Hawassa University

College of Social Sciences and Humanities

Department of Anthropology; History Unit

History Group Assignment for 4th Year Agricultural Economics Students

Course code: (Hist 1012)

Group members Id.no

1. ABEL TEFERI 0096/13

2. HABTAMU DEMLIE 1231/13
3. MATHIAS BETURE 1647/13
4. EDEN GIRMA 0880/13
5. EYERUS REDA 1024/13
6. DIFRET DIMA 0851/13
7. AKLILU ASHENAFI 0253/13
8. WOGAYEHU KASU 2542/13
9. OBSA BAYISA 2026/13
10. MEKUANNINT SHITAHUN 1690/13

Submitted to: Mr. Bereket (MSc)

Submission date: 2/9/2024

Hawassa, Ethiopia
1.List at least four major religions of Ethiopia (1%). Explain how each religion was
introduced, expanded and contributed to specific and in shaping the history of the region at
large (4%).

The four major religions of Ethiopia are Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Paganism or traditional
religions. Each religion has contributed to shaping the history of the region in its own way, with
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church being the dominant faith for many centuries, Islam exerting
influence in certain regions, Judaism maintaining a presence for centuries, and Paganism
reflecting the country's religious diversity and cultural heritage.

A. Christianity
Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia in the 4th century, and its influence has been significant
in shaping the history of the region. According to Ethiopian tradition, Christianity first came to
the Aksum Empire in the 4th century A.D. when a Greek-speaking missionary named
Frumentius influenced King Ezana and successfully converted him to Christianity. Subsequently,
King Ezana officially decreed Christianity as the main faith of his kingdom in 341 AD. When
Fremnatos (also called Kasate Birhane by locales) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-
373), appointed him first Bishop of Ethiopia under title Aba Salama. This made Ethiopian
Orthodox Church (EOC) subservient to Coptic in Egypt until full independence i.e. consecration
of its own patriarch, Abune Baslios was achieved in 1959. Christianity was further expanded to
the mass of the society in later part of 5th century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86) by
the Nine Saints. The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez shown in the
table below.
Name Origin Church Commemoration
Date
Abuna Rome Debre Damo 14 Tekmet/ 25
Aregawwi/Abba October
Za Mika‟el
Abuna Rome Medera 17 Sene /24 June
Isaq/Abba
Gerima
Abba Pentelwon Rome Asbo 6 Tekmet/17
October
Abba Afse Ladocia Yeha 29 Genbot/6 June
Abba Alef Qa‟esare‟a Biheza/Haleluya 11 Megabet/20
March
Abba Gubba Cilicia West of Medera 29 Genbot/6 June
Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel 28 Hedar/8
December
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania 16 Ter/25 January
Abba Yima‟ata Qosa‟iti Ger‟alta 28 Tekmet/8
November
The Ethiopian Orthodox Church, one of the oldest Christian churches in the world, played a
pivotal role in the country's history and culture. Christianity's influence is particularly strong in
the highlands of northern Ethiopia, where it has been a powerful force for centuries. The church
has also been a custodian of Ethiopia’s literary tradition and visual arts. The Zagwe dynasty, a
family of Christian kings, further revived Christian art, literature, and church expansion between
1200–1500, contributing to the shaping of the region's history. many churches and monasteries
were constructed including Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-Hayiq in Wallo; Debre-
Dima & Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shawa and Debre-Asabot on the way to
Harar.
The size of Ethiopia grew substantially after the Aksumite period, and where the state went,
Christianity spread as well. However, the maximum expansion of the state was largely up to its
natural geographical boundaries, and it never really managed to move beyond these borders after
the Aksumite period The recent discovery of the oldest known Christian church in sub-Saharan
Africa in northern Ethiopia reaffirms the early arrival and influence of Christianity in the region,
shedding new light on the country's rich religious heritage and its surprisingly early embrace of
the new religion.
It served as the official religion of the ruling elite until the demise of the monarchy in 1974.
Christianity's influence is also evident in the country's literary tradition and visual arts, with the
church serving as a custodian of these cultural aspects.
Christianity has been a unifying force in Ethiopia, bringing together diverse ethnic and linguistic
groups under a common faith. The religion has also played a significant role in the country's
politics and has contributed to its cultural heritage, with its influence felt in music, art, and
literature. The early adoption of Christianity in Ethiopia is evidenced by the recent discovery of
the oldest known Christian church in sub-Saharan Africa in northern Ethiopia, highlighting the
country's rich religious heritage and its early embrace of the new religion.
B. Islam
Islam was introduced to Ethiopia in the 7th century. The first migration of Muslims to Ethiopia
occurred when early Muslims fled the persecution of the Quraysh tribe in the Arabian Peninsula
into Abyssinia, which is now known as Ethiopia.The Ethiopian kings permitted the settlement of
Muslims in the region, leading to the introduction and early expansion of Islam in Ethiopia. This
marked the beginning of Islam's presence in the region.
Aksumite king Armah Ella Seham/Ashama b. Abjar in Arabic sources gave asylum for the early
followers including his daughter Rukiya & her husband Uthman and his future wives Umm
Habiba and Umm Salma led by Jafar Ali Talib from 615-628 A. D. Armah refused to return
them to persecutors and is said to have declared,” If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I
would not give up these people who have taken refuge with me.” Accordingly, there has grown a
tradition, chiefly in Arabic sources and among Ethiopian Muslims, that the Aksumite king
Ahmed al-Nejash was converted to Islam. As a result of these early peaceful contacts, Islam was
introduced to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through trade routes. It was well
established in Dahlak/Alalay Islands on Red Sea by beginning of 8th century. By the beginning
of 10th century, the Muslim community on islands developed a sultanate. At about the same time
other places on the Red Sea coast were settled by the Muslims. It was from these coastal centers
that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior,
largely through the agency of preachers and merchants.
Islam gained access to Ethiopia through the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden coastal areas, which were
remote from any direct and effective control of the Ethiopian kings. The Ethiopian kings
permitted Muslims to settle in the region, and this led to the expansion of Islam in Ethiopia.
The religion was introduced under two different circumstances: peacefully, by winning the hearts
