kshatrapas
kings, identified as
was Rudradaman (130-150 CE).
i. Antiochus II Theos of Syria
 He belonged to western Kshatrapa.
ii. Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt
 He repaired the embankments of the lake
iii. Antigonus Gonatas of Macedonia Sudarsana, which was constructed by the
iv. Magas of Cyrene Mauryas for checking floods.
v. Alexander of Corinth.  His exploits are celebrated in the famous rock
 The term yavana (or yona) for Greeks, which inscription of Junagadh (in Gujarat).
was used throughout India  According to this inscription, he had even
 At about 165 BCE, Bactria was lost to the defeated the Satavahanas in battle.
Parthians and Sakas. After this, the yavanas  Vashishtiputra Satakarni, the son of the
continued to rule in central and southern Andhra king Pulamayi, in an effort to end the
Afghanistan and north-western India. hostilities, married the daughter of
Rudradaman.
Sakas
 The inscription relating the marriage between
Territories Affected Rudradaman’s daughter and Vashishtiputra
 The Inda-Greek kingdoms in northwestern Satakarni appears in a cave at Kanheri.
India were ousted by various nomadic tribes
from Central Asia. Kushanas
 Shakas were a group of nomadic Iranian
peoples who historically inhabited the  The Sakas were displaced by the Parthian
northern and eastern Eurasian Steppe and the Gondophernes, who first conquered Kabul
Tarim Basin (c. 43 CE).
 The first Kushana king who conquered  Kushana rulers are referred to as “king of
Afghanistan was Khujula Kadphises, followed kings”, “Caesar”, “lord of all lands” and by
by Wima Kadphises. other such titles.
 Kanishka’s coins as well as his statue found
Territories Affected near Mathura show him dressed in a belted
 The two kings extended Kushana territory to tunic along with overcoat and wearing boots,
Gandhara, Punjab and as far to the east as the testifying to his Central Asian origins.
Ganga-Yamuna doab till Mathura in Uttar  The rock of Hunza mentions the first two
Pradesh. Kadphises and the Kusanadevaputra (son of
God) Maharaja Kaniska.
Kanishka
 This inscription confirms that Kanishka’s
 Kanishka ruled from 78 CE till 101 or 102 CE. empire stretched from Central Asia till eastern
 78 CE is held to be the beginning of the “Saka India.
era” in the Indian calendar.  Buddhist sources record that he had
 Capital of his empire was located at conquered Magadha and Kashmir and Khotan
Puruhapura (Peshawar) in Gandhara, with in Sinkiang.
another major capital at Mathura.
 Kanishka was an ardent follower of Huns Invasion
Buddhism and hosted the fourth Buddhist
mahasangha or council (the third council had
Timeline
been held in Pataliputra during Ashoka’s
reign).  The Huns were a nomadic people who lived
in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern
 Mahayana Buddhism had become the
Europe between the 4th and 6th century
dominant sect, and Kanishka supported the
AD.
missions sent to China to preach Buddhism.
 The Hephthalites, known as the Hunas in again in a proper manner. During this time,
India kept on invading India until the Gupta the Guptas had been ruling over a greater part
ruler Skandagupta repulsed them. of India.
 The Hunas, under the leadership of Toramana,  This time Hunas were under the leadership
suffered a crushing defeat by the Gupta of Mihirkula (also known, as Mihirgula or the
emperor Skandagupta. “Indian Attila”).
 Major Invasions happened around 458 Ad and  He was the successor and son of Toramana,
470AD. and known as a very tyrant ruler and a
destroyer.
Regions Associated  The Hunas persecuted Buddhists and
 Gupta Empire in India reigned in the Ganges destroyed all the monasteries and the Gupta
basin during the 5th century, and the Kushan regime was completely extinguished.
dynasty occupied the area a long the Indus.  They temporarily overthrew theGupta
 After defeating the Kushanas, the Hunas Empire.
entered the subcontinent from the Kabul valley.  Mihirkula ruled from his capital at Sakal,
 They entered Punjab and the Gupta Empire which is today the modern Sialkot.
failed to protect the northeast frontier of the  Mihirkula was defeated successively by two
empire and this made easier for the Huns to Indian rulers
enter an unguarded entrance in the Gangetic
valley, just into the heart of the Gupta Empire.  Yasodharman of Malwa
This was in 458AD.  Narasimhagupta Baladitya of the later
Gupta dynasty.
Toramana - 458 AD  The Huna power in India collapsed after the
 Toramana, the first white Huna king, defeat of Mihirkula.
conquered Punjab, Rajputana, Kashmir, parts
of Doab and Malwa. He ruled and operated
the interiors of India by keeping his base at
Arabs
Punjab.
Muhammad Bin Qaasim
 During his rule, he reduced the power of a
number of local kings and chieftains as his AI-Hajjaj gave Qasim command of the expedition
