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NEED FOR PROTECTED WATER SUPPLY

The raw or untreated water contains various impurities and pathogenic organisms, which
results in the spread of the water borne and water induced diseases like typhoid, cholera,
amoebiasis etc.Therefore it is necessary to supply water which is free and impurities and
pathogenic organisms.

The pathogenic organisms do not multiply in water like that in milk, but they do survive i.e
water may be considered as a carrier of bacteria and not multiplier. Thus disinfection
principles or process can control pathogens. If we maintain the water quality outbreak of
many diseases can be controlled.

Protected water supply means the supply of water that is treated to remove the impurities and
made safe to public health. Water may be polluted by physical and bacterial agents. Water is
also good carrier of disease causing germs. The causes of outbreak of epidemics are traced to
pollute water and poor sanitation hospital are continued to be flooded with the sick due to
ignorance about health continues to be profound. However during the last few decades,
improvements in the public health protection by supplying safe water and sanitation to all the
people in the developing countries. In 1977, united nations declare to launch a movement
known as “HEALTH FOR ALL BY THE YEAR 2000 A.D.” India is also a signatory to that
conference. The working group appointed by the planning commission while suggesting
strategies for achieving the above goal emphasized that potable water from protected water
supply should be made available to the entire population. Pure and whole some water is to be
supplied to the community alone can bring down the morbidity rates

VARIOUS TYPES OF WATER DEMANDS

While designing the water supply scheme for a town or city, it is necessary todetermine the
total quantity of a water required for various purposes by the city. As amatter of fact the first
duty of the engineer is to determine the water demand of the townand then to find suitable
water sources from where the demand can be met. But as thereare so many factors involved
in demand of water, it is not possible to accuratelydetermine the actual demand. Certain
empirical formulae and thumb rules are employedin determining the water demand, which is
very near to the actual demand.

Following are the various types of water demands of a city or town:

1. Domestic water demand
2. Industrial demand
3. Institution and commercial demand
4. Demand for public use
5. Five demand
6. Loses and wastes

DOMESTIC WATER DEMAND

The quantity of water required in the houses for drinking, bathing, cooking,washing etc is
called domestic water demand and mainly depends upon the habits, socialstatus, climatic
conditions and customs of the people. The domestic water consumption per person shall
bvary according to the living conditions of the consumers. As per IS; 1172-1993, the
minimum domestic water consumption for a town or a city with full flushing system should

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be taken as 200L/h/d. As per IS: 1172-1993, undernormal conditions, the domestic

consumption of water in India is about 135litres/day/capita. But in developed countries this
figure may be 350 litres/day/capitabecause of use of air coolers, air conditioners, maintenance
of lawns, automatichousehold appliances.
The breakup of 200 L/h/d and 135 L/h/d are given in table (1) and (2)

Table 1: Minimum Domestic Water Consumption for Indian Towns and Cities with
Full Flushing Systems as per IS 1172-1993
Use Consumption in litres per head per day
(l/h/d)
Drinking 5
Cooking 5
Bathing 75
Washing of clothes 25
Washing of utensils 15
Washing and cleaning of houses and 15
residences
Lawn watering and gardening 15
Flushing of water closets 45
Total 200

Table 2: Minimum Domestic Water Consumption for Weaker Sections LIG colonies in
Small Indian Towns and Cities
Use Consumption in litres per head per day
(l/h/d)
Drinking 5
Cooking 5
Bathing 55
Washing of clothes 20
Washing of utensils 10
Washing and cleaning of houses and 10
residences
Flushing of water closets 30
Total 135

INDUSTRIAL DEMAND

The industrial water demand represents the water demand of industries, which are either
existing or are likely to be started in the future, in the cities for which water supply is being
planned. Thus the water required mainly depends on the types and numbers of industries
existing in the locality.
The quantity ofwater demand for industrial purpose is around 20 to 25% of the total demand
of the city.
The ordinary per capita consumption on account of industrial needs of a city is generally
taken as 50litres/ person/ day, which may be sufficient to meet the demand of small scale
industries, without catering the large industries. Separate provision may be made to meet the
demand of such specific industries.