of new adherents, and through a war of conquest, known as Jihad.
Islam has made significant contributions to the history of Ethiopia. its presence has had a strong
influence on the country's history and culture. The study of this contribution, and of Ethiopian
Muslim culture, has been a subject of interest, highlighting the impact of Islam on the country.
The introduction and settlement of Islam in Ethiopia occurred when the Ethiopian kings
permitted Muslims, who were fleeing persecution, to seek refuge in the region. Islam's influence
has been most significant in the outlying regions, particularly in the Eastern Lowlands, and it is
now practiced by about one-third of Ethiopians. The religion has contributed to shaping the
history of Ethiopia, with its influence felt in the country's politics, culture, and social fabric.
Despite the early arrival of Islam in Ethiopia, Christianity has remained the dominant religion in
the country, with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church being one of the oldest organized Christian
churches in the world. Islam's introduction and expansion in Ethiopia have occurred under
different circumstances, including peaceful adoption and, at times, through conquest. Overall,
Islam has played a significant role in the religious, cultural, and social dynamics of Ethiopia,
contributing to the country's rich and diverse historical tapestry.
C. Judaism
Judaism is the religion of the ancient Jewish/Hebrew people. It is considered to be the expression
of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah/God established with the Israeli. It has been followed in
Ethiopia and the Horn by the people called Beta Israel (literally, "house of Israel" began to be
clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, when the community refused to be converted to
Christianity). The Beta Israel/Ethiopian Jews practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are
generally recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism). Many of the Beta
Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they stem from the very ancient migration of some
portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of Moses, perhaps even at the time
of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines include perhaps the later crises in Judea,
e. g., at the time of the split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the southern Kingdom of
Judah after the death of King Solomon or at the time of the Babylonian Exile. Other Beta Israel
take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of
King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba/ Sheba,
and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia. Another group of Jews are said to
have arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas in 6th century A.D. Still others are said to
have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with Agaws. Whatever the case, the Jews appear to
have been isolated from mainstream Jewish for at least a millennium. The Jewish developed and
lived for centuries in northern and northwestern Ethiopia, in more than 500 small villages spread
over a wide territory. Most of them were concentrated mainly on North Gondar, Shire Enda-
Selassie, Wolqayit, Tselemti, Dembiya, Segelt, Quara and Belesa.
They base their beliefs on the Written Law (the Torah) and some oral traditions, while the rest of
the Jewish world bases its beliefs on the Written Law and the Talmud. Judaism was introduced
to Ethiopia through a combination of factors, including migration, trade, and the influence of the
Jewish Empire. The Beta Israel community has been practicing Judaism for at least 15 centuries
and has developed a unique set of religious practices that differ from those practiced elsewhere
in the Jewish world.
The Beta Israel community has faced persecution and discrimination throughout history,
particularly during the Italian occupation of Ethiopia in the 1930s and 1940s. Under fascist rule,
it became forbidden to practice Judaism in Ethiopia, and some members of the Beta Israel
community were forced to convert to Christianity. The community's struggle for recognition and
acceptance has been a significant part of Ethiopia's history, with the community's resilience and
perseverance contributing to the country's cultural and religious diversity.
D. Indigenous Religion or paganism,
Distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one omnipotent, omniscient, eternal or
transcendental Supreme Entity, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena that are
declared to be sacred. Vicars (parsons and diviners) who officiate over these rituals & propitiate
spirits are held in a lot of respect as intermediaries between society and spirits. is a neglected
subject in the historiography of Ethiopia, but according to traditional sources, it was practiced
side by side with Judaism in Ethiopia before the introduction of Christianity. The worship of the
serpent was widespread in Ethiopia, and the Ethiopians offered sacrifices to it. The coins minted
in the early part of King Ezana's reign bear the pagan symbol of the crescent and disc, while
those minted in the later part of his reign bear the sign of the cross. The introduction of
Christianity as the state religion marked a turning point in Ethiopia's history, and Christianity has
remained the dominant religion in the country, with the Ethiopian Orthodox Church being one of
the oldest organized Christian churches in the world.
In the long religious history of Ethiopia, paganism has been widely practiced since ancient times,
as evidenced by the inscriptions of Ezana and other archaeological objects. Paganism continued
to dominate for centuries even after the introduction of Christianity in the fourth century.
Resistance against paganism continued in a more organized way in the fifteenth century during
the reign of King Zar'a Yaqob, who actively engaged in making laws and composing religious
books to prevent Christian adherents from practicing pagan rituals. Paganism, in general, is a
neglected subject in the historiography of medieval Ethiopia, but studying the pagan practices
and resistance of this period is indispensable.
The main pagan gods and goddesses in Ethiopia were associated with the Aksumite and Yeha
periods. During the Yeha period, the Ethiopian religion seems to have been little different from
that of Sheba. The major deities were the familiar Semitic triad of the Sun, the Moon, and Venus.
In the Aksumite period, a somewhat different triad emerged, consisting of Ashtar (Venus), the
sea god Behr, and the earth god Medr. The sun was a female deity, called by the Sabaean name
Zat-Badar. Additionally, the coins minted in the early part of King Ezana's reign bear the pagan
symbol of the crescent and disc, while those minted in the later part of his reign bear the sign of
the cross. The main pagan gods were named Mahram, Astar, Beher, and Medr. These deities
were associated with the Aksumite and Yeha periods and were part of the pagan religious
practices in Ethiopia. Among indigenous religious groups, Oromo Waaqeffannaa is one.