subordinates and assumed the title of between 708 and 711,
“Maharajadhiraja”.  The Arab governor of Iraq, Hajjaj Bin
 The Hunas, under the leadership of Toramana, Yusuf, under the pretext of acting against
suffered a crushing defeat by the Gupta the pirates, sent two military expeditions
emperor Skandagupta. against Dahar, the ruler of Sind, one by
land and the other by sea. Both were
Mihirkula defeated and commanders killed.
 Hunas waited till 470 AD, till the death of the  Hajjaj then sent, with the Caliph’s
Gupta ruler Skandagupta to invade India permission, a full-fledged army, with 6000
strong cavalry and a large camel corps governorship of the province on Mahmud, his
carrying all war requirements under the eldest son. When Sabuktagin died in 997,
command of his son in-law, a 17-year-old Mahmud was in Khurasan.
Muhammad Bin Qasim.  Ismail, the younger son of Sabuktag in had
 Muhammad ibn Qasim (c. 695- 715), was been named his successor. But defeating Ismail
an Arab military commander in the service in a battle, Mahmud, aged twenty-seven,
of the Umayyad Caliphate who led the ascended the throne and the Caliph
Muslim conquest of Sindh acknowledged his accession by sending him
 Muhammad Bin Qasim marched on the a robe of investiture and by conferring on him
fortress of Brahmanabad where Dahar the title Yamini-udDaulah (‘Right-hand of the
was stationed with a huge army. Empire’).
 Qasim thereupon ravaged and plundered  After defeating the Shahi king Anandapala,
Debal (Port) for three days. Qasim called Mahmud went beyond Punjab, penetrating
on the people of Sind to surrender, deep into the lndo-Gangetic plain.
promising full protection to their faith.
 Before reaching Kanauj, Mahmud raided
Mathura.
Battle of Aror
 In later historiography, of both the British and
 Muhammad Bin Qasim led the Muslim
Indian nationalists, Mahmud is notorious for
conquest of Sindh from the last Hindu king,
his invasion of the temple city of Somnath
Raja Dahir in the battle of Aror.
(1025) on the seashore in Gujarat.
 He was the first Muslim to have successfully
 The ever-hanging threat from Ghuris from the
captured Hindu territories and initiate the
north and the Seljuq Turks from the west
early Islamic India in 712.
proved to be disastrous for the kingdom.
The later rulers of Ghaznavid dynasty could
Mahmud Ghazni 
exercise their authority only in the Lahore
region and even this lasted only for three
Background decades.
 In 963 Alaptigin, a Turkic slave who had served
Samanids as their governor in Khurasan, Decline
seized the city of Ghazni in eastern In 1186 Ghuri prince Muizz-ud-din Muhammad
Afghanistan and established an independent invaded Punjab and seized Lahore. The last ruler
kingdom. Alaptigin died soon after. Khurav Shah was imprisoned and murdered in
 After the failure of three of his successors, the 1192. With his death the Ghaznavid house of
nobles enthroned Sabuktigin. Sabuktigin Mahmud came to an end.
initiated the process of southward expansion
into the Indian sub-continent. Muhammad Ghori
Activities  Muizzuddin Muhammad of the Ghori
 Mahmud Ghazni defeated the Shahi ruler of dynasty, known generally as Muhammad
Afghanistan, Jayapal, and conferred the Ghori, invested in territories he seized.
 Through the 1180s and 1190s Ghori established and Ghori’s trusted general Qutb-uddin Aibak
garrisons in the modern provinces of Punjab, was appointed as his deputy in India.
Sind, and Haryana
 Soon Ghori was back in India to fight against
Battles the Kanauj ruler Jaya Chandra.
 In 1175 Ghori headed for the city of Multan  When all Rajput chiefs had stood by Prithviraja
which he seized from its lsmaili ruler. The fort in his battles against Muhammad Ghori, Jaya
of Uchch fell without a fight. Chandra stood apart, as there was enmity
between Prithviraj and Jai Chandra, on
 The Chalukyas of Gujarat inflicted a crushing
account of Prithviraj’s abduction of Jaya
defeat on Muhammad Ghori at Mt. Abu (1179).
Chandra’s daughter Samyukta.
 After this defeat Ghori changed the course of
 So Ghori easily defeated Jaya Chandra and
his expedition, consolidating his position in
returned to Ghazni with an enormous booty.
Sind and the Punjab.
On the way while camping on the banks of
First Battle of Tarain Indus, he was killed by some unidentified
 Ghori attacked the fortress of Tabarhinda assassins
(Bhatinda), a strategic point for the Chauhans
of Ajmer. The ruler of Ajmer Prithviraj
Chauhan marched to Tabarhinda and faced
the invader in the First Battle of Ta rain (1191).
 Prithviraj scored a brilliant victory in this
battle but failed to consolidate his position
believing this battle to be a frontier fight.
 Ghori was wounded and carried away by a
horseman to safety.
Second Battle of Tarain