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Some of the industries may develop their own water supplies and may place a very little or
virtually no demand on the public supplies
In industrial cities, the per capita water requirement may finally be computed to be as high as
450litre/person/day or so as compared to the normal industrial requirement of
50litres/person/day.
The approximate quantities of water required by different industries per unit of their
production are shown in the table

Table 3: Water Demand of certain important industries

S. Name of industry Unit of Approximate quantity of

No. and product production or water required per unit of
raw material used production or raw material in
kilo litres
1 Auto mobiles vehicle 40

2 Distillery (Alcohol) Kilo litre 122-170

3 Fertilizer Tonne 80-200

4 Leather (tanned) Tonne 40

5 Paper Tonne 200-400

6 Special quality paper Tonne 400-1000

7 Petroleum refinery Tonne 1-2

8 Steel Tonne 200-250

9 Sugar Tonne 1-2

10 Textile Tonne 80-140

INSTITUTION AND COMMERCIAL DEMAND

The water required by the universities, institution, commercial buildings and commercial
centers includingoffice buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels, shopping centers, health centers,
schools,temple, cinema houses, railway and bus stations etc comes under this category. This
quantity will certainly vary with the nature of the city and with the number and types of
commercial establishments and institutions present in it.
On an average, a per capita demand of 20litres/head/day is usually considered to be enough
to meet such requirement; this demand may be as high as 50 litres/head/day for highly
commercialised cities
The individual approximate water requirements for the institutions and commercial units isas
shown in the table 4, and these values may be used for better assessment of their water needs.

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Table 4 :Water requirements of individual institutions and commercial establishments

S. Type of Institution or Commercial Average water consumption in
No. establishment litres/head/day
1 offices 45-90
2 Hostels 135-180
3 Restaurants 70 per seat
4 schools a) day school 45-90
b) Residential 135-225
5 Factories a) Where bath rooms are provided 45-90
b) No bath rooms provided 30-60
6 Hospitals ( Including laundry) a) beds less than 340 per bed
100
b) beds more than 100 450 per bed
7 Nurses homes & medical quarters 135-225
8 Cinema hall 15
9 Airports 70
10 Railway station 23-70

DEMAND FOR PUBLIC USES

This includes the quantity of water required for public utility such as washing and sprinkling
on roads, cleaning of sewers, watering of public parks, gardens, public fountains etc. To
meet the water demand for public use, provision of 5% of the total consumption is made
designing the water works for a city.. a figure of 10litres/ head/day is usually added on to this
account while computing the total water requirement.

FIRE DEMAND
During the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it over the fire to
extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply sufficient quantity of
water or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose.

Fire hydrants are usually fitted in the water mains at about 100 to 150m apart, and fire
fighting pumps are immediately connected into them by the fire brigade personnel as soon as
fire breaks out. These pumps then throw water on the fire at very high pressures, so as to
bring it under control. The minimum water pressure available at fire hydrants should be of the
order of 100 to 150KN/m2.

For the cities having populations exceeding 50000, the water required in kilo litres may be
computed by using the relation
Kilo litre of water =𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑷
Where‟ P‟ is the population in thousands
The quantity of water required for fire fighting is generally calculated by using different
empirical formulae.

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(1) Kuichling’s Formula

Where, Q = Amount of Water required in liters/minute.

P = Population in thousands.

(2) Freeman Formula

(3) National Board of Fire Under Writers Formula

(a) For a central congested high valued city
(i) Where population < 200000

(ii) Where population > 200000

Q = 54600 lit/minute for first fire
and Q = 9100 to 36, 400 lit/minute for a second fire.
(b) For a residential city.
(i) Small or low building,
Q = 2,200 lit/minutes.
(ii) Larger or higher buildings,
Q = 4500 lit/minute
(iii) High value residences, apartments, tenements
Q = 7650 to 13,500 lit/minute.
(iv) Three storeyed buildings in density built up sections.
Q = 27,000 lit/minute.