2. The Oromo population movement of the 16th century cannot be better understood
without considering the Gadaa system. Refer sources and write a brief explanation about
the values of the Gadaa system (3%) and how it contributed to the social integration in the
Horn (2%).

The Gadaa system is an indigenous democratic system of governance used by the Oromo people
in Ethiopia and northern Kenya. It is a holistic system of governance encompassing the political,
social, cultural, and religious activities of the community. History among the Oromo is the
patterned process and chronologically recorded events based on the eight-year segment of time
in the Gadaa system. Studies based on the Gadaa calendar indicates that, 8 year represented one
Gadaa period, 5-Gadaa period or 40 years represents one generation and 9 generations or 360
(40x9) years stand for an era. Accordingly, the Oromo passed through mysterious eras of Gadaa
Bidiri Dhoqqee which existed for about 5, 400 years. Then the Oromo passed through the known
eras of Xayaa, Xasaa, Muunyoo, Suuftuu, Maaddillee, Abrojjii, Daawwee/Dhittacha, and Warra
Daayee/Wardeeni, each of which survived for 360 years and altogether 2880 (360 X 8) years
until the beginning of Gadaa Boorana-Baarentuu around 1450 A. D. Overall, Gadaa traced back
to nearly 9, 000 years ago (before present/BP). This implies that the system was an old institution
that was subject to transformation from ancient to recent.
There are five Gadaa in cycle called Gogeessaa, which have transferred power to each other
every 8 years peacefully, comparable to modern multiparty system as sons become Lubaa 40
years after their fathers. Each class progresses through a series of grades before it can function in
authority. The classes are taught by oral historians covering history, laws, rituals, time reckoning,
cosmology, myths, rules of conduct, and the function of the Gadaa system. The Gadaa assembly
takes place under a sycamore tree, symbolically representing its emphasis on dialogue and
consensus. The Gadaa system is characterized by a strong sense of accountability, with an
embedded structural framework that reflects the notion of checks and balances, holding leaders
accountable to public interest. The system is constituted of four institutions, responsible for
different aspects of societal governance. These include the rulers (Gadaa), the warriors
(Hariyyaa), the electors and the ritual leaders (Qaalluu), and the General Assembly (Gumii).
The Gadaa system has been inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage of UNESCO. It has been a significant part of the Oromo people's history and culture,
shaping their political, social, and economic life. The activities and life of each and every
member of the society are guided by Gadaa. It is the law of the society, a system by which
Oromo administer, defend their territory and rights, maintain and guard.
The Gadaa system is a traditional socio-political system practiced by the Oromo people, who are
the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia. It is a complex and intricate system that encompasses
various aspects of governance, social organization, and cultural practices. One of the key
elements of the Gadaa system is its emphasis on a set of core values that guide the behavior and
relationships within the Oromo society. These values play a crucial role in maintaining social
harmony and ensuring the well-being of the community.
Democracy: The Gadaa system is often referred to as one of the earliest democratic systems in
Africa. It is based on the principles of inclusivity, participation, and consensus decision-making.
The system allows for the active participation of all eligible members of the society in decision-
making processes, with leaders chosen through a democratic election.
Equality: Equality is a fundamental value in the Gadaa system. It promotes the fair treatment and
equal rights of all individuals, regardless of their social status, gender, or age. In the Gadaa
system, power is not concentrated in the hands of a few elites but is distributed among different
age sets or generations, ensuring a more equitable distribution of authority and resources.
Responsibility: The Gadaa system instills a strong sense of responsibility among its members.
Each age set has specific roles and responsibilities, and individuals are expected to fulfill their
duties diligently. This includes taking care of the community, protecting the environment,
resolving conflicts, and upholding justice.
Respect for Elders: The Gadaa system places great importance on respecting and honoring the
wisdom and experience of the elders. Elders are considered the custodians of the community's
traditions, customs, and knowledge. They play a crucial role in providing guidance, wisdom, and
resolving disputes.
Justice: The Gadaa system is built on a foundation of justice. It promotes a fair and impartial
legal system where disputes are resolved through a process of negotiation, mediation, and
reconciliation. The system aims to restore harmony and maintain peace within the community by
ensuring that grievances are addressed and conflicts are resolved in a just manner.
Sustainability: The Gadaa system recognizes the importance of sustainable practices and the
interdependence between human beings and the environment. It promotes responsible
stewardship of natural resources, encourages conservation efforts, and emphasizes the need for a
balanced and harmonious relationship between humans and nature.
These values also include: - Community Commitment and Participation, social well-being,
accountability, conflict resolution and peace mainly Jarsumma, cultural commitments and
ethical responsibility, and democratic governance
These values of the Gadaa system not only shape the social and political organization of the
Oromo society but also reflect their deep-rooted cultural beliefs and principles. The Gadaa
system has played a significant role in shaping the identity and resilience of the Oromo people,
and it continues to be an important aspect of their cultural heritage.
It serves as a mechanism for enforcing moral conduct, building social cohesion, and expressing
forms of community culture. Also it deals with issues such as conflict resolution, reparation, and
protecting women’s rights. The system is characterized by a strong sense of accountability, with
an embedded structural framework that reflects the notion of checks and balances, holding
leaders accountable to public interest.
The Gadaa system has contributed to social integration in several ways.
Firstly, the system promotes community commitment and participation, which fosters a sense of
belonging and shared responsibility among members of the community.
Secondly, the system emphasizes conflict resolution and peace, which helps to maintain social
harmony and stability.
Thirdly, the system promotes cultural commitments and ethical responsibility, which helps to
preserve and promote the cultural heritage of the community.
Fourthly, the system emphasizes democratic governance, which ensures that leaders are
accountable to the public interest and that power is shared among different groups within the
community.
Finally, the system promotes social well-being, which helps to ensure that the basic needs of all
members of the community are met. Examples of social integration facilitated by the Gadaa
system include the formation of alliances or confederations during times of difficulty, the
maintenance of social order by prohibiting injustice, and the promotion of collective conscience,
which helps to ensure the overall well-being of the society.
3. Discuss major characteristics of both Gondar period and “era of warlords” or zemene
mesafint (3%) and analyze how such conditions did affect the societies (2%).
The Gondarin Period