 Contrary to the expectations of Prithviraj
Chauhan, Muhammad Ghori marched into Mongol Invasions
India in the following year (1192). Prithviraj
underestimated the potential danger of the
Background
enemy.
 The Mongol were a nomadic tribe that lived
 In the Second Battle of Tarain, one of the
on the plains of Central Asia from the Ural
turning points in Indian history, Prithviraj
Mountains to the Gobi Desert.
suffered a crushing defeat and was eventually
captured.  They were a fractious tribe always at war with
each other until a warlord, Temujin united
Impact them in 1206. Taking the name Genghis Khan
 Ghori restored him to his throne in Ajmer. But  Genghis Khan made several incursions into
on charges of treason he was later executed, the Indian subcontinent when he chased the
Jalal al Din, the last ruler of the Khwarezmian  The Mongols feigned a retreat, and tricked
Empire, all the way to the Indus river in 1221. Zafar Khan contingent into following them.
 In their pursuit of Jalal, the Mongols sacked Zafar Khan and his men were killed after
several cities in the Punjab region but their inflicting heavy casualties on the invaders.
incursions were limited towards the western  The Mongols retreated a couple of days later:
banks of the Sindh river at the time. their leader Qutlugh Khwaja was seriously
wounded, and died during the return journey.
 Some time after 1235 another Mongol force
invaded Kashmir, stationing a darughachi
Siege of Delhi
(administrative governor) there for several
years, and Kashmir became a Mongolian  In the winter of 1302-1303, Alauddin
dependency dispatched an army to ransack the Kakatiya
capital Warangal, and himself marched to
 After civil war broke out in the Mongol Empire
Chittor.
in the 1260s, the Chagatai Khanate controlled
Central Asia and its leader since the 1280s was  Finding Delhi unprotected, the Mongols
Duwa Khan who was second in command of launched another invasion around August
Kaidu Khan. 1303.
 Duwa was active in Afghanistan and  Alauddin managed to reach Delhi before the
attempted to extend Mongol rule into India. invaders, but did not have enough time to
prepare for a strong defence.
Battle of Jaran-Manjur  He took shelter in a heavily-guarded camp at
the under-construction Siri Fort. The Mongols
 In the winter of 1297, the Chagatai noyan
ransacked Delhi and its neighbourhoods, but
Kadar led an army that ravaged the Punjab
ultimately retreated after being unable to
region, and advanced as far as Kasur.
breach Siri.
 Alauddin’s army, led by Ulugh Khan and
 This close encounter with the Mongols
probably Zafar Khan defeated the invaders on
prompted Alauddin to strengthen the forts
the Battle of Jaran-Manjur on 6 February 1298
and the military presence along their routes
where quite a large number of them were
to India.
taken prisoner.
 He also implemented a series of economic
Battle of Killi reforms to ensure sufficient revenue inflows
for maintaining a strong army
 In late 1299, Duwa dispatched his son Qutlugh
Khwaja to conquer Delhi. Battle of Amroha
 Alauddin Khalji led his army to Kili near  In December 1305, Duwa sent another army
Delhi, and tried to delay the battle, hoping that that bypassed the heavily guarded city of
the Mongols would retreat amid a scarcity of Delhi, and proceeded south-east to the
provisions and that he would receive Gangetic plains along the Himalayan foothills.
reinforcements from his provinces.  Alauddin’s 30,000-strong cavalry, led by Malik
 However, his general Zafar Khan attacked the Nayak, defeated the Mongols at the Battle of
Mongol army without his permission. Amroha.
 A large number of Mongols were taken captive sacked the frontier towns of Lamghan and
and killed. Multan and besieged Delhi.
 The Tughlaq ruler paid a large ransom to spare
Battle of Ravi ( 1306) his Sultanate from further ravages.
 In 1306, another Mongol army sent by Duwa
advanced up to the Ravi River, ransacking the
territories along the way. This army included
Timur Invasion
three contingents, led by Kopek, lqbalm and,  Timur was a Turco-Mongol conqueror who
and Tai-Bu. founded the Timurid Empire in and around
 Alauddin’s forces, led by Malik Kafur, modern-day Afghanistan, Iran and Central
decisively defeated the invaders. Asia, becoming the first ruler of the Timurid
dynasty.
Dehlavi Counter offensives  Timur was the great-great-great-grandfather
 In that same year the Mongol Khan, Duwa, of Babur (1483-1530), founder of the Mughal
died and in the dispute over his succession this Empire, which then ruled almost all of the
Indian subcontinent
spate of Mongol raids into India ended.
 Taking advantage of this situation, Alauddin’s Battles and Wars
general Malik Tughluq regularly raided the  In 1398, Timur invaded northern India,
Mongol territories located in present-day attacking the Delhi Sultanate ruled by Sultan
Afghanistan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq of the
 The next major M n took place after the Khaljis Tughlaq dynasty.
had been replaced by the Tughlaq dynasty in  After crossing the Indus River in September
the Sultanate. In 1327 the Chagatai Mongols 1398, he sacked Tulamba and massacred its
under Tarmashirin, who had sent envoys to inhabitants. Then he advanced and captured
Delhi to negotiate peace the previous year, Multan by October.
 His invasion was unopposed as most of the Regions