(4) Buston's Formula

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The probability of occurrence of fire, which, in turn, depends upon the type of the city served,
has been taken into consideration in developing above formula on the actual water
consumption in fire fighting for Jabalpur city of India. The formula is given as:

Where, R = Recurrence interval of fire i.e., period of occurrence of fire in years, which will
be different for residential, commercial and industrial cities.

(R) minimum = 1 year.

t = duration of fire in minutes,
(t)minimum = 30 minutes.

PER CAPITA DEMAND(q):

it is the annual average amount of daily water required by one person, and includes the
domestic use, industrial and commercial use, public use, wastes, thefts etc. it may. Therefore
expressed as

Per capita Demand (q) in = Total yearly water requirement of the city
liters per day per head in litres(V)
__________________________________
365 x design population

For an average Indian, as per recommendeds of IS code, the per capita demand may be taken
as given in the table 5
Table 5 : Break up of per capita demand (q) for an Average Indian City

Use Demand in l/h/d

Domestic use 200
Industrial use 50
Commercial use 20
Civic or public use 10
Wastes and thefts, etc 55
Total 335 = per capita demand (q)

FACTORS AFFECTING PER CAPITA DEMAND

The following are the main factors affecting for capita demand of the city ortown.

1. Climatic conditions :The quantity of water required in hotter and dry places ismore
than cold countries because of the use of air coolers, air conditioners,sprinkling of
water in lawns, gardens, courtyards, washing of rooms, more washingof clothes and
bathing etc. But in very cold countries sometimes the quantity ofwater required may
be more due to wastage, because at such places the people oftenkeep their taps open
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and water continuously flows for fear of freezing of water in thetaps and use of hot
water for keeping the rooms warm.
2. Size of city:The per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that
of smaller towns. This is because of the fact that in big cities, huge quantities of water
are required for maintaining clean and healthy environment. Water demand is more
with increase of size of town becausemore water is required in street washing, running
of sewers, maintenance of parksand gardens. Similarly in big cities commercial and
industrial activities are generally more, thus requiring more water. Affluent rich living
in air cooled homes may also increase the water consumption in cities.
On an average, the per capita demand for Indian towns may vary with the population
as shown in the table 6

Table 6 : Variations in per capita demand (q) with population in India

Sl.No Population Per caipta demand in

litres/day/ person
1. Less than 20,000 110
2. 20,000-50,000 110-150
3. 50,000-2 lakhs 150-240
4. 2 lakhs- 5 lakhs 240-275
5. 5 lakhs-10 lakhs 275-375
6. Over 10 lakhs 335-360

3. Living standard of the people/ types of gentry :The per capita demand of the town
increases withthe standard of living of the people because of the use of air
conditioners, roomcoolers, maintenance of lawns, use of flushing systems and
automatic home appliancesetc.
Rich and upper class communities generally consume more water due to their affluent
living standards. Middle class communities consume average amounts, while the poor
slum dwellers consume very low amounts. The amount of water consumption is thus
directly dependent upon the economic status of the consumers
4. Industrial and commercial activities: The presence of industrial and commercial
activities at a particular place increases the water consumption by large amounts. As
the quantity of water required in certainindustries is much more than domestic
demand, their presence in the town willenormously increase per capita demand of the
town. As a matter of the fact the waterrequired by the industries has no direct link
with the population of the town.However for a properly planned and zoned city, the
water requirement can be more accurately predicted by estimating the industrial and
commercial demands separately
5. Quality of water supplies: if the quality and taste of the supplied water is good, it
will consumed more, because in that case people will not use other sources such as
private wells, hand pumps etc. Similarly, certain industries such as boiler feeds, etc
which requires standard quality water will not develop their own supplies and will use
public supplies, provided the supplied water is upto their required standards
6. Pressure in the distribution system: if the pressure in the distribution pipes is high
and sufficient to make the water reach at 3rd or even 4th storey, water consumption
shall definitely be more. This water consumption increases because of two reasons:
i. People living in upper storeys will use water freely as compared to the case
when water is available scarcely to them.