Basically, the period of Gondar was started from the reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle that means,
when the political center of Ethiopian emperors shifted to Gondar Area. Emperor Minas stayed
in Eastern Gojjam at Mangest-Samyat, but in the meantime he shifted his center of power into
the Lake Tana region. Emperor Sartsa-Dengle attempted royal camp at Guzara/Enfranz in1571.
Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital in the near surrounding of Gondar like at
Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
The Gondarin Period (also known as Gondarian) was the period in Ethiopian history from the
accession of Emperor Fasilides in 1632 to the era of decentralization in 1769, known as Zemeneh
Mesafint. Gondar was established as a permanent capital by his Emperor Fasilides in 1636 and
became a very stable and prosperous center of commerce. This period saw great achievements in
Ethiopian art, architecture and innovation, including the construction of the royal complex Fasir
Gebbi and 44 churches founded around Lake Tana. In art, the Gondar period produced diptychs,
triptychs, wall paintings and illuminated manuscripts, mainly with religious motifs.
Among ten emperors ruled during the “Gondarian” period, the kingdom achieved its glory during
the reigns of its first three successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667 –
1682) and Iyasu I (r.1682 – 1706). After the death of Iyas I in 1706, Gondar's hegemony began
to slowly decline. Empress Mentewab, regent of Emperor Iyas I, took her brother Ras Wolde
Leul to Gondar and made him Ras Bitwaded. After this, Iyasu II's death in 1755 led to a brief
dynastic conflict between Mentewab's Quarenok faction and Ubit's Yeju Wolo faction. In
reaction, Mentwab invited Ras Micka'el Sehul of Tigray to support her against the Wallo. Later
after the death of Mentwab, Iyoas asked Ras Mika'el to return to Tigray. Nevertheless, he
refused, and killed Iyoas himself, put 70 years old man Yohannes II on power. Immediately
when Yohannes II showed discomfort, Ras Mika'el killed him and put his son under throne name
Takla-Haymanot II (1769-1777) on power. This opened the way to the Era of Lords or Zemene
Masefent (1769-1855). The Gondarine period ended with the assassination of Iyoas I by Ras
Michael Sehr, governor of the Tigray province in 1769, marking the beginning of the country's
decentralized Zemene Mesafint ("Age of the Princes"), which in 1855 It lasted until Emperor
Thewodros II reunited the empire in its modern form.
This period is characterized by several key features:
1. Art and Architecture: The Gondarine period saw significant developments in Ethiopian art
and architecture. The classical, Byzantine style of Ethiopian art evolved significantly during this
time, with paintings becoming more Ethiopianized and depicting biblical and other religious
themes [5]. The Gondarine period is also known for its architectural achievements, such as the
construction of the royal complex Fasil Ghebbi and the establishment of 44 churches around
Lake Tana.
2. Political and Social Stability: The Gondarine period marked a period of renewed stability for
Ethiopia, particularly during the reign of Emperor Fasilides. Gondar became the capital of the
Ethiopian Empire and a highly stable, prosperous commercial center.
3. Cultural and Artistic Developments: The Gondarine period witnessed the development of
Christian iconography and the creation of diptychs, triptychs, murals, and illuminated
manuscripts, mostly with religious motifs.
4. Influence of External Factors: The Gondarine period was also influenced by external factors,
such as the Italian occupation of the late 1930s, which left a mark on the architectural and urban
development of the city.
5. Decline and Legacy: The Gondarine period ended with the assassination of Iyoas I in 1769,
marking the beginning of a period of decentralization. Despite this, the Gondarine period left a
lasting legacy in the form of its architectural and artistic achievements, which continue to be
admired and studied to this day.
The Zemene Mesafint, or "Era of the Princes
it refers to the Biblical “the era of Judges”. Apart to this, even the princess was not in actual
position of political power rather the political power was in the hand of different regional lords.
The exact time of the beginning of the Zemene-Mesafint is not reached on consensus by
scholars. However, most scholars in their different books and writings remark that the period
from the assassination of king Iyoas in 1769 by Ras Michael Sehul (the collapse of the
monarchy) up to 1855 is known as Zemene-Mesafint; while, others argued that it started when
Ali seized power in 1784 by defeating Emperor Tekle-Giorgis at Aferawnat and continued up to
1855. " was a period in Ethiopian history between the mid-18th and mid-19th centuries.
The Zemene Mesafint led to a lack of centralized governance and stability, and the constant
internal conflict hindered urbanization and trade. The most powerful lords during this period
were from the House of Yejju, a dynasty that included Ali I of Yejju, Aligaz, Gugsa, and Ali II.
The Zemene Mesafint had a lasting impact on the political and social landscape of Ethiopia, and
it was a period of significant internal strife and decentralization of power.
The Zemene Mesafint, or "Era of the Princes," was a period in Ethiopian history characterized by
significant political decentralization and internal conflict. According to a number of historical
accounts Zemene-Mesafint was characterized as follows:
 Ethiopia was divided into several regions with no effective central authority. In other
words, the monarchial state was collapsed or disintegrated.
 The monarchs continued only in name/ puppet. Due to the growing power and
influences of the regional warlords the monarchs totally lost their authority.
 The regional lords constantly fought with each other for aggrandizement of their territory
and to become the guardian of the king of kings at Gondar.
 Coalitions and alliance between regional lords were constantly formed and dissolved.
 The internal crisis further aggravated by the doctrinal divisions and controversy within
the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was divided in to disputant sects.
 The burning of several churches and castles, which were the cultural heritages of
Gondar.
 The Yejju lords did have predominance or hegemony over other lords of northern
Ethiopia.
 It was a period in which the prevalence of poverty, social, political and economic crisis
were intensified.
 The end of “Close Door policy” and Ethiopia's door was opened to Europe.
The Gondar period and the Zemene Mesafint had significant impacts on Ethiopian society.
During the Gondar period, the rise of regional warlords and their pressure on the kings led to the
decline in the importance of the city of Gondar. The decentralization of power and the constant
internal conflict hindered urbanization and trade, impacting the growth of towns and the
economy. The weak central authority and the political instability during this period led to a lack
of centralized governance and stability, affecting the overall well-being of the society
The Zemene Mesafint, or "Era of the Princes," was a period characterized by significant political
decentralization and internal conflict. The rise of regional warlords and the weakening of central
authority led to political chaos, wars, and plunder. The constant internal conflict and the
competition among the regional lords hindered urbanization and trade, impacting the growth of
towns and the economy. The monarchy was respected in name only due to its sacred and
religious character, leading to a lack of centralized governance and stability. The Zemene
Mesafint had a lasting impact on the political and social landscape of Ethiopia, and it was a
period of significant internal strife and decentralization of power.

