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Dinesh Khattar
Neha Agrawal

Group Theory
Group Theory
Dinesh Khattar · Neha Agrawal

Group Theory
Dinesh Khattar Neha Agrawal
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
University of Delhi University of Delhi
New Delhi, India New Delhi, India

ISBN 978-3-031-21306-9 ISBN 978-3-031-21307-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21307-6

Jointly published with Ane Books Pvt. Ltd.

In addition to this printed edition, there is a local printed edition of this work available via Ane Books in South Asia
(India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan) and Africa (all countries in the African subcontinent).
ISBN of the Co-Publisher’s edition: 978-93-90658-94-7

© The Author(s) 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publishers, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publishers nor the authors or the editors
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and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Dedicated to our families as without their support it
would not have been possible to write this book.
 Preface

This book has been written as a text for undergraduate students of Mathematics. It is
primarily based on the classroom lectures, the authors gave at the University of Delhi
for many years. It is a near-impossible task, however, to cover, over the course of
classroom lectures, the sheer volume of material that a student of group theory is called
upon to master. The speed and capacity of understanding also varies from one student
to another: while a committed student may grasp concepts without much assistance,
another may require the teacher to invest more time and thought, and provide a greater
number of illustrations. This book, therefore, is motivated by the need to supplement
the classroom experience. It shall attempt to canvass a greater breadth of material than
the class lectures, and it shall endeavor to cater to a broad spectrum of students in this
process.
The book covers second and third-year group theory, in an undergraduate
mathematics course, meeting the curriculum requirements of most Universities.
We have tried to present the subject matter in the language and tone of a classroom
lecture. Thus the presentation is somewhat informal; we hope that this will put the
readers at their ease.
Different concepts have been explained with the help of examples. The attempt is
made by the authors to explain everything lucidly, so that it is possible to follow all the
theories without the aid of a teacher.
Each Chapter opens with a short meditation on the rationale that propels our
treatment of the subject being examined in that chapter. This is meant to furnish the
student with insight into the overarching structure of the book, and to encourage an
understanding of group theory as a cohesive body.
The book could be used for self study as well as for a course text, and so full
details of almost all proofs are included along with hundreds of solved problems,
to give ample guidance in understanding abstract notions. The solved problems are
interspersed throughout the text at places where they naturally arise, making the book
ideal for self-study. The proofs are precise and complete, backed up by chapter end
problems, with just the right level of difficulty. There is plenty of scope for the readers
to try and solve problems on their own. Also, the explanatory answers to the selected
problems being given at the end of every chapter.
Important results in every chapter receive proportionate attention and emphasis;
intermediate lemmas are also carefully designed so that they not only serve the theorems
but are also valuable independently.

vii
viii Preface

Each chapter contains ‘Learning Objectives’ which the reader would like to achieve
after having gone through that chapter. This will help the students focus their study.
There are eleven chapters in this book starting with definition and examples of
Groups. It then goes on to cover properties of groups, subgroups, Cyclic groups,
Permutation groups, Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem, Normal subgroups and Factor
Groups, Group Homomorphisms and Isomorphisms, Automorphisms, Direct Products,
Group Actions and Sylow Theorems. A common thread runs through the entire book,
tying each chapter to the next - the unifying thread being the treatment of the concept
of symmetry of objects that do indeed satisfy the definition of a group.
We, gratefully, acknowledge the inspiration, encouragement and valuable sugges-
tions received from the teachers who are teaching Group Theory in the undergraduate
courses of several Universities. We also thank all our students for their curiosity for
sharing with us the difficulties they experienced in learning these topics.
This work would not have been possible without the support and encouragement
from Mr. Sunil Saxena and Mr. Jai Raj Kapoor at Ane Books.
Our sincere thanks and words of appreciation to all of them, who are directly or
indirectly involved in the project.
We are grateful to our dear friend and colleague Dr. S. P. Tripathi who was
generous, both with his time and his formidable intellect, and, in the course of a few
short, incisive remarks, changed the path of this book entirely.
Last but not the least our young colleague Nishita, Assistant Professor, St. Stephens
College, University of Delhi. We had the numbers, but she had the words, and her
contributions are sprinkled throughout the pages of this work.
Suggestions and comments to improve the book in content and style are always
welcome and will be greatly appreciated and acknowledged.
Thank you for choosing our book.
May you find it stimulating and rewarding.

Dinesh Khattar (Email: dkhattar@kmc.du.ac.in)

Neha Agrawal (Email: kmcneha@kmc.du.ac.in)
 Foreword

Reading this marvelous book on Group Theory by Professor Dinesh Khattar and
Dr. Neha Agrawal has brought back many pleasant memories. My first introduction to
abstract mathematics occurred through Group Theory as a freshman undergraduate at
Delhi University. I fell in love with the subject at once andl retain the same affection
for Group Theory till today. I am also aware that one of the main reasons that caused
me to fall in love with Group Theory was the fact that I had access to two outstanding
books viz. Brikhoff and Maclane’s classic ‘A Survey of Modern Algebra’ and
I. N. Herstein’s ‘Topics in Algebra’. Thus, the role played by a good book in mastering
a subject is vital. At the same time,I have had a nagging concern. There just haven’t
been too many scholarly yet interesting books on Group Theory authored by Indian
mathematicians. One of the reasons for this concern is the fact that the plethora of good
books that come into India from abroad are rather expensive and the not so expensive
books by Indian authors generally tend not to be in the same league as the ones that
come from abroad.
I am thus delighted to observe that Khattar and Agrawal’s book on Group Theory
fulfills the needs of India in many ways. More importantly, the book can prove to be
quite useful to students across the globe. One of the most interesting features of the
book is the fact that it blends history and mathematics in a meaningful way to arouse
the interest of the student. The other very noteworthy feature of the book is that it
is replete with examples and exercises of varying degrees of difficulty. This book
illustrates concepts with a very large number of good examples and with just as many
of exercises from the very easy to those that are challenging. The book is written in a
very lucid and easy style that retains the interest of the reader throughout. The proofs
are also very well explained. I am certain the book shall make a mark as a much needed
text on Group Theory for undergradautes of mathematics, physics and chemistry.
There are three concepts that permeate all of mathematics in varying degrees:
linearity, continuity and symmetry. This book is all about symmetry and written in a
style that is as pleasing to the mind as symmetry is to the eyes. I commend the book
wholeheartedly.

Prof. Dinesh Singh (Padma Shri)

Chancellor, K.R. Mangalam University
Formerly Vice Chancellor, University of Delhi
Distinguished Fellow of Hackspace, Imperial College London,
Adjunct Professor of Mathematics, University of Houston

ix
 Contents

  Preface ............................................................................................................. vii

  Foreword............................................................................................................ ix
  List of Symbols.................................................................................................. xiii
1. Group....................................................................................................... 1–58
1.1 Groups................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Cayley Table.......................................................................................... 8
1.3 Elementary Properties of Groups........................................................ 32
1.4 Dihedral Groups.................................................................................. 49
2. Finite Groups and Subgroups.............................................................. 59–98
2.1 Finite Groups....................................................................................... 59
2.2 Subgroups............................................................................................ 70
2.3 Subgroup Tests.................................................................................... 71
2.4 Special Class of Subgroups................................................................. 82
2.5 Intersection and Union of Subgroups................................................. 91
2.6 Product of Two Subgroups................................................................ 93
3. Cyclic Groups..................................................................................... 99–118
3.1 Cyclic Groups and their Properties..................................................... 99
3.2 Generators of a Cyclic Group........................................................... 102
3.3 Subgroups of Cyclic Groups............................................................. 104
4. Permutation Groups......................................................................... 119–142
4.1 Permutation of a Set.......................................................................... 119
4.2 Permutation Group of a Set.............................................................. 121
4.3 Cycle Notation................................................................................... 124
4.4 Theorems on Permutations and Cycles .......................................... 126
4.5 Even and Odd Permutations.............................................................. 134
4.6 Alternating Group of Degree n......................................................... 138
5. Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem................................................... 143–168
5.1 Definition of Cosets and Properties of Cosets.................................. 143
5.2 Lagrange’s Theorem and its Applications........................................ 148
5.3 Application of Cosets to Permutation Groups.................................. 164
xi
xii Contents

6. Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups ........................................ 169–194

6.1 Normal Subgroup and Equivalent Conditions for a Subgroup to be
Normal............................................................................................... 169
6.2 Factor Groups.................................................................................... 180
6.3 Commutator Subgroup of a Group and its Properties...................... 187
6.4 The G/Z Theorem.............................................................................. 189
6.5 Cauchy’s Theorem for Abelian Group............................................. 191
7. Group Homomorphism and Isomorphism........................................ 195–222
7.1 Homomorphism of Groups and its Properties.................................. 195
7.2 Properties of Subgroups under Homomorphism............................... 200
7.3 Isomorphism of Groups..................................................................... 205
7.4 Some Theorems Based on Isomorphism of Groups......................... 207
8. Automorphisms ................................................................................. 223–240
8.1 Automorphism of a Group................................................................ 223
8.2 Inner Automorphisms........................................................................ 226
8.3 Theorems Based on Automorphism of a Group............................... 228
9. Direct Products............................................................................... 241–270
9.1 External Direct Product..................................................................... 241
9.2 Properties of External Direct Products............................................. 244
9.3 U(n) as External Direct Products...................................................... 249
9.4 Internal Direct Products..................................................................... 254
9.5 Fundamental Theorem of Finite Abelian Groups............................. 258
10. Group Actions.................................................................................. 271–302
10.1 Group Actions................................................................................. 271
10.2 Kernels, Orbits and Stabilizers........................................................ 275
10.3 Group acting on themselves by Conjugation.................................. 291
10.4 Conjugacy in Sn.............................................................................. 296
11. Sylow Theorems............................................................................... 303–325
11.1 p–Groups and Sylow p–subgroups.................................................. 303
11.2 Simple Groups................................................................................. 309

Index................................................................................................... 327–329
 List of Symbols

 : set of natural numbers ⊕n : addition modulo n

: set of integers ≅ : isomorphic to
+
: set of positive integers  : not isomorphic to
: set of rational numbers ≈ : equivalence
+
: set of positive rational ≤ : subgroup
numbers  : normal subgroup
*
: set of non- zero rational ∩ : intersection
numbers ∪ : union
: set of real numbers ! : factorial
+
: set of positive real numbers = : equal to
*
: set of non- zero real ≠ : not equal to
numbers ⇒ : implies
: set of complex numbers ⇔ : if and only if
∀ : for all a|b : a divides b
∃ : there exist ab : a does not divide b
∈ : belong to lcm(a, b) : least common multiple of
∉ : does not belong to a and b
∋ : such that gcd(a, b) : greatest common divisor
⊆ : subset of of a and b
 : proper subset of det(A) : determinant of matrix A
⊗n : multiplication modulo n ℘(A) : power set of A

xiii
 1
Groups
learninG objeCtives
♦ Concept of Symmetry
♦ Definition and Examples of Groups
♦ Cayley Table
♦ Elementary Properties of Groups
♦ Dihedral Groups

ConCept oF symmetry
“Symmetry is a vast subject, significant in art and nature. Mathematics lies
at its root, and it would be hard to find a better one on which to demonstrate
the working of the mathematical intellect.”
Thus unfolds a famous quote by the German mathematician Hermann Weyl.
Weyl, above, refers to the fertile intersection of symmetry with mathematics, and
that is where our project takes root as well. Nature and the cosmos supply us with
limitless evidence of an inherent symmetry. When we look around ourselves, we
discover that almost everything around us on earth is symmetrically fashioned.
Both our arts and our sciences arise from a wide-eyed wonder at this miraculous
inheritance. Our art seeks to synthesize this natural symmetry, while our science
seeks to analyze it. Anything to do with symmetry in the sciences (physics,
chemistry, biology) relies upon the mathematical tool called Group Theory†.
Chemists, for instance, use symmetric groups to classify molecules and predict
many of their chemical properties. Group theory, in fact, sends its branches into
fields as fresh and exciting as modern cryptography, which widely employs
symmetric groups as well.