Indian nobility surrendered without a fight,
 The race for political supremacy in Central
however he did encounter resistance from the
Asia amongst the Uzbeks (Turkic ethnic
united army of Rajputs and Muslims at
group), the Safavids (the members of the
Bhatner
dynasty that ruled Iran patronising Shia Islam)
 In August 1398, Timur himself marched and the Ottomans (Turkish people practicing
towards India with a big force of 92, 000 Sunni Islam) forced Zahiruddin Muhammad
cavalry. Babur, the ruler of Samarkand, to seek his
 He reached Delhi. Muhammad Shah, the last career prospects elsewhere.
ruler of the house of Tughlaq, was the sultan  Between 1519 and 1524 when he invaded
of Delhi. Timur entered the city of Delhi in Bhera, Sialkot and Lahore, he showed his
1399 as a conqueror. definite intention to conquer Hindustan.
Impact  After conquering Kabul and Ghazni, Babur

crossed the Indus to India and established a
 The capture of the Delhi Sultanate was one of
small kingdom.
Timur’s greatest victories, as at that time, Delhi
was one of the richest cities in the world.  Ba bur received an embassy from Daulat Khan
Lodi, a principal opponent of Ibrahim Lodi,
 After Delhi fell to Timur’s army, uprisings by
and Rana Sangha, ruler of Mewar and the chief
its citizens against the Turkic-Mongols began
of Rajput Confederacy, with a plea to invade
to occur, causing a retaliatory bloody massacre
India.
within the city walls.
 When Babur marched to India he first defeated
 Timur invasion gave a death blow to the
the forces of Daulat Khan Lodi at Lahore as
Tughlaq Empire in India.
he had gone back on his promise to help Babur.
 After Timur ’s invasion, the whole of the
Northern India was in disorder and chaos. Battle of Khanwa (1527)
Delhi was in ruins and almost depopulated.
 Babur decided to take on Rana Sanga of
 The inhabitants had to face famine and Chittor, who as ruler of Mewar, had a strong
pestilence, which was a wholesale destruction influence over Rajasthan and Malwa.
of the stores of grains and standing crops by
 Babur selected Khanwa, near Agra, as a
the invading army.
favourable site for this inevitable encounter.
 Pestilence was caused due to the pollution of
 The ferocious march of Rana Sanga with a
the air and water supply of the city by the dead
formidable force strengthened by Afghan
bodies of the thousands of inhabitants.
Muslims, Mahmud Lodi, brother of Ibrahim
Lodi, and Hasan Khan Mewati, ruler of
Mughals Mewat, confronted the forces of Ba bur.
Babur was the founder of the Mughal empire  With strategic positioning of forces and
which was established in 1526 after Babur defeated effective use of artillery, Babur defeated Rana
Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat. Sanga’s forces.
 This victory was followed by the capture of  During the course of one day (March 22}
forts at Gwalior and Dholpur which further 20,000 to 30,000 Indians were killed by the
strengthened Ba bur’s position. Iranian troops and as many as 10,000
women and children were taken as slaves,
Battle of Chanderi (1528)
forcing Mohammad Shah to beg Nader for
 The next significant battle that ensured Babur’s mercy.
supremacy over the Malwa region was fought
against Medini Rai at Chanderi. Impact
 Following this victory Babur turned towards  In response, Nader Shah agreed to withdraw,
the growing rebellious activities of Afghans. but Mohammad Shah paid the consequence in
handing over the keys of his royal treasury, and
Battle of Ghagra (1529)
losing even the fabled Peacock Throne to the
 This was the last battle Babar fought against Iranian emperor
the Afghans.
 The Peacock Throne, thereafter, served as a
 Sultan Ibrahim Lodi’s brother Mahmud Lodi symbol of Iranian imperial might.
and Sultan Nusrat Shah, son-in-law of Ibrahim
 Nader also looted the Koh-i-Noor (meaning
Lodi, conspired against Babur. Realising the
“Mountain of Light” in Persian) and Darya-ye
danger Babar marched against them.
Noor (meaning “Sea of Light”) diamonds. The
 In the battle that ensued along the banks of Iranian troops left Delhi at the beginning of
Ghagra, a tributary of Ganges, Babur defeated May 1739, but before they left, he ceded back
the Afghans. But he died on his way from Agra to Muhammad Shah all territories to the east
to Lahore in 1530. of the Indus which he had overrun.
Nader Shah
Ahmad Shah Abdali
 Nader Shah was the founder of the Afsharid
dynasty of Iran and one of the most powerful  Ahmad Shah Durrani also known as Ahmad
rulers in Iranian history, ruling as shah of Iran Shah Abdali, or Ahmad Khan Abdali, was the
(Persia}from 1736to 1747 founder of the Durrani Empire and is
regarded as the founder of the modern state
 In 1738, Nader Shah conquered Kandahar, the of Afghanistan
last outpost of the Hotaki dynasty.
 After the assassination of Nadir Shah, Ahmad
 This led to the capture of Ghazni, Kabul,
Shah Durrani succeeded the throne of
Peshawar, Sindh and Lahore.
Afghanistan and started plundering wealth
Regions from nearby regions.
At the Battle of Karnal, Nader crushed an enormous  In July 1747, Ahmad Shah was appointed as
Mughal army six times greater than his own the King of Afghanistan by a loya jirga in
Kandahar, where he set up his capital.
 After this spectacular victory, Nader
captured Mohammad Shah and entered  Ahmad Shah Durrani invaded India eight
Delhi. times between 1748 and 1767.
Battles and Wars Fourth Invasion

First Invasion Battle of Bharatpur (1757)
Battle of Manupur 1748  It was fought between Jats and Abdali’s forces.
 Maharaja Surajmal’s troops fought against him
 It was fought between the Mughal Empire
in Ballabgarh, Chaumunha, Gokul, Kum her
and the Durrani Empire.
and in Bharatpur.
 Retreated to Kabul
 At last Abdali had to leave the war and retreat.
 Sikh bands under Charat Singh continued to
 During this he ruined and looted the holy
harass them
places of Mathura and Vrindavan
 He lost to the Mughal soldiers and Sikhs of
the Phulkian Mis I (also known as the Patiala
State). Ahmad Shah Abdali
 The first invasion of Shah proved a failure but
it gave an opportunity to the Sikhs to organize Fourth Invasion
themselves into Dal Khalsa, an army of Sikh
Battle of Amritsar ( 1757)
Confederacy, at Amritsar in March 1748
 The battle was fought between the Nihang
Second Invasion Sikhs of the Shaheedan Mis I and the Afghans.
In this battle the Nihang Sikhs of the
 Afghan Victory
Shaheedan Misl decisively won.
 Control of territories west of Indus
 Although their leader Baba Deep Singh ji was
 He made an alliance with Nawab Muzaffar martyred.
Khan of Multan and Ahmed Khan Sial of
Jhang. This paved the way for his invasion of Fifth Invasion
Punjab.
 In this invasion, the Marathas lost the Third
Third Invasion Battle of Panipat (1761) and lost Delhi, Punjab,
Lahore, Multan and Attock.
Battle of Lahore (1752):
 The Battle of Lahore was battle which took Sixth Invasion
place between the invading Ahmed Shah  Afghans soldiers were deployed to counter the
Abdali and Mir Man nu, the Mughal governor rebellions of Jats and Naga Sadhus in and
of Punjab in 1752. around Mathura.
 Afghan Victory  Naga Sadhus fought with bravery but crushed
 Control of territories west of Indus heavily by Afghans.
 He made an alliance with Nawab Muzaffar
Seventh Invasion
Khan of Multan and Ahmed Khan Sial of
Jhang. This paved the way for his invasion of  Afghans faced humiliation at the hands of
Punjab. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia
Eight Invasion pottery, etc. Epigraphy includes deciphering