4# Analyze the socio-economic developments of Ethiopia between 1800 and 1941 in fields of
agriculture, land holding system, commercial activities, industrial, and urban growth (5%).
Between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia experienced significant socio-economic developments in
various fields, including agriculture, land holding system, commercial activities, industrial, and
urban growth. Here is an analysis of these developments:
Agriculture
Between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia experienced notable socio-economic developments in the field
of agriculture. The role of agriculture in the local economy and the politics of the period could be
understood from the territorial competition and expansions to control surplus producing areas.
Monarchies favored agricultural production and trade since the revenue from the sector was a
source of wealth for the emerging monarchies. Here are some key aspects of development in
agricultural sector:
Expansion of Cultivated Land: During this period, there was a significant expansion of cultivated
land in Ethiopia. Emperor Menelik II encouraged farmers to cultivate cash crops like coffee,
cotton, and oilseeds for export. This expansion led to increased agricultural productivity and
revenue generation.
Introduction of New Crops: Menelik II also introduced new crops to Ethiopia, such as maize,
potatoes, and wheat. These crops diversified agricultural production, improved food security, and
provided additional sources of income for farmers.
Irrigation and Water Management: Efforts were made to improve irrigation and water
management systems. Traditional irrigation techniques were enhanced, and new methods were
introduced, such as building canals and reservoirs. These measures helped increase agricultural
productivity and mitigate the impact of droughts.
Land Reforms: Menelik II implemented land reforms, which aimed to redistribute land and
abolish feudal landownership practices. These reforms provided opportunities for small-scale
farmers to own and cultivate land, leading to increased agricultural activity.
Agricultural Research and Extension Services: The government established agricultural research
institutes and extension services to provide technical support and knowledge to farmers. These
initiatives focused on improving farming techniques, crop varieties, pest control, and soil
fertility, leading to enhanced agricultural productivity.
Market Development: Infrastructure development, such as the construction of railways,
facilitated the transportation of agricultural products to domestic and international markets. This
improved market access, expanded trade opportunities, and increased farmers' income.
Cooperative Movements: Towards the later part of this period, cooperative movements gained
momentum. Farmers formed agricultural cooperatives to collectively address challenges, share
resources, and negotiate better prices for their produce. These cooperatives played a crucial role
in empowering small-scale farmers and improving their socio-economic conditions.
Land holding system
The quest for land and surplus production were one factor of territorial expanion by Menelik in
the late 19th century. Land was required to at least settle and feed the warriors and their families.
Hence, Menilik occupation of the southern half of the country brought introduced new resource
relations. The state institutionalized different forms of surplus expropriation and mechanisms to
ensure political control in the regions "peacefully" submited and the regios that fiecely resited.
The general effects of the implantation of the naftegna-gabbar system were the creation of two
classes of societies: the minorty landholder and the majority landless. The landholders were
largely government agents while the land less were the local society who were reduced to
gabbar.
Between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia underwent significant socio-economic developments in the
field of landholding systems. Here are some key aspects:
Feudal Land Tenure: During this period, Ethiopia had a predominantly feudal land tenure
system. Land was owned by the nobility and the church, and the majority of the population
worked as serfs or tenants on these lands. Landholding was concentrated in the hands of a few
powerful individuals, limiting access to land for the majority of the population.
Land Reforms under Emperor Menelik II: Emperor Menelik II implemented land reforms aimed
at redistributing land and reducing the power of the nobility. These reforms sought to grant land
ownership to farmers, increase agricultural productivity, and address socio-economic
inequalities. However, the extent and effectiveness of these reforms varied across different
regions of Ethiopia.
Expansion of Land Ownership: Menelik II encouraged the expansion of land ownership by
small-scale farmers. The government allocated previously unused or underutilized land to
individuals or communities, enabling them to cultivate and own land. This expansion of land
ownership contributed to increased agricultural activity and provided opportunities for economic
growth.
Communal Landholding: In addition to individual land ownership, communal landholding
systems existed in Ethiopia during this period. In rural areas, communities collectively owned
and managed land, which was often used for grazing or shared agricultural practices. These
communal landholding systems played an important role in supporting community livelihoods
and maintaining social cohesion.
Impact of Italian Occupation: The Italian occupation from 1936 to 1941 had a significant impact
on landholding systems in Ethiopia. The Italians introduced their own land policies, which
prioritized the interests of Italian settlers and corporations. This led to the displacement of local
communities from their lands and the concentration of land in the hands of Italian colonizers.