† In 1958, Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to 2 young Chinese Physicists Yang and
Lee for discovering the anti-symmetry of particles using Group Theory.

© The Author(s) 2023 1

D. Khattar and N. Agrawal, Group Theory,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21307-6_1
2 Group Theory

What exactly is symmetry, then? Quite simply, it is this: when we say a certain
shape is symmetric, or has symmetry, it means that we can fold the shape in half
in such a way that both halves align exactly as they sit on top of each other. We
mean that one half of the shape is a perfect match to the other. Mathematically,
symmetry means that one shape becomes exactly like another when you move it
in some way: turn, flip or slide.
To begin with, consider an equilateral triangle. Suppose we remove it from the
plane and move it in some way and then put it back into its original position. We
need to see in how many possible ways this can be done.
To understand this let us mark the corners of the equilateral triangle as a, b and
c. Consider all possible motions and try to relate the starting and the final positions.
(i) Rotation of 0°:
c c

R0

a b a b
(ii) Rotation of 120°:
c b

R120

a b c a

(iii) Rotation of 240°:

c a

R240

a b b c
(iv) Reflection about the axis passing through the vertex a.
c b

FA

a b a c
Groups 3

(v) Reflection about the axis passing through the vertex b.

c a

FB

a b c b

(vi) Reflection about the axis passing through the vertex c.

c c

FC

a b b a

We see that these are the only possible ways in which we can rotate or flip
the triangle while retaining its original shape. Suppose we compose two possible
motions say FB followed by R240. We observe that this gives a single motion FC.
This tells us that composing any two motions gives back a single motion. These
six motions can be viewed as functions from the set A = {a, b, c} to itself.
Let us write these elements in set form as
S = {R0, R120, R240, FA, FB, FC}
Out of these six elements, three elements are rotations and three are reflections.
These elements of S being functions can be composed by function composition
to yield another function.
fg(x) = f(g(x)) for all x ∈ A.
For example: FAFB(a) = c, FAFB(b) = a, FAFB(c) = b. Thus FAFB = R120.
For convenience, let us make a multiplication table as
R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC
R0 R0 R120 R240 FA FB FC
R120 R120 R240 R0 FC FA FB
R240 R240 R0 R120 FB FC FA
FA FA FB FC R0 R120 R240
FB FB FC FA R240 R0 R120
FC FC FA FB R120 R240 R0
4 Group Theory

This table is also called Cayley Table, which will be discussed in detail later
in this chapter.
Studying the table, we observe some interesting things like composing any two
entries of the set we again get an element from the same set without introducing
any new element. This property is known as closure and S is said to be closed
here. Also, we observe that composing any function with R0 either from left or right
yields the same function. This element R0 is called the identity element because
it never changes the behavior of any function it is composed with.
Further looking at every column of the table we see that corresponding to every
element h in S, there is some element k again from S that neutralizes the effect of
h and gives the identity R0. Such an element k is called the inverse of h.
Also, we know function composition is associative in nature. Therefore, the set
S has four properties, namely closure, associativity, identity and inverse.
Any algebraic structure which satisfies the above four axioms, namely closure,
associativity, identity and inverse, is called a group, which will be formally defined
later.
The set S defined above together with the operation of function composition
satisfies all the group properties and hence is a group called a Dihedral group.
The Dihedral groups are a very important class of groups that will be discussed
in detail towards the end of this chapter.

1.1 Groups
In this section we formally define an algebraic structure named as Group. Algebraic
structures are those non-empty sets, together with binary composition, that satisfy
one or more axioms. One of the simplest and most basic of all algebraic structures
is the group. Numerous examples of groups are discussed. These examples will be
used throughout this book. We therefore study these examples in details.
Before we begin with the formal definition of a group, we recall the definition
of a binary composition.

deFinition 1.1: A binary composition ‘∗’ on a non-empty set G is a function

from G × G into G, i.e., * : G × G → G such that ∀ a, b ∈ G, we have a ∗ b ∈ G.
Note that if * is a binary composition on a set G, then we say that G is closed
under the operation *.
Intuitively, a binary operation on a set G is a way of combining any two elements
of G to produce another element in the same set G.
We now give some examples.

Example 1.1: Consider the set  of integers.

The operation ∗ defined by a ∗ b = a + b for all a, b ∈  is a binary composition.
Similarly, the compositions defined by a ∗ b = a – b and a ∗ b = a · b for all
a, b ∈  are binary compositions.
Groups 5

a
However a ∗ b = may not belong to  for every a, b ∈ , so division of
b
integers in not a binary composition.

deFinition 1.2: A non-empty set G together with one or more binary operations
is called an algebraic structure.
The algebraic structure consisting of a non-empty set G together with a binary
composition * is denoted by (G, *).

Example 1.2: Define ∗ on  by a ∗ b = a + b, ∀ a, b ∈ . Then, ∗ is a binary

composition in the set E of all even integers but ∗ is not a binary composition in
the set O of odd integers, since 11, 13 ∈ O but 11 + 13 = 24 ∉ O.
Let us now define a group.

deFinition 1.3: A non-empty set G, together with a binary composition ∗, is said

to form a group if it satisfies the following axioms, called the group axioms:
(i) Associativity:
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c, ∀a, b, c ∈ G
It means the two possible ways of combining three elements (without
changing their order) yield the same result.
(ii) Existence of Identity: For every element a ∈ G, there exists an element
e ∈ G such that
a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a.
The element e is called identity or neutral element of G, for it may be
combined with any element a without altering a.
(iii) Existence of Inverse: For every a ∈ G, there exists a¢ ∈ G such that
a ∗ a′ = a′ ∗ a = e .
It means the combination of any element with its inverse produces the
neutral element, i.e., the inverse of a “neutralizes” a.
The element a¢ is called inverse of a and it is denoted by a–1.
So, by a group we mean any set, with any associative binary operation,
having a neutral element and allowing each element an inverse.
The group we have just defined is an algebraic structure and therefore is
represented by the symbol (G, ∗). This notation makes it explicit that the
group consists of the set G and the operation *.
For the sake of simplicity, we write ab instead of a * b.
We now define an Abelian Group (named after great Norwegian
Mathematician Niels Abel, who was a pioneer in the study of groups) or a
Commutative Group.
6 Group Theory

deFinition 1.4: A group (G, ∗) is said to be an abelian group or a commutative

group if
a∗b=b∗a ∀a, b ∈ G.
A group G is non-abelian, if there exist pair of elements a and b in G for which
a ∗ b ≠ b ∗ a.

deFinition 1.5: A group G is said to be finite if the set G is finite, else it is infinite.

deFinition 1.6: An algebraic structure (G, *) is called a groupoid or quasi-group,

if a * b ∈ G, ∀ a, b ∈ G, i.e., G is closed for the binary operation.

deFinition 1.7: An algebraic structure (G, *) is called a semi-group if the binary

operation * is associative in G, i.e.,
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ G

deFinition 1.8: An algebraic structure (G, *) is called a monoid if

(i) the binary operation * is associative in G, i.e.,
(a * b) * c = a * (b * c) ∀ a, b, c ∈ G, and
(ii) there exists an identity element in G.
Clearly, a group (G, *) is a monoid in which every element has an inverse.
We now consider a few examples of systems that form groups and also systems
that do not form groups.

Example 1.3: Let G = , the set of integers.

Define the operation ∗ on G by a * b = a + b for all a, b ∈ G.
(i) Closure: ∀a, b ∈ G, we have, a * b = a + b ∈ G. So, closure holds.
(ii) Associativity: Since addition of integers is associative, i.e., ∀ a, b, c ∈ G,
we have (a + b) + c = a + (b + c),
Therefore, associativity holds.
(iii) Identity: The element 0 ∈ G is the identity element as
∀ a ∈ G, a + 0 = a = 0 + a
(iv) Inverse: For every element a in the group G, there exists some element
(–a) ∈ G such that
a + (–a) = 0 = (–a) + a
–1
The element a = (–a) ∈ G is the inverse of a.
Thus, (G, +) forms a group.
Also, since integers are commutative under addition for all a, b in G, we have
a+b=b+a
Hence (G, +) is an abelian group.
In fact (G, +) is an infinite abelian group, as the set G is infinite.
Groups 7

Remarks:
• The set of rational numbers  and the set of real numbers  form abelian
groups under ordinary addition.
In each case the identity element is 0 and the inverse of a is −a.
• The set of integers under subtraction does not form a group as associativity
does not hold. For example, 2 – (–3 – 4) ≠ (2 – (–3)) – 4.

Example 1.4: Let G = , the set of integers. Define the composition * on G by

a * b = a · b for all a, b ∈ G
(i) Closure: Since for every a, b ∈ G, we have, a * b = a · b ∈ G, therefore G
is closed under multiplication.
(ii) Associativity: Since multiplication of integers is associative, i.e.,
∀a, b, c ∈ G, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c),
\ Associativity holds.
(iii) Identity: The element 1 ∈ G is the identity element of G as
∀ a ∈ G, a · 1 = a = 1 · a
(iv) Inverse: For every element a ∈ G, we have a · 1/a = 1 = 1/a · a, but it may
happen that 1/a does not belong to G.
In the case when G = , the element 1/a is not in G for every a ≠ –1, 1.
Hence, a–1 may not exist for every element a in G.
Thus, (G, *) is not a group.

Remarks:
• The set of real numbers or rational numbers is not a group under
multiplication, as the element 0 does not have a multiplicative inverse.
• Any set containing 0 is not a group under multiplication.

Example 1.5: The set + of positive rational numbers is a group under ordinary
multiplication. The inverse of any element a is 1/a = a−1.
In fact, (+, ·) is an abelian group.
Example 1.6: The set ∗ of non-zero real numbers is an abelian group under
ordinary multiplication. The identity is 1. The inverse of a is 1/a for all a in *.
Example 1.7: The set  of all natural numbers is not a group under the composition
of ordinary addition as there exists no b in  such that a + b = a = b + a, for
every a ∈ .
Example 1.8: The set S of positive irrational numbers together with 1, under
multiplication, satisfies the three properties given in the definition of a group, but
is not a group. Indeed, 2 ⋅ 2 = 2 ∉ S, so S is not closed under multiplication.
8 Group Theory

Example 1.9: The set n = {(a1, a2, ... , an): ai ∈ } forms an abelian group
under the operation of component-wise addition.
Here, (0, 0, ..., 0) is the identity element and (–a1, –a2, ... , –an) ∈ n is the
inverse of (a1, a2, ... , an).