the text of inscriptions and analysing the
 Jassa Singh continued with his campaigns.
information they contain.
After Abdali’s ninth and last invasion in 1769,
Jassa Singh wrested Kapurthala in 1774 from  Palaeography is the study of ancient
Rao Ibrahim Bhatti and made it his writing.
headquarters and capital. This later became
the Kapurthala State. Classification of Inscriptions
Inscriptions can be classified in several different
Sikhs and the Afghan Menace ways, for instance according to the
 Surface they are engraved on
 After the departure of Ahmad Shah Durrani,
Jassa Singh Ahluwalia attacked Sirhind and in  Stone inscription
the Battle of Sirhind (1764), the Afghan  Copper Plate Inscription:
Governor Zain Khan Sirhindi was killed  Pillar Inscription
 Jassa Singh also paid a visit to Darbar Sahib at  Sponsoring authority: Depending on whose
Amritsar, and restored it to its original shape behalf they were inscribed.
after defilement by Durrani.
 Official: Ashoka’s edicts and royal land
 Later the Sikhs under Hari Singh Nalwa grants are examples of official records
campaigned against the Afghans in the third
phase of the Afghan Sikh wars and they took  Private records: Inscriptions recording
grants made by private individuals or
even the Winter capital of the Afghans
guilds to temples, or to Buddhist or Jaina
Peshawar, Decisively defeating Afghans in
establishments are examples of private
Battle of Nowshera which led to their
records
occupation of the Peshawar Valley.
 Content and Purpose: Can be classified into
 Following their victory, the Sikhs destroyed
donative, dedicative, and commemorative
the Afghan royal court and the fort of Bala
inscriptions
Hissar, Peshawar.
 Donative: Donative inscriptions include
 However, Hari Singh Nalwa soon commenced
records of the installation of religious
the reconstruction of the fort.
images, often inscribed on the images
themselves. Others record investments of
Inscriptions in India money made by people, out of the interest
of which lamps, flowers, incense, etc. were
to be provided for the worship of the deity.
Introduction The earliest stone inscriptions recording
 The study of inscriptions is known as land grants with tax exemptions are
epigraphy. Satavahana and Kshatrapa epigraphs
 An inscription is any writing that is engraved found at Nashik.
on something-stone, wood, metal, ivory  Dedicative: Royal inscriptions include
plaques, bronze statues, bricks, clay, shells, prashastis (panegyric). Most royal
inscriptions (and some private ones too)  In Ashokan inscriptions only Karuwaki
usually begin with a prashasti, but some among queens and only Teevar among his
inscriptions are entirely devoted to children mentioned.
eulogizing their subject.
 In Ashokan inscriptions the word Pasand
 The Hathigumpha inscription of for Sampradaya. Bambhan for Brahman
Kharavela, king of Kalinga in Orissa and ‘Nigrath’ for Nirgranth. i.e. Jain have
 The Allahabad prashasti of the 4th century used.
Gupta emperor Samudragupta.  The First discovered inscription of Ashoka is
 Commemorative: The Lumbini pillar Delhi Pillar Edict which had discovered in
inscription of Ashoka is a royal 1750 AD Joseph Tiefenthaler.
commemorative inscription, recording a  Dasarath a Maurya, Ashoka’s grandson and
specific event-the visit of the king to the regnal successor, wrote dedicatory
Buddha’s birth-place inscriptions in the three caves, forming the
Nagarjuni group which are Gopika, Vadathi
Ashoka Inscriptions and Vapiya caves.
The Edicts of Ashoka are in total 33 inscriptions
Pillar Edicts
written on the Pillars, boulders and cave walls of
Mauryan Period, during the reign of the Emperor  Two types of stones are used: spotted white
Ashok that are dispersed throughout the Indian sandstone {from Mathura) and buff coloured
Sub-continent covering India, Pakistan and sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati).
Nepal. Generally, they are made of sandstone
quarried from Chunar. They have almost
These Inscriptions are Divided into Three similar form and dimensions.
Broad Sections –  All the pillars are monoliths ( carved out of
 Major Rock Edicts stone) and the surface is well polished.
 Pillar Rock Edicts  They are devoid of bases and the cylindrical
shaft tapers slightly upwards to a height of
 Minor Rock Edicts
12- 14 m.
Facts About Ashokan Inscriptions  A cylindrical bolt joins the top of the shaft to
the capital, and have a bell capital (a stone
 Ashokan inscriptions were written in Prakrit
carved in the shape of an inverted lotus).
language with four scripts which were used
according to region:  There is a platform {abacus) on the top of the
bell capital which supports the crowned
 Brahmi script
animal.
 Kharosthi
 The pillars depict animals such as elephants
 Greek and lions and wheels and lotuses which are
 Aramaic all significant symbols in Buddhism.
Edict Details of Ashoka Pillar Edicts and the Content