Limited Access to Land for Women: Throughout this period, access to land for women in
Ethiopia was limited. Traditional customs and societal norms often favored male land ownership,
leaving women with minimal or no land rights. This gender disparity in landholding had socio-
economic implications, as it affected women's ability to engage in agricultural activities and
generate income.
Overall, between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia experienced socio-economic developments in
landholding systems. Land reforms under Emperor Menelik II aimed to redistribute land and
empower small-scale farmers. Communal landholding systems and feudal land tenure also
played significant roles. However, the impact of the Italian occupation and gender disparities in
land ownership were challenges that affected landholding dynamics during this period.
Commercial Activities
In the period, both local and long-distance trade flourished and trade was the major economy of
large number of population. The major commodities traded were ivory, slaves, civet, and gold.
Between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia witnessed notable socio-economic developments in the field
of commercial activities. Here are some key aspects:
Expansion of Trade: Ethiopia experienced an expansion of trade during this period. Emperor
Menelik II actively promoted trade relations with foreign powers, resulting in increased export
and import activities. Major trading goods included coffee, ivory, hides, spices, and textiles.
Development of Market Towns: The growth of commercial activities led to the development of
market towns across Ethiopia. These towns became important centers for trade, where
merchants, farmers, and artisans gathered to exchange goods and services. Market towns played
a crucial role in stimulating economic activity and facilitating regional trade.
Infrastructure Development: Infrastructure development played a significant role in supporting
commercial activities. Emperor Menelik II invested in the construction of roads, bridges, and
telegraph lines, facilitating transportation and communication. The Addis Ababa-Djibouti
Railway, completed in 1917, further boosted trade by providing a direct link to the port of
Djibouti.
Foreign Investment and Economic Partnerships: Ethiopia attracted foreign investment and
established economic partnerships with various nations. European powers, such as France, Italy,
and Britain, established commercial interests in Ethiopia, leading to the establishment of trading
companies and the exploration of natural resources.
Coffee Export: Coffee became a major export commodity for Ethiopia during this period.
Ethiopian coffee gained international recognition for its quality, leading to increased demand in
global markets. Coffee production and export contributed significantly to Ethiopia's economy,
generating revenue and creating employment opportunities.
Rise of Modern Banking: The growth of commercial activities necessitated the establishment of
modern banking systems. The Bank of Abyssinia, founded in 1905, played a crucial role in
providing financial services, facilitating trade, and supporting economic development.
Impact of Italian Occupation: The Italian occupation from 1936 to 1941 had a detrimental
impact on commercial activities in Ethiopia. Italy aimed to exploit Ethiopia's resources for its
own benefit, leading to the suppression of local businesses, disruption of trade networks, and the
establishment of Italian-controlled economic enterprises.
Generally, between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia experienced significant socio-economic
developments in the field of commercial activities. The expansion of trade, development of
market towns, infrastructure investments, foreign investment, coffee export, the rise of modern
banking, and economic partnerships all contributed to the growth and transformation of
Ethiopia's commercial sector. However, the Italian occupation posed challenges and temporarily
interrupted the country's commercial progress.
Industrial
One result of the contact with the industralized world since the mid-19th century was the
adoption or introduction of manufacturing technologies. Although evidences do not trace the
exact period of the beginning of modern industry in Ethiopia, there is a consensus that the strong
interest of rulers in the region for the introduction of western technologies and the subsequent
contacts with the industrial world since the mid-19th century contributed to the introduction of
manufacturing. The beginning of diplomatic relations and openings of legations in the post Adwa
period was following by the coming of many expatriates who either came with the skill or
became agents of the introduction of modern manufacturing. Foreign citizens from Armenia,
Greece, Italy and India also brought the entrepreneurial capacity to develop manufacturing
industries locally. Among modern manufacturing: Holleta Grain Mill and Massawa salt were set
up in 1896 and 1904, respectively. Up to 1927, about 25 factories were established in Addis
Ababa, Dire Dawa, Asmara and Massawa. These included cement factory, wood and clay,
tanneries, soap and edible oil plants, ammunition factories, brewery, tobacco processing plants
and grain mill. Most of them were established by private entrepreneurs. From 1928, including in
the short lived Italian rule more than ten manufacturing industries were set up. Among these
Artistic Printing Press and Ambo Mineral Water plant were established before Italian
occupation.
Between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia experienced limited socio-economic developments in the field
of industry. Here are some key aspects:
Cottage Industries: Ethiopia's industrial sector during this period was primarily characterized by
cottage industries. These industries involved small-scale production, often carried out in homes
or small workshops. Craftsmen and artisans produced goods such as textiles, pottery, metalwork,