Problem 1.1 Prove that the set of all rational numbers of the form 3m · 6n,
where m and n are integers, is a group under multiplication.
Solution Let G = {3m · 6n ∈  : m, n ∈ }
m n m n
Let 3 ⋅ 6 ∈ G and 3 1 ⋅ 6 1 ∈ G, then

(3m ⋅ 6 n )(3m1 ⋅ 6 n1 ) = 3m + m1 ⋅ 6 n+ n1 ∈ G as m + m1 , n + n1 ∈
∴ Closure property holds.
Since the set of rational numbers is associative under multiplication, therefore
associativity holds in G.
Also, 1 = 30 · 60 ∈ G such that
    (30 · 60) (3m · 6n) = 3m · 6n = (3m · 6n) (30 · 60)
∴ 1 ∈ G is the identity element.
m n −m −n
Inverse of 3 ⋅ 6 ∈ G is 3 ⋅ 6 ∈ G as −m, −n ∈  such that
(3m · 6n) (3−m · 6−n) = 1 = (3−m · 6−n) (3m · 6n)
Thus, G is a group under multiplication.

1.2 Cayley Table

In the above examples, we have taken the set G to be an infinite set. In case of
finite sets of small order, to prove that G is closed under the given operation, it is
convenient to make a composition table called Cayley table†.
Let G be a non-empty finite set, say, G = {a1, a2, ... , an} with a binary
composition *. In order to prepare the composition table, we write all the elements
of G horizontally in a row and vertically in a column as shown below. Then
ai * aj is the element that occurs at the intersection of i th row and jth column.

† It is named after the 19th century British mathematician Arthur Cayley. A Cayley table
describes the structure of a finite group by arranging all the possible products of all the
group elements in a square table. Many properties of the group—such as whether or not
it is abelian, which elements are inverses of which elements, what is the identity element
and so on, can be discovered from its Cayley table.
Groups 9

* a1 a2 a3 — — aj
a1 a1 * a2 a1 * a2 a1 * a3 — — a1 * aj
a2 a2 * a1 a2 * a2 a2 * a3 — — a2 * aj
a3 a3 * a1 a3 * a2 a3 * a3 — — a3 * aj
— — — — — — —
— — — — — — —
ai ai * a1 ai * a2 ai * a3 — — ai * aj

Note that if all the elements ai * aj are in G, then * is a binary operation.

Also, every group table is a Latin square, that is, each element of the group
appears exactly once in each row and each column.
We explain this table in the next few examples.

Example 1.10: The subset G = {1, −1, i, −i}of the set of complex numbers is
a group under usual complex multiplication. In fact, it is a finite abelian group.
(i) Closure: The closure is established through the following composition
table
Table 1.1: The Cayley Table of G

. 1 –1 i –i
1 1 –1 i –i
–1 –1 1 –i i
i i –i –1 1
–i –i i 1 –1
Clearly, from the Cayley table given above, it can be seen that the closure
property holds, since for every a, b in G, the element a · b is also in G.
(ii) Associativity: Since complex numbers are associative with respect to
multiplication, therefore associativity holds.
(iii) Identity: 1 ∈ G is the identity element as ∀ a ∈ G, a · 1 = a = 1 · a.
(iv) Inverse: Since 1.1 = 1, –1. –1 = 1, i. –i = 1 and –i. i = 1, the inverse of
1, –1, i, –i are 1, –1, –i, i respectively.
Therefore, G forms a finite group under complex multiplication.
Also, since for every a, b ∈ G, we have a · b = b · a, therefore (G, .) is an abelian
group.

Remark: The numbers 1, –1, i, –i, where i2 = –1 are the four fourth roots of
unity. Thus, the four fourth roots of unity form a finite abelian group of order
4 with respect to multiplication.
10 Group Theory

Example 1.11: We now consider an important non-abelian group called the group
of Quaternions†. It is a finite group consisting of 8 elements 1, –1, i, –i, j, –j, k, – k.
Let  G = Q8 = {1, –1, i, –i, j, –j, k, –k}
Define composition on G by using multiplication as
i 2 = j 2 = k 2 = −1, ij = − ji = k , jk = − kj = i, ki = −ik = j.
(i) Closure: The closure is established through the following composition
table
Table 1.2: The Cayley Table of G

· 1 –1 i –i j –j k –k
1 1 –1 i –i j –j k –k
–1 –1 1 –i i –j j –k k
i i –i –1 1 k –k –j j
–i –i i 1 –1 –k k j –j
j j –j –k k –1 1 i –i
–j –j j k –k 1 –1 –i i
k k –k j –j –i i –1 1
–k –k k –j j i –i 1 –1

Clearly from the Cayley table given above, closure property holds.
(ii) Associativity: Clearly, ∀a, b, c ∈ G, we have (ab)c = a(bc), therefore,
associativity holds.
(iii) Identity: 1 ∈ G is the identity element as a · 1 = a = 1 · a ∀ a ∈ G
(iv) Inverse: Since, 1.1 = 1, –1. –1 = 1, i. –i = 1, –i. i = 1
   j. –j = 1, –j. j = 1, k. – k = 1, –k. k = 1,
therefore inverse of 1 is 1, –1 is –1, i is –i, –i is i, j is –j, –j is j, k is –k and
–k is k.
Hence, (G, .) is a group.
It is not an abelian group as ij = –ji, so ij ≠ ji.
As already mentioned, this group is called the Quaternion Group.
Thus, Q8 is an example of a finite non- abelian group.

† In mathematics, the quaternions are a number system that extends the complex numbers.
They were first described by Irish mathematician William Hamilton in 1843. They have
practical uses in applied mathematics—in particular for calculations involving three-
dimensional rotations such as in computer graphics and texture analysis.
Groups 11

Problem 1.2 Prove that the set G = {1, w, w2}, where w is an imaginary cube
root of unity, is a finite abelian group under multiplication.
Solution Note that w3 = 1.
The composition table is given below:
Table 1.3: Group Table of G

· 1 w w2
1 1 w w2
2
w w w 1
2 2
w w 1 w

1. Since all the entries in the composition table are elements of the set G,
therefore G is closed w.r.t. multiplication.
2. Since the elements of G are all complex numbers and multiplication of
complex numbers is associative, therefore associativity holds.
3. Clearly from the Cayley table, we have
1 · 1 = 1, 1 · w = w = w · 1, 1 · w2 = w2 = w2 · 1
Therefore, 1 ∈ G is the identity element.
4. Also, from the table, the inverses of 1, w, w2 are 1, w2, w respectively.
Therefore, G forms a finite group under multiplication.
Since multiplication of complex numbers is commutative, therefore G is a finite
abelian group under multiplication.

Problem 1.3 If the table given below is a group table, fill in the blank entries.
Table 1.4: Group Table

e a b c d

e e – – – –

a – b – – e

b – c d e –

c – d – a b

d – – – – –

Solution We have from group table

aa = b, ba = c, bb = d , bc = e, ee = e, ad = e, ca = d , cc = a, cd = b .
12 Group Theory

Since ad = e, we get that

da = e
Also as bc = e, this gives
cb = e.
Again, since ee = e, we have
ae = a, be = b, ce = c, de = d.
This implies that ea = a, eb = b, ec = c, ed = d.
Also ba = c gives ab = c and ca = d implies ac = d.
2 2
Since a = b, b = d and c = a, we get that bb = ba2.
2

Since bd = db = bb2 = bba2 = b2 a2 = b2 c4 = c4 b2 = c2ccbb

= c2 ceb = c2 cb, we have bd = db = c2 = a.
Thus, we have
Table 1.5: Final Group Table

e a b c d

e e a b c d

a a b c d e

b b c d e a

c c d e a b

d d e a b c

Problem 1.4 Show that the set G = {x + y 5 : x, y ∈} forms a group under
addition.
Solution Let a = x1 + y1 5 , b = x2 + y2 5 and c = x3 + y3 5 be any three
elements of G, where xi, yi ∈  for i = 1, 2, 3.
(i) Closure: We have
a + b = ( x1 + y1 5) + ( x2 + y2 5) = ( x1 + x2 ) + ( y1 + y2 ) 5 ∈G

as x1 + x2 ∈  and y1 + y2 ∈ 
(ii) Associativity: We have
(a + b) + c = (( x1 + y1 5) + ( x2 + y2 5)) + ( x3 + y3 5)
= (( x1 + x2 ) + ( y1 + y2 ) 5) + ( x3 + y3 5)
Groups 13

= (( x1 + x2 ) + x3 ) + (( y1 + y2 ) + y3 ) 5

= ( x1 + ( x2 + x3 )) + ( y1 + ( y2 + y3 )) 5
by associativity in 

= ( x1 + y1 5) + (( x2 + x3 ) + ( y2 + y3 ) 5)

= ( x1 + y1 5) + (( x2 + y2 5) + ( x3 + y3 5))
= a + (b + c)
Therefore, associativity holds.

(iii) Identity: 0 + 0 5 ∈G is the identity as

( x + y 5) + (0 + 0 5) = ( x + y 5) = (0 + 0 5) + ( x + y 5)

∀x + y 5 ∈ G

(iv) Inverse: For all x + y 5 ∈G there exist − x − y 5 ∈G such that

( x + y 5) + (− x − y 5) = (0 + 0 5) = (− x − y 5) + ( x + y 5)

Therefore, − x − y 5 ∈G is the inverse of x + y 5 ∈G

Thus, G forms a group under addition.

Example 1.12: Let G = {A : A is 2 × 2 matrix over }.

Then, G forms a group under matrix addition.
 a1 b1   a2 b2 
(i) Let c , ∈G
 1 d1   c2 d2 

 a1 b1   a2 b2   a1 + a2 b1 + b2 
Then, c + = ∈ G.
 1 d1  c
 2 d2  c + c
 1 2 d1 + d2 

(ii) Matrix addition is always associative.

0 0 
(iii) The identity element is   ∈G
0 0 

a b   − a −b 
(iv) The inverse of   ∈G is   ∈G .
c d   −c − d 
Thus G forms a group under matrix addition. Since matrix addition is
commutative, therefore G is an abelian group.
14 Group Theory

Example 1.13: Let G = {A : A is 2 × 2 matrix over  with | A | ≠ 0}.