Major Rock Edict I  Prohibition of animal sacrifice,  Pillar Edict I: It mentions about Ashoka’s
especially during festive seasons. principle of protection to people.
Major Rock Edict II Measures of social welfare which

 Pillar Edict II: It defines ‘dhamma’.
are included in working of dhamma.
 Pillar Edict III: It abolishes the practice of
 Medical treatment of humans and
animals, planting of fruits, medicinal harshness, cruelty, anger, pride among his
herbs and the digging of wells. subjects as sins.
Major Rock Edict III  Liberality to Brahmins and  Pillar Edict IV: It deals with duties of Rajukas.
Sramanas
 Pillar Edict V: This edicts describes the list of
Major Rock Edict IV Policy ofDhamma

animals and birds which shall not be killed on
 Dhammaghosha (sound of listed days. Also there is another list of animals
Dhamma/righteousness) over which must not be killed at all occasions.
Bherighosha (sound of war).
 Pillar Edict VI: It describes the Dhamma
Major Rock Edict V  About Dhammamahamatras.
Policy of the state.
Major Rock Edict VI  King’s desire to know about his
people’s conditions.  Pillar Edict VII: It describes the works done
by Ashoka for fulfilment of the Dhamma
Major Rock Edict VII  Tolerance among all sects
Policy. He observes that all sects desire self
Major Rock Edict VIII  Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and control as well as purity of mind.
the Bodhi tree (his first Dhamma
Yatra).
Major Rock Edict IX  Condemns popular ceremonies. Major Edicts

Stresses on moral conduct.
Major Rock Edict X  Disapproves of the individual’s 1. Kandahar Edict

desire for fame and glory and
stresses on Dharma.  Famous bilingual edict in
Major Rock Edict XI  Explanation of Dhamma Policy  Greek and Aramaic
Major Rock Edict XII  It mentions Mahamattas in charge  Only portion of 7th edict remains
of women’s welfare, lthijika  Afghanistan
Mahamatta and tolerance towards
the dhamma of others. 2. Shahbazgarhi Edict
Major Rock Edict XIII  It talks about the Ashoka’s victory
 Located in Mardan District of Khyber
over Kalinga and also mentions
about the high number of casualties Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
in that war  Written in Kahrosthi Script.
 King considered the victory by  All 14 edicts.
“Dhamma” to be the foremost
victory 3. Kalsi
Major Rock Edict XIV  Purpose of rock edicts.
 Were discovered in Khalsi, a village in
 Describes engraving of inscriptions Uttarakhand, northern India, by Alexander
in different parts of country. Cunningham about 1850.
 On the right side (north face) is the drawing 5. Sopara

of an elephant with the word in Brahmi
 Maharashtra
 ‘Gajatama’, of uncertain meaning, possibly
 The inscription is about Dhamma tours and
“Supreme Elephant”.
activities related to Dhamma institutions.
 Kalsi was a hub of traders especially from
Tibetan plateau and Buddhism must have. 6. Sannati
 Karnataka
4. Gimar
 Discovery of 1st inscribed portrait of Emperor
 Junagadh, Gujarat.
Ashoka at stupa.
 On the same rock there are inscriptions in
Sanskrit added around 150 CE by 7. Dhauli
Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I.
 Bhubhaneshwar, Odisha
 Mentions the Sudarshan lake constructed by
 The site has been identified as Tosali which is
Pushyagupta, a rashtriya (means provincial
mentioned by Ptolemy as a metropolis.
governor) of Saurashtra during Chandragupta
Maurya’s reign and its subsequent repair by
8. Jaugada
various people.
 Odisha
 The edict also narrates the story of Sudarshan
Lake which was built or renovated by  Laid down principles through which Kalinga
Rudradaman I, and the heavy rain and storm has to be governed.
due to which it had broken.
Other Edicts
 It is the first long Sanskrit inscription of India.
Inscriptions Location Speciality
 It was inscribed by Saka ruler Rudradaman Bhabru Calcutta • The only Ashokan inscription
 According to inscription, Rudradaman inscription which Bostrophendon
(Bailmutti i.e. writing like of
defeated various kings and annexed their an ox) script is used.
states - Akara (East Malwa), Avanti (West
• Only Ashokan inscription
Malwa), Anupa, Anart (North Kathiawar), which Mauryan king Ashoka
Saurashtra (South Kathiawar), Saurashtra called himself Piyadassi Raja
Magadha.i .e. Raja of
(South Kathiawar), Subhra the region on the
Magadh.
Subarmati), Maru (Marwar), Kuccha (Cutch),
• Contains Minor rock edict #3
Sindhu (east of the lower Indus), Suvira (west only, in which Ashoka gives a
of the lower Indus), Kukura, Aparant (North list of Buddhist scriptures to
Konkan) & Nisbada (West Vindhya stud
&Aravali). Maski Minor Karnataka • It confirmed the association

Rock Edict of the honorific title
 Sudarsana lake was damaged once again and "Devanampriya" with Ashoka
it repaired by Chakrapalita (head of the city) Gujjara Madhya • Here, the name of Ashoka is
of Gimar city and son of Parnadatta ‘Gopta’ of Minor Rock Pradesh used together with his titles:
Saurashtra. Edict "Devanampiya Piyadasi
Asokaraia"
Inscriptions Location Speciality  Rampurva: Zebu bull