and traditional handicrafts.
1. Handloom Weaving: Handloom weaving was a significant industry in Ethiopia during this
period. Skilled weavers produced various textiles, including traditional fabrics like shawls,
blankets, and clothing items. Handloom weaving provided employment opportunities and
contributed to local economies.
2. Traditional Craftsmanship: Ethiopia had a rich tradition of craftsmanship in areas such as
metalwork, woodwork, leatherwork, and pottery. Artisans produced intricate and high-quality
items, including jewelry, household utensils, furniture, and decorative objects. These traditional
crafts served both local and export markets.
3. Limited Industrialization Efforts: Ethiopia's industrialization efforts during this period were
limited. While Emperor Menelik II implemented modernization policies, including the
introduction of Western technologies, the focus remained primarily on infrastructure
development and agricultural expansion, rather than industrial growth.
4. Italian Influence: The Italian occupation from 1936 to 1941 introduced some industrial
activities influenced by Italian colonial policies. Italians established industries such as textiles,
food processing, and mining, primarily for their own benefit. However, these industries were
limited in scale and did not significantly contribute to Ethiopia's industrial development.
5. Lack of Large-Scale Industrialization: Overall, the industrial sector in Ethiopia remained
underdeveloped during this period. Factors such as limited capital, technological constraints, and
a predominantly agrarian economy hindered the growth of large-scale industries. Ethiopia's
industrialization process would gain momentum in the post-1941 period.
Role of Small-Scale Enterprises: Despite the limited industrialization, small-scale enterprises
played a vital role in supporting local economies and providing employment opportunities. These
enterprises, often family-owned or community-based, catered to local demand, produced
essential goods, and contributed to the livelihoods of many Ethiopians.
In summary, between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia's industrial sector remained largely dominated by
cottage industries, traditional craftsmanship, and small-scale enterprises. Limited efforts were
made towards industrialization, with the focus primarily on infrastructure development and
agriculture. The Italian occupation introduced some industrial activities but did not significantly
transform the industrial landscape. Ethiopia's industrialization process would see more
substantial advancements in the post-1941 period.
Analyze the socio-economic developments of Ethiopia between 1800 and 1941 in fields of
urban growth.
Between 1800 and 1941, Ethiopia experienced significant socio-economic developments in the
field of urban growth. Here are some key aspects:
1. Capital City Development: Addis Ababa, founded in 1886, emerged as the capital city of
Ethiopia during this period. It experienced substantial urban growth and became a center for
political, economic, and cultural activities. Addis Ababa attracted migrants from rural areas and
other regions, contributing to its population growth and urbanization.
2. Infrastructure Development: Urban growth was accompanied by infrastructure development in
cities like Addis Ababa. Emperor Menelik II invested in the construction of roads, bridges,
schools, hospitals, and administrative buildings. These developments improved the urban
environment, facilitated transportation, and provided essential services to the growing urban
population.
3. Expansion of Market Towns: Alongside the capital city, market towns across Ethiopia
experienced growth and expansion. These towns became important hubs for trade, commerce,
and social interaction. The increase in economic activities and the establishment of market towns
contributed to urban growth and the development of urban centers throughout the country.
4. Rise of Modern Institutions: Urban growth led to the establishment of modern institutions in
Ethiopia. These included schools, hospitals, banks, and government offices. The presence of
these institutions in urban areas provided access to education, healthcare, financial services, and
administrative support, enhancing the socio-economic development of the urban population.
5. Migration and Rural-Urban Linkages: Urban growth was fueled by rural-urban migration, as
people moved from rural areas to cities in search of better economic opportunities. This
migration created links between rural and urban areas, as urban dwellers maintained connections
with their rural origins through remittances, trade, and cultural exchange. These linkages played
a vital role in shaping both rural and urban economies.
6. Diversification of Economic Activities: Urban growth led to the diversification of economic
activities beyond agriculture. Cities became centers for trade, commerce, and manufacturing.
Craftsmanship, retail businesses, and service industries flourished in urban areas, creating
employment opportunities and contributing to the urban economy.
7. Social and Cultural Transformation: Urban growth brought about social and cultural
transformations. Cities became melting pots of different ethnic groups, languages, and traditions.
Urban areas provided platforms for intellectual exchange, artistic expression, and the emergence
of new social dynamics, contributing to the cultural richness and diversity of Ethiopia.
The establishment and growth of Addis Ababa, infrastructure development, the expansion of
market towns, the rise of modern institutions, rural-urban linkages, economic diversification, and
social and cultural transformations were key factors that shaped the urban landscape of Ethiopia
during this period.
5) Identify reforms of the Derg regime and discuss how these reforms shaped the political
and socio-economic conditions of Ethiopia (5%).