Then G is a group under matrix multiplication.
(i) Let A, B ∈ G, then | A | ≠ 0 and | B | ≠ 0.
∴ | AB | = | A | | B | ≠ 0
14

∴ AB ∈ G.
(ii) Matrix multiplication is always associative.
1 0 
(iii) Let I =   , then since | I | = 1 ≠ 0, we have I ∈ G.
0 1 
Also AI = A = IA, ∀A ∈ G.
Therefore I is the identity element of G.
(iv) We also have for A ∈G, A ⋅ adj A = | A | I = adj A ⋅ A
 1   1 
⇒
A adj A = I =  adj A A
| A|  | A| 
−1 1
Thus    A = adj A ∈ G
| A|
Therefore G is a group under matrix multiplication.

Remark: We write G = GL(2, ) = General Linear Group of 2 × 2 matrices

A with real entries such that | A | ≠ 0.

In the next problem, we show that the group GL(2, ) is non-abelian.

Problem 1.5 Show that the group

  a b  
  GL(2, ) =    : a, b, c, d ∈ , ad − bc ≠ 0 
  c d  
is non-abelian.
Solution
 a1 b1   a2 b2 
Let A=   and B =  be any two elements in the group
 c1 d1   c2 d2 
GL(2, ).
 a1 b1   a2 b2   a1a2 + b1c2 a1b2 + b1d2 
Then AB =  = ...(1)
 c1 d1   c2 d2  
c1a2 + d1c2 c1b2 + d1d2 

 a2 b2   a1 b1   a2 a1 + b2 c1 a2 b1 + b2 d1 
and BA =  =  ...(2)
 c2 d2   c1 d1  c2 a1 + d2 c1 c2 b1 + d2 d1 
From (1) and (2), we get AB ≠ BA.
Therefore, the group GL(2, ) is non-abelian.
Groups 15

Example 1.14: The set of all 2 × 2 matrices with real entries is not a group under
matrix multiplication, as inverse of a matrix A does not exist when | A | = 0.
  a a  
Example 1.15: Let G =    : a ∈ , a ≠ 0  . Then, G forms an abelian group
  a a  
with respect to matrix multiplication.
 a a  b b
(i) Let A=  , B =  ∈ G.
 a a  b b
Then as a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0, we have ab ≠ 0.
 a a  b b  2ab 2ab
∴ AB =     =  ∈ G.
 a a  b b  2ab 2ab
Hence, G is closed.
(ii) Matrix Multiplication is always associative.
b b 
(iii) Let   ∈G be the identity element
b b 
 a a  b b  a a 2ab 2ab   a a 
Then  a a  b b  =  a a  gives 2ab 2ab  =  a a 
        
1
Þ
2ab = a or b=
2
 a a  1/2 1/2   a a  1/2 1/2   a a 
∴ 
 a a  1/2 1/2  =  a a  = 1/2 1/2   a a  .
       
1/2 1/2 
Thus, 1/2 1/2  ∈ G is the identity element.
 
b b  a a
(iv) Let   ∈G be the inverse of   ∈G
b b  a a
 a a  b b  1/2 1/2  2ab 2ab  1/2 1/2 
Then,  a a  b b  = 1/2 1/2  Þ 2ab 2ab  = 1/2 1/2 
        
1 1
Þ
2ab = or b=
2 4a
 a a  1 / 4a 1 / 4a  1/2 1/2  1 / 4a 1 / 4a   a a 
∴
 a a  1 / 4a 1 / 4a  = 1/2 1/2  = 1 / 4a 1 / 4a   a a  .
       
1 / 4a 1 / 4a  a a
∴
1 / 4a 1 / 4a  ∈ G is the inverse of the matrix  a a  ∈ G.
   
Thus, G forms a group under matrix multiplication.
Clearly, G is abelian because AB = BA for all A, B ∈ G.
16 Group Theory

Remarks: We make two observations from the above example:

• Though matrix multiplication is not commutative, there is a subset of the
set of matrices which forms an abelian group.
• If the determinant of a matrix is zero, then also it can be invertible (with
respect to some identity element). Note that this is so because in this case,
the identity element is not the usual unit matrix I2.

To understand this, let us consider the following problem:

  a 0  
Problem 1.6 Let G =    : a ∈ , a ≠ 0  Show that G is a group with
 2 a 0  
respect to matrix multiplication.
1 0  1/a 0 
Solution H ere,   ∈G is the identity for G,   ∈G is the inverse
2 0  2/a 0 
 a 0
of   ∈G .
2a 0 
In fact, G is an abelian group.

Remark: For simplicity, we have restricted our matrix examples to the 2 × 2

case. However, these can be easily generalized to n × n matrices.

Problem 1.7 Show that the set of all 3 × 3 matrices of the form
 1 a b  
  
 0 1 c  : a, b, c ∈  
 0 0 1  
  
is a group with respect to matrix multiplication.
Solution
1 a b  1 a′ b′ 
0 1 c  , 0 1 c ′  ∈ G
(i) Let    
0 0 1  0 0 1 

1 a b  1 a′ b′  1 a + a′ b′ + ac ′ + b 
0 1 c  0 1 c ′  = 0 1 c ′ + c  ∈ G
Then,    
0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 
∴ Closure property is satisfied.

Groups 17

(ii) G is associative as matrix multiplication is associative.

1 0 0
(iii) Now, I = 0 1 0  ∈ G.
0 0 1 
Since AI = A = IA, therefore I is the identity element of G.
1 a b  1 a′ b′  1 0 0 
0 1 c  0 1 c ′   
(iv) Let    = 0 1 0 
0 0 1  0 0 1  0 0 1 

1 a + a′ b′ + ac ′ + b  1 0 0 
0 1 c ′ + c  = 0 1 0 

⇒

0 0 1  0 0 1 
⇒     a + a¢ = 0, c + c¢ = 0 and b¢ + a(–c) + b = 0.
This gives a¢ = –a, c¢ = –c and b¢ = ac – b
1 a b  1 − a ac − b 
0 1 c   −c  ∈ G.
∴ inverse of   ∈ G is 0 1
0 0 1  0 0 1 
Hence, G forms a group.
This group is called Heisenberg group†.

Problem 1.8 Show that the set of matrices

 cos α – sin α  
G =   : α ∈ R
  sin α cos α  
forms a group under matrix multiplication.
Solution
(i) Closure property:
cos α −sin α  cos β −sin β 
Let Aa =   and Ab =  sin β cos β  ∈G
 sin α cos α   
cos α −sin α  cos β −sin β 
Then, Aa Ab =   
 sin α cos α   sin β cos β 
cos(α + β) − sin(α + β) 
=   = Aα+β ∈G
 sin(α + β) cos(α + β) 

† Heisenberg group is important as it is used in the description of one-dimensional quantum

mechanical systems
18 Group Theory

(ii) We know that matrix multiplication is associative.

1 0 
(iii) A0 =   ∈G is the identity element as
0 1 
Aa A0 = Aa = A0 Aa ∀ Aa ∈ G
(iv) Clearly for all Aα ∈G there exist A−α ∈G such that Aα A−α = A0 = A−α Aα
\ A–a ∈ G is the inverse of Aa ∈ G.
Hence G forms a group under matrix multiplication.

Problem 1.9  Show that the set G of all positive rational numbers is an abelian
group under the binary operation * defined by
ab
a * b = , a, b ∈G .
2
ab
Solution Closure follows as a ∗ b = ∈G , ∀ a, b ∈ G.
2
ab (ab)c a(bc) bc
(a ∗ b) ∗ c = ∗c = = = a ∗ = a ∗ (b ∗ c) ∀a, b, c ∈G
2 4 4 2
Therefore, associativity holds,
2 ∈ G is the identity and 4/a ∈ G is the inverse of any element a ∈ G.
ab ba
Also, a∗b = = = b ∗ a ∀ a, b ∈G
2 2
Therefore, G is an abelian group under the given binary operation *.
Remarks: We now recall some useful results in number theory to be used
in the next set of examples.
• Division algorithm: Let a and b be integers with b > 0. Then, there
exists unique integers q and r such that a = bq + r, 0 ≤ r < b.
• We say b divides a if and only if r = 0, i.e., b divides a if and only if
a = bq
• The greatest common divisor (gcd) of two integers a and b is the largest
of all common divisors of a and b, i.e., gcd(a, b) = d if and only if
(a) d/a and d/b
(b) If k/a and k/b, then k ≤ d.
• a and b are said to be relatively prime if and only if gcd(a, b) = 1.
• If gcd(a, b) = 1, then there exist integers x and y such that ax + by = 1.
• We have a ≡ b mod n, whenever n divides b – a.

Example 1.16: Let n be a positive integer. Let  n = {0, 1, 2,3,..., n − 1} .

For a, b ∈ n, define the operation ⊕n in n as a⊕nb = c, where c is the
remainder obtained on dividing a + b by n.
Groups 19

Illustration: For 4 = {0, 1, 2, 3}, Cayley table for 4 is

Table 1.6: Cayley Table for 4

⊕4 0 1 2 3

0 0 1 2 3

1 1 2 3 0

2 2 3 0 1

3 3 0 1 2

Since all the axioms of a group are satisfied, therefore, ( 4, ⊕4) is a group.

We now show that ( n, ⊕n) is a group.

(i) Closure: For a, b ∈ n, we have
a + b = nq + c, 0 ≤ c < n
Therefore, c ∈
n.

Since, a⊕nb = c, \ a⊕n b ∈ n, and hence closure holds.

(ii) Associativity: Let a, b, c ∈ n, then
(a ⊕n b) ⊕n c = ((a + b) (mod n) + c) (mod n)
= ((a + b) + c) (mod n)
= (a + (b + c)) mod n (since addition of integers is associative)
= (a + (b + c) (mod n)) (mod n)
= a ⊕n (b ⊕n c)
Thus, associativity holds.
(iii) Identity: Since a ⊕n 0 = a = 0 ⊕n a, ∀a ∈ n. Therefore, 0 is the identity
element in n.
(iv) Inverse: Since 0 ⊕n 0 = 0, inverse of 0 is 0.
Let 0 ≠ a ∈ n. Then 0 < a < n so that 0 < n – a < n.
Hence (n – a) ∈ n such that a ⊕n (n – a) = 0 = (n − a) ⊕n a
Thus, (n – a) is the inverse of a.
Therefore ( n, ⊕n) is a group.
20 Group Theory

Also since a ⊕n b = b ⊕n a, ∀a, b ∈ n, therefore ( n, ⊕n) is an abelian

group.
The operation ⊕n† is usually referred to as addition modulo n. That is why,
this group is usually referred to as the group of integers under addition
modulo n.
Caution: If we exclude 0 from the above set, it will not form a group.

Example 1.17: Let U(n) = {x ∈ : 1 ≤ x < n, gcd(x, n) = 1}

We define a binary composition ⊗n on U(n) by a⊗n b = c, where c is the least
positive remainder obtained when a ⋅ b is divided by n.
The composition ⊗n is called multiplication modulo n.

Illustration: Consider U(8) = {1, 3, 5, 7}. Then, under multiplication modulo 8,

the Cayley table is
Table 1.7: Cayley Table under multiplication modulo 8

⊗8 1 3 5 7

1 1 3 5 7

3 3 1 7 5

5 5 7 1 3

7 7 5 3 1

It can be seen from the above table that for every a, b ∈ U(8), a ⊗8 b ∈ U(8).
The element 1 ∈ U(8) is the identity element. Also, the inverse of 1, 3, 5, 7 is
1, 3, 5 and 7 respectively.
Hence (U(8), ⊗8) is a group.