Nittur minor Karnataka • Raja Ashoka  Lauria Nandangarh: Lion
rock edict
 Rampurv: Lion
Barabar Cave Bihar • The Ashoka inscriptions in  Sanchi: Four lions, once possibly crowned by
Inscription the Barabar Caves are part of
Ashoka's “Minor Rock
a wheel, from Sanchi. It is very similar to the
Edicts”, and appear in the Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath, except for
three caves named Sudama, the abacus, here adorned with flame palmettes
Visvakarma and Karna
and facing geese.
Chopar.
• For the dedication of several Mahasthangarh Inscription

caves to the sect of the
Ajivikas, a sect of ascetics,  Limestone slab bearing six lines in Prakrit in
which flourished at the same Brahmi Script.
time as Buddhism and
Jainism.  The text appears to be a royal order of Magadh,
• Inscription of Dasrath
possibly during the rule of Asoka.
Maurya are also found on  It provides us with the first definite evidence
Barabar hills
of urbanization in Bengal.
 The inscription throws light on the circulation
Ashokan Pillars of cowries as a medium of exchange in the area
of Pundravardhana
Pillar Location
 It records an order, issued by some ruler to
Buner Pakistan the Mahamatra stationed at ‘Pudanagala’ with
Topra Now in Delhi a view to relieve the distress caused by some
agency to the people called Samgvangiyas,
Meerut Uttar Pradesh
who were settled in and about the town.
Sanchi Madhya Pradesh
Sohgaura Inscription
Kaushambi Uttar Pradesh
 The Sohgaura copper plate inscription is an
Sarnath Uttar Pradesh
Indian copper plate inscription written in
Lumbini Nepal Prakrit in the Brahmi script.
Rampurva Bihar  It was discovered in Sohgaura, a village on the
Lauria Nandagarh Bihar banks of the Rapti River, in the Gorakhpur
District, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Lauriya Araraj Bihar
 The inscription is sometimes presented as pre-
Amravati Andhra Pradesh Ashokan, even pre-Mauryan, but the writing
of the plate, especially the configuration of
Famous Ashokan Capitals akshara would rather suggest a date after
 Vaishali: Lion Ashoka
 Sankissa: Elephant  Its mentions the establishment of two grain
 Sarnath: Lion Capital of Ashoka depots (Kosthagara) to fight against famine.
Other Important Inscriptions  It was inscribed by the Jain emperor

Kharavela of Kalinga kingdom.
Post Mauryan  The inscription presents military conquest of
Kharavela
1. Besnagar
 It also includes the religious values, public
 Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh infrastructure projects, military expeditions
 Famous for Heliodorous pillar inscription and its purpose, and socio-cultural
which shows devotion of Vasudeva. information.
 Built by greek ambassador Heliodorous.  It indicates that Kharavela brought back Jaina
 In this inscription Heliodorus called himself image from a Nanda king.
Bhagwat’ that confirms that he was the  Kharavela was a follower of Jain religion and
follower of Bhagwat religion. he took up the title ‘Bhikshuraj’
 This pillar was surmounted by a sculpture of  The term Bharatvasa has been used.
Garud and was dedicated to the god Vishnu.
3. Pan Dav Leni Cave Inscription
It confirms the religious impact of India an
Greeks.  Pandavleni Caves inscriptions mentions about
Gotami Putra Satkarni and her patronisation
2. Hathigumpha Inscription of Brahmanism and Buddhism.
 Odisha  Nasik, Maharashtra
 Seventeen line inscription in Prakrit language 4. Naneghat Inscription
incised in Brahmi script in a cavern called
 The inscriptions are attributed to a queen of
Hathigumpha.
the Satavahana dynasty.
 Dated between 2nd-century BCE and 1st-
 Her name was either Nayanika or Naganika,
century CE.
likely the wife of king Satakarni.
 The details suggest that she was likely the 2. Mandasor Stone inscription
queen mother, who sponsored this cave after
 Madhya Pradesh
the death of her husband, as the inscription
narrates many details about their life together  The inscription is of Yashodharman-
and her son being the new king. Vishnuvardhana
 Record victory of Malwa king Yasodharman
 These inscriptions have been dated between
over the Hun king Mihirakula
the 2nd and the 1st century BCE, and
attributed to the Satavahana dynasty era.  Mandsaur Inscription of Kumar Gupta which
is dated
 The inscriptions are notable for linking the
 to 5th century records that many silk weavers
Vedic and Hinduism deities, mentioning some
migrated from Lata (Gujarat) to Dasapura.
Vedic srauta rituals and of names that provide
historical information about the ancient  The guild of silk weavers also built a sun
Satavahanas. temple in 437 AD
 The inscriptions present the world’s oldest 3. Bhitari Pillar Inscription

numeration symbols for “2, 4, 6, 7, and 9” that  Uttar Pradesh
resemble modern era numerals, more closely
those found in modern Nagari and  It also mentions the conflict between
Skandagupta and the Pushyamitras as well as
Hindu-Arabic scrip.
the Hunas
It is in Sanskrit language and Brahmi script.
Gupta

 Also important for understanding Gupta

Chronology.
1. Allahabad Inscription
 It mentions about Military prowesses of
 Uttar Pradesh
Skandagupta as well as defeat of the Hunas.
 Schism edict is there which direct the rulers
of Kaushambi to stay united and loyal. 4. Eran Inscription
 Queen edict is also found which talks about  Madhya Pradesh
generous deeds of Ashokan queen Karuvaki.  It is carved on the neck of a freestanding high
red sandstone Varaha statue, a zoomorphic
 Later inscriptions of Samudragupta and
iconography of Vishnu Avatar, and dated to
Jahangir are also inscribed.
the 6th century.
 Prayag Prashasti of Harishena is inscribed on
 The first evidence of sati (immolation of
this.
widow) is found in an inscription (AD 510) at
 The Prashasti (i.e. eulogy) inscribed on it was Eran in Madhya Pradesh.
composed by Harishena the
Mahasandhivigrahik (the minister of peace 5. Mehrauli
and war) of Samudragupta.  Delhi
 It is written in Sanskrit language and Brami  It is famous for the rust-resistant composition
script. of the metals used in its construction.
 Constructed by Chandragupta II 2. Alhole Inscription