It was on 20 December 1974 that the Derg's first fundamental political and economic
programme, 'Ethiopian Socialism', was issued. The Derg's policy statement explained that it was
derived from an interpretation of 'Ethiopia First' and from Ethiopian culture and religions. It
further explained that even though it was a twelve-page document, it was capable of being
subsumed under five basic principles: sovereignty, the absoluteness of Ethiopia's unity, self-
reliance, the dignity of labor and the precedence of the public good. Elaborating the policies of
the programme in the economic sphere, it said that those assets which were beneficial to the
public would be nationalized and those which, if left in private hands, would not go contrary to
'Ethiopia First', would be left in the private sector. It was also stated that land would be owned by
the people and that cottage industries would be promoted.
The Derg regime in Ethiopia, which ruled from 1974 to 1991, implemented several significant
reforms, including:
1. Land Reforms: The Derg nationalized all rural land, abolished tenancy, and put peasants in
charge of enforcing the whole scheme. In March 1975, the Derg proclaimed sweeping land
reforms and drafted a Land Reform Proclamation, aiming to eliminate the complex land tenure
system.
The land reforms of the Derg regime in Ethiopia, implemented in March 1975, abolished private
ownership of land and declared land to be the collective property of the Ethiopian people. This
sweeping land reform aimed to bring about a complete transformation in the country's complex
land tenure system. The reform allowed peasants to take over the land and encouraged them to
organize into "peasant associations," giving them more control over the land. However, the
sudden and ambitious nature of the reform led to social turmoil and economic consequences.
While there was an increase in agricultural production due to favorable weather conditions, the
urban population suffered from sharp price increases and disruption of the market. The reform
also led to the emergence of peasants' associations and precinct organizations to implement and
administer local affairs. Despite the intention to empower peasants, the actual outcomes of the
land reform were complex, with both positive and negative effects on the political and socio-
economic conditions of Ethiopia.
2. Nationalization of Industries and Urban Real Estate: The regime nationalized most
industries, private, and urban real estate. It also extensively nationalized industry, banking,
insurance, large-scale trade, and urban land and extra dwellings.
The nationalization of industries and urban real estate by the Derg regime in Ethiopia had a
significant impact on the political and socio-economic conditions of the country. The regime
nationalized most industries, private, and urban real estate, leading to a more centrally
controlled, state-run economy. The nationalization of urban land and property holdings of the
royal family aimed to attack the economic bases of elite privilege in urban Ethiopia. However,
the nationalization of industries and urban real estate led to a decline in private investment and
entrepreneurship, which had a negative impact on the economy. The nationalization of industries
and urban real estate also led to the emergence of state control and centralized planning, which
had far-reaching implications for political power and social structure. Overall, the nationalization
of industries and urban real estate by the Derg regime in Ethiopia had complex and multifaceted
consequences, affecting various aspects of Ethiopian society and the economy.
3. Socio-Economic Reforms: The Derg's socio-economic reforms, including the nationalization
of land and financial, industrial, and commercial undertakings, transformed the military coup
d'état into a revolution.
The socio-economic reforms of the Derg regime in Ethiopia had a significant impact on the
political and socio-economic conditions of the country. The most important undertaking of the
government was the reform of the land-tenure system, which affected the lives of 88% of the
population. The nationalization of land and financial, industrial, and commercial undertakings
transformed the military coup d'état into a revolution. The nationalization of industries, banking,
insurance, and urban land led to a more centrally controlled, state-run economy, consolidating
power within the government and the military. The nationalization of urban land and property
holdings of the royal family aimed to attack the economic bases of elite privilege in urban
Ethiopia. However, the sudden and ambitious nature of the reforms led to social turmoil and
economic consequences. While there was an increase in agricultural production due to favorable
weather conditions, the urban population suffered from sharp price increases and disruption of
the market. The reforms also led to the emergence of peasants' associations and precinct
organizations to implement and administer local affairs. Overall, the socio-economic reforms of
the Derg regime in Ethiopia had complex and multifaceted consequences, affecting various
aspects of Ethiopian society and the economy.
These reforms were part of the Derg's broader agenda to implement socialist policies and
consolidate its power through centralized control of the economy and resources.