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ii. The losses and waste due to leakage are considerably increased if this pressure
is high.
7. System of sanitation: Per capita demand of the towns having water carriage
systemwill be more than the town where this system is not being used.
8. Cost of water: The cost of water directly affects its demand. If the cost of water
ismore, less quantity of water will be used by the people as compared when the cost
islow.
9. Systems of supply:The water can be supplied either continuously for all the 24 hours
of the day or may be supplied only for peak periods during the morning and evening.
The second system, the intermittent supplies, may lead to some saving in water
consumption due to losses occurring for lesser
10. Policy of metering and method of charging: water tax is generally charged in two
different ways:
a. On the basis of meter reading
b. On the basis of Flat rate system.
Communities that are metered usually show a lower and more stable water use pattern. In flat
rate system people do not practice economy in the use of water as they pay only a
fixed amount irrespective of water used by them.

VARIATIONS IN DEMAND
There are wide variations in the use of water in different seasons, in different months of the
year, in different days of the month and in different hours of the day.
Seasonal or monthly variation are prominent in tropical countries like India rate of
consumption reaches maximum in summer season due to greater use of water for street and
lawn sprinkling etc.
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
The water demand varies from season to season. In summer the water demand ismaximum,
because the people will use more water in bathing, cooling, lawn watering andstreet
sprinkling. This demand will becomes minimum in winter because less water willbe used in
bathing and there will be no lawn watering. The variations may be upto 15%of the average
demand of the year.

DAILY VARIATIONS
This variation depends on the general habits of people, climatic conditions andcharacter of
city as industrial, commercial or residential. More water demand will be onSundays and
holidays due to more comfortable bathing, washing etc as compared to otherworking days.

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Figure 1: Daily cycles in water demand

HOURLY VARIATIONS
The consumption in the early hours of morning 0 to 6 hours is generally small, increases
sharply as the day advances, reaching a peak value between about 8 to 11AM, then decreases
sharply upto about 1PM, remains constanupto about 4PM, again increase in the evening
reaching a peak between 7 to 9 PM, finally falling to alow value in the late hours of night, as
shown in figure (2). The night flow excluding the industrial consumption generally represent
the magnitude of losses and waste, since there is no appreciable domestic consumption during
this time

Figure 2: Hourly rate of water consumption

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Effect of variations on components of water supply scheme

 Source of supply such as wells, etc may be designed for maximum daily consumption.
The pipe mains from source to service reservoirs may be designed for maximum daily
consumption or sometimes for average daily consumption.
 The pipe mains taking the water from the source upto the service reservoir may be
designed for maximum daily consumption
 Filters & other units of treatment unitat water treatment plant may be designed for
maximum daily draft. Sometimes, an additional provision of reserve is made for
break-down & repairs. Hence designed for twice the daily avg. demand instead of 1.8
times the avg. daily
 Pumps for lifting the watermay be designed for maximum daily draft plus
someadditional reserve for break-down & repairs. Hence designed for twice the daily
avg. demand instead of 1.8 times the average daily.
When the pumps do not work for all the 24 hours, such as in small town supplies, the
design draft should be multiplied by [24/No of hours in the day for which the pumps
are running]
 The distribution system including the pipes carrying water from service reservoir to
distribution system should be designed for maximum hourly draft of the maximum
day
 The service reservoir is designed to take care of the hourly fluctuations, fire demands,
emergency reserve and the provision required when pumps have to pump the entire
day‟s water in fewer hours than 24 hours

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DESIGN PERIOD
The complete water supply project includes huge and costly constructions such asdams,
reservoirs, treatment works and network of distribution pipelines. These all workscannot be
replaced easily or capacities increased conveniently for future expansions.While designing
and constructing these works, they should have sufficientcapacity to meet future demand of
the town for number of years. In order to avoid the future complications of expansions, the
various components of water supply scheme are purposely made larger; so as to satisfy the
community needs for a reasonable number of years to come. This future period or the
number of years forwhich a provision is made in designing the capacities of various
components of the water supply scheme is known as design period.