We will now show that (U(n), ⊗n) forms a group.

(i) Closure: For a, b ∈ U(n), let a⊗nb = c.
To show that c ∈ U(n), we need to prove that 1 ≤ c < n and gcd(c, n) = 1.
We have, ab = nq + c, 0 ≤ c < n.
If c = 0, then ab = nq
∴  n/ab implying n/b as gcd(a, n) = 1

† Clearly, by definition of ⊕n
 a + b, if a+b< n
a ⊕n b = 
a + b − n, if a+b ≥ n
Groups 21

This contradicts the fact that gcd(b, n) = 1

∴  c ≠ 0 and hence 1 ≤ c < n.
Also, c, n are co-prime, because if c, n are not co-prime, then there exists
some prime p such that p/c and p/n.
Again as  ab = nq + c for some q,
we get    p/ab (Q p/n gives p/nq, p/c ⇒ p/nq + c)
Now, since p is prime, we have either p/a or p/b.
If p/a, then as p/n, it means a, n are not co-prime, a contradiction, as a, n
are co-prime.
Similarly p/b leads to a contradiction.
Hence c, n are co-prime and thus c ∈ U(n), showing that closure property
holds.
(ii) Associativity: Let a, b, c ∈ U(n). Then
a⊗n (b⊗nc) = (a(bc(mod n)) (mod n) = a(bc)(mod n)
= (ab)c (mod n),  since multiplication in  is associative
= ((ab(mod n)c) (mod n) = (a⊗nb)⊗n c
Thus, ⊗n is associative.
(iii) Identity: It is easy to see that a⊗n1 = 1⊗n a = a, ∀a ∈ U(n).
So, 1 acts as identity of U(n).
(iv) Inverse: Let a ∈ U(n) be any element, then a and n are co-prime and thus
we can find integers x and y such that ax + ny = 1 ...(1)
By division algorithm, we can write x = qn + r , where 0 ≤ r < n
If r = 0, then x = qn, so by (1), we get, aqn + ny = 1,
i.e., n(aq + y) = 1. This is not possible as n > 1 and aq + y is an integer.
Hence, r ≠ 0, i.e., 1 ≤ r < n.
Also, r, n are co-prime, because if r, n are not co-prime, we can find a prime
number p such that p/r, p/n
⇒ p/qn and p/r, therefore p/qn + r implying p/x
⇒ p/ax. Also, p/ny
⇒ p/ax + ny = 1, which is not possible.
Thus, r, n are co-prime and so r ∈ U(n)
Now we have x = qn + r , where 1 ≤ r < n
⇒ ax = aqn + ar
⇒ ax + ny = aqn + ar + ny
⇒ 1 = aqn + ar + ny
or ar = 1 + (–aq – y)n; i.e.; a⊗nr = 1.
22 Group Theory

Similarly r ⊗na = 1.
Therefore, r = a−1.
Hence, U(n) forms a group w.r.t ⊗n (multiplication modulo n).
Also, since a ⊗nb = b ⊗na, for all a, b ∈ U(n), we have that the group U(n) is
abelian.
This group is called group of units†

Remark: We have, U(6) = {1, 5},

U(7) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, 7 is a prime number,
U(8) = {1, 3, 5, 7},
U(11) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, 11 is a prime number,
Therefore, in general, we have U(p) = {1, 2, 3,..., p − 1}, p is a prime.

 how that the set G = {1, 2, ..., n − 1} forms a group w.r.t.

Problem 1.10 S
multiplication modulo n if and only if n is prime.
Solution Suppose G forms a group with respect to multiplication modulo n.
We show: n is prime.
Let, if possible, n is not prime.
Then, n = rs, where 1 < r, s < n.
Now 1 < r < n gives that r ∈ G.
Also, since G is a group with respect to multiplication modulo n, we have r has
inverse in G.
Therefore, there exists some t ∈ G such that r ⊗nt = 1
⇒ rt = nq + 1 which gives rt = rsq + 1.
⇒ r(t − sq) = 1
∴ r ≤ 1, which is a contradiction as r > 1.
Hence, our assumption is wrong. Therefore, n must be prime.
Conversely, let n be prime p, then G = {1, 2, 3, ..., p − 1}
= {x ∈ : 1 ≤ x < p, gcd(x, p) = 1}
= U(p), which is a group.
Therefore, G is a group with respect to multiplication modulo p.

† Here units refer to elements with a multiplicative inverse, which in this case are exactly
those co-prime to n
Groups 23

Remark:
Suppose in the set G, p is not prime. Then, there exists two integers
a and b such that 1 < a ≤ p − 1, 1 < b ≤ p − 1 and ab = p. Now
a, b ∈ G such that a ⊗p b = 0 and 0 ∉ G. Therefore, G is not closed w.r.t.
multiplication modulo p. Thus, (G, ⊗p) is not a group.

Caution: If we include 0 in the set G, then also, for this composition, G will
not be a group. The reason being, the inverse of 0 does not exist.
For example, the set {0, 1, 2, 3} is not a group under multiplication modulo 4.
Although 1 and 3 have inverses itself, the elements 0 and 2 do not.

Problem 1.11 Show that {1, 2, 3} under multiplication modulo 4 is not a group
but that {1, 2, 3, 4} under multiplication modulo 5 is a group.
Solution We first construct the Cayley table for {1, 2, 3} under multiplication
modulo 4
Table 1.8: Cayley Table under multiplication modulo 4

⊗4 1 2 3

1 1 2 3

2 2 0 2

3 3 2 1

The set {1, 2, 3} is not a group because

(i) 2 ⊗4 2 = 0 does not belong to the set {1, 2, 3}
(ii) Inverse of the element 2 does not exist.
Now, consider the Cayley table of the set S = {1, 2, 3, 4} under multiplication
modulo 5
Table 1.9: Cayley Table under multiplication modulo 5

⊗5 1 2 3 4

1 1 2 3 4

2 2 4 1 3

3 3 1 4 2

4 4 3 2 1
24 Group Theory

The set S is closed under multiplication modulo 5 and also associativity holds.
1 is the identity element. Also, inverse of 1 is 1, 2 is 3, 3 is 2 and 4 is 4.
Thus, S forms a group under multiplication modulo 5.

 how that for all integers n ≥ 1, the set of complex roots of unity
Problem 1.12 S
 k ⋅ 2π k ⋅ 2π 
     cos + i sin k = 0, 1, 2,..., n − 1 
 n n 
is a group under multiplication.
Solution 
2k π 2k π
We have, cos + i sin = ei 2 k π / n
n n
2 πi / n 4 πi / n 6 πi / n
Then G = {1, e ,e ,e , ... , e2( n−1) πi / n} = {1, ω, ω 2 , ω3 , ..., ω n−1},
where w = e2pi/n and wn = 1.

(i) Closure: Let a, b ∈ G, then an = 1 and bn = 1.

Now (ab)n = anbn = 1.1 = 1, ∴  ab ∈ G
Thus, G is closed with respect to multiplication.
(ii) Associativity: The elements of G are all complex numbers and the
multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
(iii) Identity: We have 1 ∈ G and 1.a = a = a.1 ∀a ∈ G. Therefore, 1 is the
identity of G.
(iv) Inverse: Let wk, 1 ≤ k ≤ n − 1 be any element of G, then wn−k is also an
element of G and wn–k · wk = wn = 1 = wk · wn– k
Thus wn–k is the inverse of wk.
Further, the multiplication of complex numbers is commutative. Therefore G is
a finite abelian group with respect to multiplication.

1/ n 1/ n
Remark: We have (1)1/n = (1 + 0i) = (cos 0 + i sin 0)
1/n
= (cos 2 k π + i sin 2 k π) , where k is any integer
 2k π 2k π 
=  cos + i sin , by De’ Moivre’s Theorem
 n n 
i 2 kπ / n
= e .
Putting k = 0, 1, 2, ... , n – 1, we get the n, nth roots of unity.
Therefore the set of n, nth roots of unity is a finite abelian group with respect
to multiplication.
Groups 25

 a b  
Problem 1.13 Show that SL(2, F)† =  A =   : a, b, c, d ∈ F , | A | = 1 is a
 c d  
non-abelian group under matrix multiplication.
Here F can be  or  or  or n.
Solution Let A, B ∈ SL(2, F), then | A | = 1 and | B | = 1.
Since | AB | = | A | · | B | = 1.1 = 1, therefore AB ∈ SL(2, F).
Thus, SL(2, F) is closed under matrix multiplication.
We know that matrix multiplication is always associative. Thus, associativity
holds.
1 0 
Also,   ∈ SL (2, F ) is the identity element.
0 1 
a b   d −b 
Inverse of   ∈ SL (2, F ) is  −c a  ∈ SL (2, F ) .
c d   
Also, matrix multiplication is not commutative in general.
Therefore, SL(2, F) is a non-abelian group under matrix multiplication.
Problem 1.14 G  ive an example of group elements a and b with the property
that a−1 ba ≠ a.
Solution Let us take the group as the set of matrices in SL(2, ).
a b   a b2 
Let a =  1 1  ∈ SL (2, R) and b =  2  ∈ SL (2, R).
 c1 d1   c2 d2 
∴ |a| = 1 and | b | = 1.
d −b1 
The inverse of a, i.e., a −1 =  1 .
 −c1 a1 
Now
 d1 −b1   a2 b2   a1 b1 
a–1 ba = 
 −c1 a1   c2 d2   c1 d1 
 a2 d1 − b1c2 d1b2 − b1d2   a1 b1 
= 
 −c1a2 + a1c2 −c1b2 + a1d2   c1 d1 
 a1a2 d1 − a1b1c2 + d1b2 c1 − b1d2 c1 a2 d1b1 − b1c2 b1 + d1d2 d1 − b1d2 d1 
= 
 −c1a2 a1 + a1c2 a1 − c1b2 c1 + a1d2 c1 −c1a2 b1 + a1c2 b1 − c1b2 d1 + a1d2 d1 
 a1 b1 
≠ 

 c1 d1 
∴ a–1ba ≠ a.

† This group is called the special linear group of 2 × 2 matrices over F.

26 Group Theory

 how that the set Q\{0} of rational numbers form an abelian

Problem 1.15 S
group under the binary operation * defined by
      a * b = a + b + ab ∀ a, b ∈ Q \ {0}
Solution Closure follows as a * b = a + b + ab ∈ Q \ {0} ∀ a, b ∈ Q \ {0}
(a * b) * c = (a + b + ab) * c
= (a + b + ab) + c + (a + b + ab)c
= a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc.
Similarly, a * (b * c) = a + b + c + ab + ac + bc + abc
Therefore, associativity holds.
a
0 is the identity and − is the inverse of any element a ∈ Q \ {0}.
a +1
Also, a * b = a + b + ab = b + a + ba = b * a
Therefore, (Q \ {0}, *) is an abelian group.