 It is moved to its present location by Anangpal  Karnataka
Tomar in 11th century.
 Aihole inscription is also found here in Meguti
 It contains verses composed in Sanskrit Temple. It is composed by Ravikirti, the court
language. poet of Pulakesin II in 634A.D.
 Mehrauli inscription suggests that
 It is in Sanskrit language and old Karnataka
Chandragupta fought against a confederacy of
script and gives detailed account of Pulakesin
enemies in Bengal and also led a campaign into
ll’s exploit against his neighbouring kingdoms
the Punjab.
like the Pallavas.
6. Damodarpur Copper Plate Inscription  It further describes the victory of Pulakesin II
 West Bengal against Harshavardhana.
 Written in Sanskrit language and Brah mi
3. Uttaramerur Inscription
script.
 Tamil Nadu
 It throws light on state organisation and
administrative system of Gupta period.  The temple inscriptions of Uthiramerur are
notable for their historical descriptions of the
Post Gupta rural self-governance.
 Inscriptions of the Chola king Parantaka I (907-
1. Banskhera 955) indicate the evolution of the
 Uttar Pradesh administrative system
 Banskhera copper plate gives the ancestry of  Both Pallava and Chol a Inscriptions are
Harsha and bears the signature the great king found.
of kings, Harshavardhana.
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History Terminology (HIT)

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PRELIMS 2024

History Terminology (HIT)

ANCIENT HISTORY-PART 1&2

Integrated with the

Timeline of Timeline of Timeline of Timeline of

Modern India Ancient India Medieval India History

Important Rivers Important National Important Important

Budget 2024-25 Important Year End Review Military Exercises

TERMINOLOGY (HIT) 

i. Ancient History & Art Culture (PYQs) ............................................................................................................................... i-iii

Ancient History & Art Culture (PYQs)

(c) centers of iron-and-steel making (c) Aitareya Upanishad

(d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras (d) Mundaka Upanishad

(c) Shahjahan (d) Aurangzeb (a) Andhra (b) Gandhara

11. b 12. a 13. b 14. d 15. c 16. d 17. a 18. d 19. a 20 a

HISTORY IN TERMINOLOGY (HIT)

Harappan Civilization  The Mesopotamian texts mention contacts with

Site Excavator  The word Aryan means:

 Rigveda:  Atharva veda

Hotra or  Rishi who were experts in

Madhyamasi  Mediator in Disputes Terms Related to Agriculture Activities

The Sathapatha Brahamana throws light on the

 Paishacha: Marriage by seduction  Yamuna

Revise the Entire

Prelims 2024 History (Secure 30+ Marks)

Under the Guidance of

Target 110+ in Prelims 2024

Under the Guidance of

Terms  Mention of the ‘Gotra’ is found in the

 Sita - ploughed field  Mention about the Varna-shramadharama is

 Six system of Indian Philosophy 3. Parasparopagraho jivanam: The function of

Homeland Scholar 5. Asrava: Asrava is the cause, which leads to the

4. Madhayamaka: A major Mahayana school

Architecture upright, in his lap, and his right hand touching

Pravrajya “The Buddha of Immeasurable Light and Life”.

Kathina Sthavir Nikaya/Sthaviravada

Kanishka who worked to spread Buddhism like

Capital Vanji or Karur Uraiyur Madurai

Officials  Korkai was the main seaport of the Pandayas.

 Amaichar : Ministers  Megasthenese described Pandya Kingdom as

9560082909 www.theiashub.com 9560082909 www.theiashub.com

9560082909 www.theiashub.com 9560082909 www.theiashub.com

 Pataliputra and Rajagriha/Girivraja were the Udayin

 Sarva-Kshatrantaka : Uprooter of Kshatriya  In 326 BC Alexander defeated Porus

 Invented Nandopakramani : A measuring  Alexander was known as Shehansha in Persia

 Karmantika Officer who looked after the Sancharah

 Kautilya has referred to Chaturangabala (i.e. Dharmasthiya

 Proponent of Buddhism: Converted to  In buddhism, A arhant is who has gained insight

 Sannidhat – treasurer  Megasthenes – 7 castes – philosophers, farmers,

 Akaradhyaksha – mines  Torans surrounding the stupa where each

 Brihadratha the last Mauryan ruler was killed Bhagabhadra

 Patanjali wrote Mahabhasya and was

 After Ashoka Kharavela - Important king (1st  Used Matronyms : Gautampiputra,

Polity & Satavanana

highlighted in his Junagarh inscription written  Kanishka patronised Mahayana form of

 Samudra Gupta was an accomplished Veena  Dhanvantri: Physician

 Period of Gupta age is compared to the  Founded the Nalanda University

The ancient painting reached its zenith in the

Sandhi Vigraha  Pustapala: An officer who maintained the

Pataka and Pravartavapa

 Saka era  78 AD  Harsha summoned a religious assembly at

 Mahendravarman I and Pulikeshin II were the  Hinduism received state support

 Mahendravarma was succeeded to the throne by  Last Pallava King