The design period should neither be too long nor short

FACTORS GOVERNING THE DESIGN PERIOD

 Useful life of the component structures, considering obsolescence, wear, tears, etc.
Design periods should not exceed those respective values
 Ease and difficulty that is likely to be faced in expansions, if undertaken at future
dates. For example, more difficult expansions mean choosing a higher value of the
design period
 Amount and availability of additional investment likely to be incurred for additional
provisions. For example, if the funds are not available, one has to keep a smaller
design period
 The rate of interest on the borrowings and the additional money invested. For
example, if the interest rate is small, a higher value of the design period may be
economically justified and therefore adopted.
 Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial, commercial
developments & migration-immigration. For example, if the rate of increase of
population is less, a higher figure for the design period may be chosen.

DESIGN PERIOD VALUES

Water supply projects under normal circumstances, may be designed for a design period of
30 years. This 30 years period is to be counted after the completion of the project. The design
period recommended by the GOI manual on water supply, for designing the different
components of a water supply scheme are given in the table (7)

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Table 7:Design period for different components of water supply scheme (GOI Mannual)
SL. no. Item Design Period in Years

1 Storage by dams 50
2 Intake works 30
3 Pumping 30
(i) Pump house
(ii) Electric motors & pumps 15
4 Water treatment units 15
5 Pipe connections to several treatment units & other 30
small appurtenances
6 Raw water & clear water conveying units 30
7 Clear water reservoirs, balancing reservoirs, 15
ESR,GSR, etc
8 Distribution system 30

POPULATION FORECASTING METHODS AND PROBLEMS

When the design period is fixed the next step is to determine the population of atown or city
population of a town depends upon the factors like births, deaths, migrationand annexation.
The future development of the town mostly depends upon tradeexpansion, development
industries, and surrounding country, discoveries of mines,construction of railway stations etc
may produce sharp rises, slow growth, and stationary conditions or even decrease the
population. For the prediction of population, it is better tostudy the development of other
similar towns, which have developed under the samecircumstances, because the development
of the predicted town will be more or less on thesame lines.
The following are the standard methods by which the forecasting population
isdone. Given in notes
1. Arithmetical increase method
2. Geometrical increase method
3. Incremental increase method/ method of varying increment
4. The logistic curve method
5. Decreasing rate of growth method
6. Simple graphical method
7. Comparative graphical method
8. Master plan method or zoning method
9. The ratio or the apportionment method

5) Simple Graphical method.

In the method, a curve is drawn between the population P and time T, with the help of census data
of previous few decades, So that the shape of the population curve is obtained – up to the present
period. The curve is then carefully is then carefully extended from the present to the future
decades. From the extended part of the curve, the population at the end of any future decade is
approximately determined.

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Fig: Graph between population and time

6) Comparative Graphical Method.

This method is a variation of the previous method. It assumes that the city under considerationwill
develop as similar cities developed in the past. The method consists of plotting curves of cities
that, one or more decades ago, had reached the present population of the city under
consideration.Thus, as shown in Fig, the population of city A under consideration is plotted upto
1970 at which its population is 62,000. The city B having similar conditions, reached the
population of 62,000 in 1930 and its curve is plotted from 1930 onwards. Similar curves are
plotted for other cities C, D andE which reached the population of 62000 in 1925, 1935 and 1920
respectively. The curve of city A canbe then be continued (shown by dotted line), allowing it to
be influenced by the rate of growth of thelarger cities. In practice however, is difficult to find
identical cities with respect to population growth.

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Fig: Graph between population and time

7) Zoning Method or Master Plan Method.

This is probably a scientific method using the limitations imposed by the town planner in
theincrease in density of population of various parts of the city. For this, a master plan of the city
is prepared, dividing it into various zones such as industrial, commercial, residential and other
zones. Each zone is allowed to develop as per master plan only. The future population of each
zone, when fully developed can be easily found. For example, sector A of a residential zone has
1000 plots.

Allowing 5 persons per plot, the population of this sector, when fully developed, will be 1000 X
5= 5000 persons. Similarly, the development of each zone can be estimated. This method is more
advantageous because of the fact that the total water requirement of the city depends not only o f
domestic purposes, but also for commercial, industrial, social health and other purposes.