Problem 1.16  et G = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ , a ≠ 0}. Define * on G by

L
(a, b) * (c, d) = (ac, bc + d)
       Show that (G, *) is a non abelian group.
Solution Closure follows as a, c ≠ 0 Þ ac ≠ 0
Let x = (a, b), y = (c, d) and z = (e, f) ∈ G
Then, (x * y) * z = (ac, bc + d) * (e, f )
= ((ac)e, (bc + d)e + f ) = (a(ce), b(ce) + de + f )
= (a, b) * (ce, de + f ) = (a, b) * {(c, d) * (e, f)}
          = x * (y * z)
Therefore, associativity holds.
(1, 0) is the identity in G and (a–1, –ba–1) is the inverse of any element (a, b) ∈ G.
Therefore, (G, *) is a group
G is not abelian as
(1, 2) * (2, 3) = (2, 2.2 + 3) = (2, 7)
(2, 3) * (1, 2) = (2, 3.1 + 2) = (2, 5).

Problem 1.17 et G = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R, not both zero}. Define * on G by

L
(a, b) * (c, d) = (ac – bd, ad + bc)
       Show that (G, *) is an abelian group.
Groups 27

Solution Closure follows as ac – bd, ad + bc are not both zero.

Let x = (a, b), y = (c, d) and z = (e, f) ∈ G
Then, (x * y) * z = (ac – bd, ad + bc) * (e, f )
= ((ac – bd)e – (ad + bc) f ), (ac – bd) f + (ad + bc)e)
= (a(ce – df) – b(cf + de), a(cf + de) + b(ce – df ))
= (a, b) * (ce – df, cf + de)
= x * (y * z)
Therefore, associativity holds.
 a b 
(1, 0) is the identity in G and  2 ,− is the inverse of any element
 a + b2 a2 + b2 
(a, b) ∈ G.
Also, (a, b) * (c, d) = (ac – bd, ad + bc) = (ca – db, cb + da)
= (c, d) * (a, b)
Therefore, (G, *) is an abelian group.

Problem 1.18  Let G = {2n : n ∈ Z}. Prove that G forms an abelian group
under usual multiplication.
Proof: For any 2m, 2n ∈ G, 2m · 2n = 2m+n ∈ G.
Thus closure holds.
Since multiplication of rationals is associative, therefore associativity holds.
1 = 20 ∈ G is the identity.
For any 2m ∈ G, as 2–m ∈ G and 2m · 2–m = 20 = 1,
We find each element of G has inverse.
Thus, G is a group.
Commutativity is obvious.

Problem 1.19  rove that the set n = {(a1, a2, ... , an) | a1, a2, ... , an ∈ } forms
P
a group under component-wise addition, i.e., (a1, a2, ... an)
+ (b1, b2, ... , bn) = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, ... , an + bn).
n
(i) Closure: For (a1, a2, ... an), (b1, b2, ... , bn) ∈ , we have
n
(a1, a2, ... an) + (b1, b2, ... , bn) = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, ... , an + bn) ∈ ,
as addition in is a binary operation.
\ n is closed under component-wise addition.

28 Group Theory

(ii) Associativity:
n
For (a1, a2, ... an), (b1, b2, ... , bn), (c1, c2, ... , cn) ∈ , we have
((a1, a2, ... an) + (b1, b2, ... , bn)) + (c1, c2, ... , cn)
= (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, ... an + bn) + (c1, c2, ... , cn)
= ((a1 + b1) + c1, (a2 + b2) + c2, ... , (an + bn) + cn)
= (a1 + (b1 + c1), a2 + (b2 + c2), ... , an + (bn + cn))
= (a1, a2, ... an) + (b1 + c1, b2 + c2, ... , bn + cn)
= (a1, a2, ... , an) + ((b1, b2, ... , bn) + (c1, c2, ... , cn))
n
\ Component-wise addition in
is associative.
n
(iii) Identity: (0, 0, ... , 0) ∈ is the identity as
(a1, a2, ... , an) + (0, 0, ... , 0) = (a1, a2, ... , an)
n
= (0, 0, ... , 0) + (a1, a2, ... , an) ∀ (a1, a2, ... , an) ∈
(iv) Inverse: ∀ (a1, a2, ... , an) ∈ n
∃ (–a1, –a2, ... , –an) ∈ n

(a1, a2, ... , an) + (–a1, –a2, ... , –an) = (0, 0, ... , 0)
= (–a1, –a2, ... , –an) + (a1, a2, ... , an)
n n
\ (–a1, –a2, ... , –an) ∈
is the inverse of (a1, a2, ... , an) ∈
n
Hence is a group under component-wise addition.

Problem 1.20 For a fixed point (a, b) in 2, define Ta, b : 2

→ 2
by
Ta, b (x, y) = (x + a, y + b).
2
Show that the set G = T( ) = {Ta,b : a, b ∈ } is a group under
function composition.
Solution L
 et Ta,b, Tc,d ∈ T( 2) = G
Then, Ta,b Tc,d (x, y) = Ta, b ( x + c, y + d ) = ( x + c + a, y + d + b)

= Ta+ c, b+ d ( x, y) ∈T ( 2 )
∴ T( 2) is closed.
Also function composition is always associative. Therefore, associativity holds
in G.
2
The element T0,0 ∈ T ( ) is the identity as Ta, b T0,0 = Ta, b = T0,0 Ta, b .
2 2
The inverse of Ta, b ∈ T ( ) is T− a, −b ∈ T ( ).
Also T( 2) is abelian.
Therefore T( 2) is an abelian group under function composition.
The elements of T( 2) are called translations.
Groups 29

Problem 1.21 P rove that the set G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} is a finite abelian group
of order 6 with respect to addition modulo 6.
Solution The Cayley table for G is
Table 1.10: Cayley Table under addition modulo 6

⊕6 0 1 2 3 4 5

0 0 1 2 3 4 5

1 1 2 3 4 5 0

2 2 3 4 5 0 1

3 3 4 5 0 1 2

4 4 5 0 1 2 3

5 5 0 1 2 3 4

We see that all the entries in the composition table are elements of the set G.
Therefore, G is closed with respect to addition modulo 6.
Associativity: If a, b, c ∈ G, and if a⊕6b = d, then (a⊕6b) ⊕6 c = d⊕6c = e(say)
a + b = 6q + d and d + c = 6q1 + e.
This gives a + b + c = 6(q + q1 ) + e, 0 ≤ e < 6
Now, let b⊕6c = f. Then a⊕6 (b⊕6c) = a⊕6 f = g (say).
⇒ a + b + c = 6(q2 + q3 ) + g, 0 ≤ g < 6 .
Since e and g are remainders obtained by dividing a + b + c by 6, therefore e = g.
Thus, (a⊕6b) ⊕6c = a⊕6 (b⊕6c), ∀a, b, c ∈ G.
Identity: Since a⊕60 = a = 0 ⊕6a, ∀a ∈ G, we have that 0 is the identity of G.
Inverse: From the table, we see that the inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are 0, 5, 4,
3, 2, 1 respectively.
The composition is commutative as the corresponding rows and columns in the
composition table are identical.
The number of elements in the set G is 6. Therefore, (G, ⊕6) is a finite abelian
group.

 how that the set G = GL(2, 5) is a finite non-abelian group

Problem 1.22 S
with respect to multiplication modulo 5.
Solution We have
 a b  
G = GL(2, 5) = A =   : a, b, c, d ∈  5 , det A ≠ 0 
 c d  
30 Group Theory

Since entries belong to 5, therefore, modulo 5 arithmetic is used in all

calculations.
(i) Closure: Let A, B ∈ G then | A |, | B | ≠ 0.
Then, AB is a 2 × 2 matrix such that | AB | = | A | | B | ≠ 0. Also, the entries
are from 5. Therefore AB ∈ G.
For example:
3 4
If A=   , then | A | = 12 – 16 = – 4 ≡ 1 (mod 5),
4 4
0 3 
B=   , then | B | = 0 – 9 = –9 ≡ 1 (mod 5)
3 4
 3 4  0 3  12 25 2 0 
      AB =   = ≡ 
 4 4   3 4  12 28 2 3 
      |AB| = 6 − 0 = 6 ≡ 1 (mod 5) . ∴  AB ∈ G.
(ii) Associativity: Clearly (AB)C = A(BC), ∀A, B, C ∈ G (as matrix
multiplication is always associative).
1 0 
(iii) Identity: There exist I =   ∈ G such that AI = A = IA, for all A ∈ G.
0 1 
(iv) Inverse: For any A ∈ G, we have |A| ≠ 0.
Since ( 5*, ⊗5) is a group so that | A | has multiplicative inverse in 5*, say
b. Here, 5* = 5 – {0}.
Now, A · Adj A = | A | I
Þ bA · Adj A = b | A | I = I (Q b | A | = 1)
Þ A(bAdj A) = I Þ AB = I, where B = b Adj A
Similarly, BA = I, \ A–1 = B ∈ G.
For example:
3 4 −1  4 −4   4 1 
Consider A =   ∈ G. Then, A =  ≡ 
4 4  −4 3  1 3
|A−1| = 12 − 1 = 11 ≡ 1 (mod 5). ∴  A−1 ∈ G.
−1
Clearly, it can be seen that ∀A ∈G, ∃ A ∈G such that AA–1 = I = A–1 A.
(v) Commutativity: AB ≠ BA, for all A, B ∈ G
(Q Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general)
a b 
Also, G is finite as for any   ∈ G, the entries a, b, c, d ∈
c d 
= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
5
Therefore, GL(2, 5) is a finite non-abelian group with respect to
multiplication.
Groups 31

Note that:

 d −b 
 a b   ad − bc ad − bc 
• Generally, if A =   , then A −1 =  
c d   −c a 
 ad − bc ad − bc 
• Division by ad − bc has to be interpreted as multiplication by the
inverse of ad − bc (modulo n).

 4 5
Illustration: G = GL(2, 7) w.r.t. multiplication, and A=   , then
6 3
| A | = 12 − 30 = − 18 ≡ 3 (mod 7)
Also, inverse of 3 is 5 in the composition table for 7.

1  3 −5 1 3 2  3.5 2.5 15 10  1 3 

∴ A −1 ≡ ≡ ≡ = ≡ .
3  −6 4  3 1 4  1.5 4.5  5 20  5 6 

2 6 
 ind the inverse of A = 
Problem 1.23 F  in 11.
3 5

Solution We have 11 = {0, 1, 2, 3, ... , 10}

1
[negative of any number = that number + 11, is determined by multiplying
a
a with b ∈ 11 such that ab when divided by 11 has 1 as the remainder. Then
b = 1/a]
| A | = 10 − 18 = − 8 ≡ 3 mod(11).
 5 −6  5 5
Also adj A =  ≡ .
 −3 2   8 2
1 1  5 5  5 5  20 20  9 9
Therefore A −1 = adj A ≡   ≡ 4 = ≡ .
| A| 3  8 2  8 2  32 8   10 8

 how that the set G = {f1, f2, f3, f4}, where

Problem 1.24 S
1 1
     f1 ( x ) = x, f2 ( x ) = − x, f3 ( x ) = , f 4 ( x ) = − ∀x ∈ R − {0}
x x
is a group with respect to composition of functions.
32 Group Theory

Solution The Cayley table for G is as follows:

Table 1.11: Cayley Table of G

o f1 f2 f3 f4
f1 f1 f2 f3 f4
f2 f2 f1 f4 f3
f3 f3 f4 f1 f2
f4 f4 f3 f2 f1

Clearly, from the Cayley table, (G, o) is an abelian group.