8) Ratio and Correlation method

Th e population growth of a small town or area is related to big towns or big areas. The increasein
population of big cities bears a direct relationship to the whole state or country. In this method,
the local to national (or state) population ratio is determined in the previous two to four decades.

Depending upon condition or other factors, even changing ration may be adopted. These ratios
may be used in predicting their future population. This method takes into account the regional and
national factors affecting population growth. This method is useful for only those areas whose
population growth in past is fairly consistent with that of state or nation.

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9) Growth Composition Analysis Method

The change in population of a city is due to three reasons: (i) birth, (ii) death, and (iii) migration
from villages or other towns. The population forecast may be made by proper analysis of these
three factors. The difference between birth rate and death rate gives the natural increase in the
population .

Thus,

Pn = P + Natural increase + Migration.

The estimated increase is given by the following expression:

Natural increase = T( IB P – ID P)

Where T= design (forecast) period

P= present population.

IB == average birth rate per year.

ID = average death rate per year.

Coincident draft:
During a fire there will be sudden large draft or demand of water for firefighting in addition
to the usual demand of water for the consumers. Therefore, in the design of the distribution
system of a water supply scheme a provision should be made to meet the fire demand in
addition to the maximum demand of water for the consumers. It is, however, highly
improbable that the demand of water for firefighting will occur at the same time when there is
maximum hourly draft or demand of water for the consumers.
As such the maximum requirement of water during a fire is determined by adding the fire
demand to the maximum daily demand of water (i.e., 1.8 times the annual average daily
demand of water) and not to the maximum hourly demand of water. The maximum daily
demand of water is thus known as coincident draft or coincident demand of water during
firefighting.
Generally the sum of the fire demand and the maximum daily demand of water is more than
the maximum hourly demand of water. However, if the sum of the fire demand and the
maximum daily demand of water is less than the maximum hourly demand of water, then the
distribution system of the water supply scheme will be designed for the maximum hourly
demand of water.

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ASSESSMENT OF NORMAL VARIATIONS

The maximum demands (monthly, daily or hourly) are generally expressed as ratios of their
means. The following figures are generally adopted.

Average daily demand (q) = population x per capita demand

1. MAXIMUM DAILY CONSUMPTION is generally taken as 180% of the

average, therefore

Maximum daily demand(MDD) = 1.8 xAverage daily demand

= 1.8 q

2. MAXIMUM HOURLY CONSUMPTION is generally taken as 150% of its

average hourly consumption of maximum day, there fore

Maximum hourly consumption of the maximum day or peak demand

= 1.5 (150%) x Average hourly consumption of the max. day.(Litres/day)

= 1.5 [MDD / 24 ] (Litres/hr)

= 1.5 [1.8 q / 24 ] (Litres/hr)
= 2.7 / 24 (Litres/hr)

Therfore,
Maximum hourly consumption of the maximum day = (2.7 Annual Average hourly demand)

The formula given by GOODRICH is also used for finding out the rather of peak demand
rates to their corresponding average values.

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GOODRICH FORMULA P=180 t -0.10

Where, P = % of annual average draft for the time „t‟in days
T = Time in days from 1/ 24 to 365
When t= 1 day (For daily variations)
P = 180 x (1)-0.10
P = 180%
MDD/ADD = 180%
When t = 7 days (For weekly variations)
P = 180 x (7)-0.10
P = 148%
MWD/ AWD = 148%
T = 30 days (For monthly variations)

P = 180 x(30)-0.10
P =128%
MMD / AMD = 128%
Maxm monthly Demand / Avg .MonthlyDemand = 128%

Peak factor
The peak factor, defined as the ratio of the maximum flow during some specified time to the
average flow.
Maximum hourly consumption of the maximum day is called Peak demand. Which is nothing
but a factor of safety.
The GOI manual on water supply has recommended the following values of the Peak factor,
depending upon the population:
Table : Peak Factors
Sl. No Population Peak factor
1. Up to 50,000 3.0

2. 50,000-2,00,000 2.5

3. Above 2,00,000 2.0

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