The identity element is f1 and fi –1 = fi for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.

Problem 1.25 Show that the set G = {f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, f6}, where
1 1
f1(x) = x, f2 ( x ) = 1 − x, f3 ( x ) = , f 4 ( x ) = ,
x 1− x
x −1 x
f5(x) = , f6 ( x ) = ∀x ∈ R − {0}
x 1− x
is a group with respect to composition of functions.
Solution  The Cayley table for G is as follows:
Table 1.12: Cayley Table of G

o f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
f1 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6
f2 f2 f1 f5 f6 f3 f4
f3 f3 f4 f1 f2 f6 f5
f4 f4 f3 f6 f5 f1 f2
f5 f5 f6 f2 f1 f4 f3
f6 f6 f5 f4 f3 f2 f1

Clearly, from the Cayley table, (G, o) is a group.

f1 is the identity element and the inverse elements of f1, f2, f3, f4, f5, f6 are
f1, f2, f3, f5, f4, f6 respectively. Since, f3 o f5 ≠ f5 o f3, therefore G is non-abelian.

1.3 Elementary Properties oF Groups

In sections 1.1 and 1.2, we have given a variety of examples of groups. In these
examples, we observed that identity element was unique and each element had a
unique inverse. This was not by chance. We shall prove in the next theorem that
identity element in a group is unique and each element has a unique inverse. In
Groups 33

fact we show that certain formal properties which follow from the group axioms
hold in any group.

Theorem 1.1: In a group G, prove that

1. Identity element is unique.
2. Inverse of each a ∈ G is unique.
3. (a−1)−1 = a, ∀a ∈ G, where a−1 stands for inverse of a, i.e., a is the inverse
of the inverse of a.
4. (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1, ∀a, b ∈ G, i.e., the inverse of a product is the product of
the inverses in reverse order.
5. (a1a2 ... an)–1 = an–1 an–1
–1
... a1–1, for a1, a2, ..., an in G; a generalization of
(4) to the product of n terms.
6. ab = ac ⇒ b = c and ba = ca ⇒ b = c ∀a, b, c∈ G.
These are known as cancellation laws.
The most basic rule of calculation in groups is the cancellation law, which
allows us to cancel the factor a in the equations ab = ac and ba = ca.
Proof:
1. To prove that identity element is unique. Let us suppose e and e¢ be two
elements of G which act as identity.
Then, since e ∈ G and e¢ is identity, therefore we have
e¢e = ee¢ = e...(1)
and as e¢ ∈ G and e is identity, therefore
e¢e = ee¢ = e¢ ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we get that e = e¢, which establishes the uniqueness of
the identity element in a group.
2. We show that inverse of each a ∈ G is unique.
Let a ∈ G be any element and let a¢ and a¢¢ be two inverse elements of a,
then aa¢ = a¢a = e and aa² = a²a = e
To show: a¢ = a².
Now, a¢ = a¢e = a¢(aa²) = (a¢a)a² = ea² = a², showing thereby that inverse
of an element is unique.
We shall denote inverse of a by a−1.
3. To show: (a−1)−1 = a, ∀a ∈ G, where a−1 stands for inverse of a.
Since a−1 is inverse of a, \ aa–1 = a–1 a = e which also implies a is inverse
of a−1.
Thus, (a−1)−1 = a.
4. To prove (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1, ∀a, b ∈ G, we need to prove that b−1 a−1 is inverse
of ab for which we need to show that
(ab)(b −1a −1 ) = (b −1a −1 )(ab) = e.
34 Group Theory

−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
Now, (ab)(b a ) = ((ab)b )a = (a(bb ))a = (ae)a = aa = e.
Similarly (b−1 a−1) (ab) = e and thus the result follows.
5. To show: (a1a2 ... an)–1 = an–1 an–1–1 ... a1–1 for a1, a2, ... , an in G
We prove the result by induction on n. Clearly the result holds for n = 1.
Suppose that the result holds for n = k, i.e.,
(a1 a2 ... ak)–1 = ak–1 ak–1–1 ... a1–1 …(i)
Now, (a1 a2 ... ak+1)–1 = ((a1 a2 ... ak) ak+1)–1
= (ak+1)–1 (a1 a2 ... ak)–1 [Using (4)]
= (ak+1)–1 (ak–1 ak–1–1 ... a1–1) [Using (i)]
= ak+1–1 ak–1 ... a1–1
Hence, the result holds for n = k + 1.
Thus, by induction, the result holds for all natural numbers n.
6. To prove the cancellation laws:
  ab = ac ⇒ b=c and ba = ca ⇒ b = c ∀a, b, c ∈ G.
−1
−1 −1 −1
Let ab = ac, then b = eb = (a a)b = a (ab) = a (ac) = (a a)c = ec = c.
Thus, ab = ac Þ b = c, which is called the left cancellation law.
Now let ba = ca, then
b = be = b(aa −1 ) = (ba)a −1 = (ca)a −1 = c(aa –1 ) = ce = c.
Thus ba = ca Þ b = c, which is called the right cancellation law.
Remarks:
• In a semi-group, the cancellation laws may not hold.
Consider the following example:
Let S be the set of all 2 × 2 matrices over integers.
We know that S is a semi-group under multiplication.
1 0  0 0  0 0 
Now, for A =   ,B=   and C =   ∈ S , we note that
0 0  0 1  1 0 
AB = AC but B ≠ C.
• There are semi-groups which are not groups but they satisfy cancellation
laws.
Consider the set of positive integers. We know that it is a semi-group
under addition.
Clearly, for any three positive integers a, b, c, we have
a + b = a + c Þ b = c and b + a = c + a Þ b = c.
So, the cancellation laws hold. But this semi-group is not a group (why ?).
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 CHAPTER XXIII
The forest was again under snow, lying silent beneath its deep white
mantle. Only the crows’ calls could be heard. Now and then came a
magpie’s noisy chattering. The soft twittering of the tit-mice sounded
timidly. Then the frost hardened and everything grew still. The air
began to hum with the cold.
One morning a dog’s baying broke the silence.
It was a continuous hurrying bay that pressed on quickly through
the woods, eager and clear and harrying with loud yelps.
Bambi raised his head in the hollow under the fallen tree, and
looked at the old stag who was lying beside him.
“That’s nothing,” said the old stag in answer to Bambi’s glance,
“nothing that need bother us.”
Still they both listened.
They lay in their hollow with the old beech trunk like a sheltering
roof above them. The deep snow kept the icy draught from them, and
the tangled bushes hid them from curious eyes.
The baying grew nearer. It was angry and panting and relentless.
It sounded like the bark of a small hound. It came constantly closer.
Then they heard panting of another kind. They heard a low
labored snarling under the angry barking. Bambi grew uneasy, but the
old stag quieted him again. “We don’t need to worry about it,” he said.
They lay silent in their warm hollow and peered out.
The footsteps drew nearer and nearer through the branches. The
snow dropped from the shaken boughs and clouds of it rose from the
earth.
Through the snow and over the roots and branches, the fox came
springing, crouching and slinking. They were right; a little, short-
legged hound was after him.
 The fox came springing, crouching and slinking. A little, short-
legged hound was after him.

One of the fox’s forelegs was crushed and the fur torn around it.
He held his shattered paw in front of him, and blood poured from his
wound. He was gasping for breath. His eyes were staring with terror
and exertion. He was beside himself with rage and fear. He was
desperate and exhausted.
Once in a while he would face around and snarl so that the dog
was startled and would fall back a few steps.
Presently the fox sat down on his haunches. He could go no
farther. Raising his mangled forepaw pitifully, with his jaws open and
his lips drawn back, he snarled at the dog.
 But the dog was never silent for a minute. His high, rasping bark
only grew fuller and deeper. “Here,” he yapped, “here he is! Here!
Here! Here!” He was not abusing the fox. He was not even speaking
to him, but was urging on someone who was still far behind.
Bambi knew as well as the old stag did that it was He the dog was
calling.
The fox knew it too. The blood was streaming down from him and
fell from his breast into the snow, making a fiery red spot on the icy
white surface, and steaming slowly.
A weakness overcame the fox. His crushed foot sank down
helpless, but a burning pain shot through it when it touched the cold
snow. He lifted it again with an effort and held it quivering in front of
him.
“Let me go,” said the fox beginning to speak, “let me go.” He
spoke softly and beseechingly. He was quite weak and despondent.
“No! No! No!” the dog howled.
The fox pleaded still more insistently. “We’re relations,” he
pleaded, “we’re brothers almost. Let me go home. Let me die with my
family at least. We’re brothers almost, you and I.”
“No! No! No!” the dog raged.
Then the fox rose so that he was sitting perfectly erect. He
dropped his handsome pointed muzzle on his bleeding breast, raised
his eyes and looked the dog straight in the face. In a completely
altered voice, restrained and embittered, he growled, “Aren’t you
ashamed, you traitor!”
“No! No! No!” yelped the dog.
But the fox went on, “You turncoat, you renegade.” His maimed
body was taut with contempt and hatred. “You spy,” he hissed, “you
blackguard, you track us where He could never find us. You betray
us, your own relations, me who am almost your brother. And you
stand there and aren’t ashamed!”
Instantly many other voices sounded loudly round about.
 “Traitor!” cried the magpie from the tree.
“Spy!” shrieked the jay.
“Blackguard!” the weasel hissed.
“Renegade!” snarled the ferret.
From every tree and bush came chirpings, peepings, shrill cries,
while overhead the crows cawed, “Spy! Spy!” Everyone had rushed
up, and from the trees or from safe hiding places on the ground, they
watched the contest. The fury that had burst from the fox released an
embittered anger in them all. And the blood spilt on the snow, that
steamed before their eyes, maddened them and made them forget all
caution.
The dog stared around him. “Who are you?” he yelped. “What do
you want? What do you know about it? What are you talking about?
Everything belongs to Him, just as I do. But I, I love Him. I worship
Him, I serve Him. Do you think you can oppose Him, poor creatures
like you? He’s all-powerful. He’s above all of you. Everything we have
comes from Him. Everything that lives or grows comes from Him.”
The dog was quivering with exaltation.
“Traitor!” cried the squirrel shrilly.
“Yes, traitor!” hissed the fox. “Nobody is a traitor but you, only
you.”
The dog was dancing about in a frenzy of devotion. “Only me?” he
cried, “you lie. Aren’t there many, many others on His side? The
horse, the cow, the sheep, the chickens, many, many of you and your
kind are on His side and worship Him and serve Him.”
“They’re rabble!” snarled the fox, full of a boundless contempt.
Then the dog could contain himself no longer and sprang at the
fox’s throat. Growling, spitting, and yelping, they rolled in the snow, a
writhing, savagely snapping mass from which fur flew. The snow rose
in clouds and was spattered with fine drops of blood. At last the fox
could not fight any more. In a few seconds he was lying on his back,
his white belly uppermost. He twitched and stiffened and died.
 The dog shook him a few times, then let him fall on the trampled
snow. He stood beside him, his legs planted, calling in a deep, loud
voice, “Here! Here! He’s here!”
The others were horrorstruck and fled in all directions.
“Dreadful,” said Bambi softly to the old stag in the hollow.
“The most dreadful part of all,” the old stag answered, “is that the
dogs believe what the hound just said. They believe it, they pass their
lives in fear, they hate Him and themselves and yet they’d die for His
sake.”
 CHAPTER XXIV
The cold broke, and there was a warm spell in the middle of the
winter. The earth drank great draughts of the melting snows so that
wide stretches of soil were everywhere visible. The blackbirds were
not singing yet, but when they flew from the ground where they were
hunting worms, or when they fluttered from tree to tree, they uttered a
long-drawn joyous whistle that was almost a song. The woodpecker
began to chatter now and then. Magpies and crows grew more
talkative. The tit-mice chirped more cheerily. And the pheasants,
swooping down from their roosts would stand in one spot preening
their feathers and uttering their metallic throaty cacklings.
 The pheasants, swooping down from their roosts, would stand
in one spot.

One such morning Bambi was roaming around as usual. In the

gray dawn he came to the edge of the hollow. On the farther side
where he had lived before something was stirring. Bambi stayed
hidden in the thicket and peered across. A deer was wandering
slowly to and fro, looking for places where the snow had melted, and
cropping whatever grasses had sprung up so early.
Bambi wanted to turn at once and go away, for he recognized
Faline. His first impulse was to spring forward and call her. But he
stood as though rooted to the spot. He had not seen Faline for a long
time. His heart began to beat faster. Faline moved slowly as though
she were tired and sad. She resembled her mother now. She looked
as old as Aunt Ena, as Bambi noticed with a strangely pained
surprise.
Faline lifted her head and gazed across as though she sensed his
presence. Again Bambi started forward, but he stopped again,
hesitating and unable to stir.
He saw that Faline had grown old and gray.
“Gay, pert little Faline, how lovely she used to be,” he thought,
“and how lively!” His whole youth suddenly flashed before his eyes.
The meadow, the trails where he walked with his mother, the happy
games with Gobo and Faline, the nice grasshoppers and butterflies,
the fight with Karus and Ronno when he had won Faline for his own.
He felt happy again, and yet he trembled.
Faline wandered on, her head drooped to the ground, walking
slowly, sadly and wearily away. At that moment Bambi loved her with
an overpowering, tender melancholy. He wanted to rush through the
hollow that separated him from the others. He wanted to overtake
her, to talk with her, to talk to her about their youth and about
everything that had happened.
He gazed after her as she went off, passing under the bare
branches till finally she was lost to sight.
He stood there a long time staring after her.
Then there was a crash like thunder. Bambi shrank together. It
came from where he was standing. Not even from a little way off but
right beside him.
Then there was a second thunderclap, and right after that another.
Bambi leaped a little farther into the thicket, then stopped and
listened. Everything was still. He glided stealthily homewards.
The old stag was there before him. He had not lain down yet, but
was standing beside the fallen beech trunk expectantly.
“Where have you been so long?” he asked so seriously that
Bambi grew silent.
“Did you hear it?” the old stag went on after a pause.
 “Yes,” Bambi answered, “three times. He must be in the woods.”
“Of course,” the old stag nodded, and repeated with a peculiar
intonation, “He is in the woods and we must go.”
“Where?” the word escaped Bambi.
“Where He is now,” said the old stag, and his voice was solemn.
Bambi was terrified.
“Don’t be frightened,” the old stag went on, “come with me and
don’t be frightened. I’m glad that I can take you and show you the
way....” He hesitated and added softly, “Before I go.”
Bambi looked wonderingly at the old stag. And suddenly he
noticed how aged he looked. His head was completely gray now. His
face was perfectly gaunt. The deep light was extinguished in his
eyes, and they had a feeble, greenish luster and seemed to be blind.
Bambi and the old stag had not gone far before they caught the
first whiff of that acrid smell that sent such dread and terror to their
hearts.
Bambi stopped. But the old stag went on directly towards the
scent. Bambi followed hesitantly.
The terrifying scent grew stronger and stronger. But the old stag
kept on without stopping. The idea of flight sprang up in Bambi’s mind
and tugged at his heart. It seethed through his mind and body, and
nearly swept him away. But he kept a firm grip on himself and stayed
close behind the old stag.
Then the horrible scent grew so strong that it drowned out
everything else, and it was hardly possible to breathe.
“Here He is,” said the old stag moving to one side.
Through the bare branches, Bambi saw Him lying on the trampled
snow a few steps away.
An irresistible burst of terror swept over Bambi and with a sudden
bound he started to give in to his impulse to flee.
 “Halt!” he heard the old stag calling. Bambi looked around and
saw the stag standing calmly where He was lying on the ground.
Bambi was amazed and, moved by a sense of obedience, a
boundless curiosity and quivering expectancy, he went closer.
“Come near,” said the old stag, “don’t be afraid.”
He was lying with His pale, naked face turned upwards, His hat a
little to one side on the snow. Bambi who did not know anything about
hats thought His horrible head was split in two. The poacher’s shirt,
open at the neck, was pierced where a wound gaped like a small red
mouth. Blood was oozing out slowly. Blood was drying on His hair
and around His nose. A big pool of it lay on the snow which was
melting from the warmth.
“We can stand right beside Him,” the old stag began softly, “and it
isn’t dangerous.”
Bambi looked down at the prostrate form whose limbs and skin
seemed so mysterious and terrible to him. He gazed at the dead eyes
that stared up sightlessly at him. Bambi couldn’t understand it all.
“Bambi,” the old stag went on, “do you remember what Gobo said
and what the dog said, what they all think, do you remember?”
Bambi could not answer.
“Do you see, Bambi,” the old stag went on, “do you see how He’s
lying there dead, like one of us? Listen, Bambi. He isn’t all-powerful
as they say. Everything that lives and grows doesn’t come from Him.
He isn’t above us. He’s just the same as we are. He has the same
fears, the same needs, and suffers in the same way. He can be killed
like us, and then He lies helpless on the ground like all the rest of us,
as you see Him now.”
There was a silence.
“Do you understand me, Bambi?” asked the old stag.
“I think so,” Bambi said in a whisper.
“Then speak,” the old stag commanded.
 Bambi was inspired, and said trembling, “There is Another who is
over us all, over us and over Him.”
“Now I can go,” said the old stag.
He turned away, and they wandered side by side for a stretch.
Presently the old stag stopped in front of a tall oak. “Don’t follow
me any further, Bambi,” he began with a calm voice, “my time is up.
Now I have to look for a resting place.”
Bambi tried to speak.
“Don’t,” said the old stag cutting him short, “don’t. In the hour
which I am approaching we are all alone. Good-by, my son. I loved
you dearly.”
 CHAPTER XXV
Dawn of the summer’s day came hot, without a breath of wind or the
usual morning chill. The sun seemed to come up faster than usual. It
rose swiftly and flashed like a torch with dazzling rays.
The dew on the meadows and bushes was drawn up in an instant.
The earth was perfectly dry so that the clods crumbled. The forest
had been still from an early hour. Only a woodpecker hammered now
and then, or the doves cooed their tireless, fervid tenderness.
Bambi was standing in a little clearing, forming a narrow glade in
the heart of the thicket.
A swarm of midges danced and hummed around his head in the
warm sunshine.
There was a low buzzing among the leaves of the hazel bushes
near Bambi, and a big may-beetle crawled out and flew slowly by. He
flew among the midges, up and up, till he reached the tree-top where
he intended to sleep till evening. His wing-covers folded down hard
and neatly and his wings vibrated with strength.
The midges divided to let the may-beetle pass through, and
closed behind him again. His dark brown body, over which shone the
vibrant glassy shimmer of his whirring wings, flashed for a moment in
the sunshine as he disappeared.
“Did you see him?” the midges asked each other.
“That’s the old may-beetle,” some of them hummed.
Others said, “All of his offspring are dead. Only one is still alive.
Only one.”
“How long will he live?” a number of midges asked.
The others answered, “We don’t know. Some of his offspring live a
long time. They live forever almost.... They see the sun thirty or forty
times, we don’t know exactly how many. Our lives are long enough,
but we see the daylight only once or twice.”
“How long has the old beetle been living?” some very small
midges asked.
“He has outlived his whole family. He’s as old as the hills, as old
as the hills. He’s seen more and been through more in this world than
we can even imagine.”
Bambi walked on. “Midge buzzings,” he thought, “midge
buzzings.”
A delicate frightened call came to his ears.
He listened and went closer, perfectly softly, keeping among the
thickest bushes, and moving noiselessly as he had long known how
to do.
The call came again, more urgent, more plaintively. Fawns’ voices
were wailing, “Mother! Mother!”
Bambi glided through the bushes and followed the calls.
Two fawns were standing side by side, in their little red coats, a
brother and sister, forsaken and despondent.
 Two fawns were standing side by side, in their little red coats.

“Mother! Mother!” they called.

Before they knew what had happened Bambi was standing in front
of them. They stared at him speechlessly.
“Your mother has no time for you now,” said Bambi severely.
He looked into the little brother’s eyes. “Can’t you stay by
yourself?” he asked.
The little brother and sister were silent.
Bambi turned and, gliding into the bushes, disappeared before
they had come to their senses. He walked along.
 “The little fellow pleases me,” he thought, “perhaps I’ll meet him
again when he’s larger....”
He walked along. “The little girl is nice too,” he thought, “Faline
looked like that when she was a fawn.”
He went on, and vanished in the forest.
THE END
 from The Inner Sanctum of
SIMON and SCHUSTER
Publishers
31 West 57th Street : New York
The Inner Sanctum made three
glamorous pilgrimages to the city
of Arthur Schnitzler, Franz
Wefrel, Richard Strauss and
Eroicastrasse [our favorite
thoroughfare] in arranging for the
publication of this idyll of a deer:
Bambi, A Life In The Woods.
Having made numerous channel
crossings and having battled with
proof in every tantalizing form,
The Inner Sanctum particularly
appreciates the force and grace of
John Galsworthy's tribute in the
foreword.
Masterpieces, little or big, are rare
phenomena. It is The Inner
Sanctum's profound conviction
that the accolade is deserved by
Bambi--and a first edition of
seventy-five thousand copies is
the ratification of this enthusiasm.
--Essandess

TRANSCRIBER NOTES
Misspelled words and printer
errors have been corrected.
Where multiple spellings occur,
majority use has been employed.
Punctuation has been maintained
except where obvious printer
errors occur.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BAMBI ***

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