PHE MODULE 3

Module -3
Disinfection
The process of killing the infective bacteria from the water and making it safe to the user is called
disinfection. The water which comes out from the filter may contain some disease causing bacteria
in addition to the useful bacteria. Before the water is supplied to the public it is utmost necessary to
kill all the disease causing bacteria. The chemicals or substances which are used for killing the
bacteria are known as disinfectants.

Requirements of good disinfectants

1. They should destroy all the harmful pathogens and make it safe for use,.
2. They should not take more time in killing bacteria
3. They should be economical and easily available
4. They should not require high skill for their application
5. After treatment the water should not become toxic and objectionable to the user.

MINOR METHODS OF DISINFECTION

Following are the minor methods of disinfection.
1. Boiling method
2. Excess lime treatment
3. Iodine and bromine treatment
4. Ozone treatment
5. Potassium Permanganate
6. Silver treatment
7. Treatment with ultra-violet rays

1. Boiling of water
This is the most effective method of killing bacteria but impracticable in large scale. Most of
bacteria are destroyed when the water has attained of about 80˚C temperature. Prolonged boiling is
unnecessary and wasteful.

2.Treatment with excess lime

Lime which is used in the softening process is found to kill the bacteria, if it is added in excess, so
much so that an addition of 14 to 43 ppm of excess lime has been found to remove the bacterial
load by about 99.3 to 100% from highly polluted water. When the pH value is about 9.5, 99.9 to
100% bacteria are removed. Lime is to be removed with the treatment like recarbonation and then
supplied to the public.

3. Treatment with ozone

Ozone gas is faintly blue gas of pungent odour, and is excellent disinfectant Ozone is unstable and
does not remain in the water when it reaches the consumer. It can be produced by passing a high
tension electric current through a stream of air in a closed chamber, under the following chemical
reaction
Ozone is unstable so it breaks down into normal oxygen and releases nascent oxygen as below

The nascent oxygen so produced, is a powerful oxidizing agent which removes organic matter as
well as bacteria from the water. During the treatment, ozone gas is manufactured and bubbled

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through water contained in a sterilizing chamber having inlets and outlets for water as well as inlet
for ozone. The ionized water comes out through the outlet at the top
About 2 to 3 ppm of ozone is generally consumed so as to obtain a residual ozone of 0.10 ppm after
a contact period of about 10 minutes. Ozone is largely used in France and Russia and cities like
Chandigarh.

Advantages
• Ozone being unstable, nothing remains in water, by the time it reaches the distribution
system
• Ozone removes colour, taste, odour from water, in addition to removing the bacteria from it

• The ionized water becomes tasty and pleasant

Disadvantages
• It is very costly
• Ozone needs electricity for its manufacture, and hence it can be used only when electricity is
available easily and cheaply

• Since no residuals remains, it does not ensure safety against possible future contaminations

• Ozone manufacturing apparatus called ozoniser is required to be installed at the treatment

plants

• It is less efficient than chlorine in killing bacteria.

4. Treatment with iodine and bromine

When water is treated with iodine or bromine, it is disinfected. Use of iodine or bromine is limited
to small water supplies such as swimming pools, troops of army, private plants, etc. Dosage of
iodine or bromine is about 8 p.p.m. Contact period with water is 5 minutes. Available in the form of
pellets or small pills.

5. Treatment with ultra-voilet rays

UV rays are invisible light rays having wavelengths of 1000 to 4000µm. For generating these rays,
the mercury is enclosed in one or more quartz bulbs and electric current is then passed through it.
These rays are effective in killing all type of bacteria thus yielding a sterilized water. The water to
be treated should be less turbid (not exceed 15mg/l) and low in colour (preferably colourless). The
water should be passed round the bulbs several times. Depth of water over the bulbs should not
exceed 10 cm, as these rays can penetrate effectively to this distance only

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• Costlier process

• Needs electricity

• Possibilities of interruption are more due to the failure of electricity

• Unsuitable for treating large scale public water supplies

• Used for treating small quantities in hospitals, dispensaries for surgical uses
• This method is used for treating swimming pool water in developed countries

6.Treatment with potassium permanganate

This is used as popular disinfectant for disinfecting well water supplies in villages which are
generally contaminated with lesser amounts of bacteria. Beside killing bacteria, it also helps in
oxidizing the taste producing organic matter, so it is added in small doses even to filtered and
chlorinated water. For treating well water supplies, small amount of potassium permanganate
(KMnO4) is dissolved in a bucket of water and is mixed with the well water, thoroughly.

The addition of KMnO4 to the water produces pink colour. However, if the pink colour disappears,
it shows that organic matter is present in the water and more quantity of KMnO 4 should be added
until the pink colour stands. The well should not be used for atleast 48 hours after the addition of
KMnO 4 The normal doses of the disinfectant varies between 1 to 2mg/L with the contact period of
4 to 6 hours.

Though cheap, handy and quite useful, it can remove 98% removal of bacteria. The water treated
with, with passage of time produces a dark brown precipitate, which is noticeable on porcelain
vessels and difficult to remove without scouring.. This method of disinfection is not satisfactory and
not recommended except for rural areas.

7. Treatment with silver-katadyn process

In this method of disinfection, metallic silver ions are introduced into the water by passing it
through a tube containing solid silver electrodes which are connected to a DC supply of about 1.5
volts. The so introduced silver ions have strong germicidal action and thus act as disinfectant.

The recommended silver dose may vary between 0.05 to 0.1 mg/L, and the required contact period
may vary between 15 minutes to 3 hours.

The silver treatment neither imparts any taste and odour to the water nor it produces any harmful
effects on human body. But the use of silver is very costly, and hence not adopted for treating
public water supplies. The organic suspended matter and H2S should be removed by
pretreatment before using the disinfectant before as it removes the efficient bacterial removal. This

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method removes algae, and its germicidal property is retained for considerable time, thus allowing
some safeguard against future contamination.

CHLORINATION
In this treatment for disinfection, the chlorine is used as disinfecting material. For treatment on
large scale, chlorination is invariably used as treatment for disinfection. This method is cheap,
reliable, easy to handle, easily measurable. It is capable of providing residual disinfecting effects
for long periods, thus affording/ complete protection against future recontamination of water in the
distribution system. Its only disadvantage is that when used in greater amounts, it imparts bitter and
bad taste to the water, which is not accepted by certain consumers.

Advantages of chlorination

1. It accomplishes greater bacterial purification in minutes.

2. It is cheap and avoids, wholly or in part, the necessity for raw water storage.

3. It provides extra security against water-borne diseases.

4. The processes is economical and cheap.

5. It is harmless to human beings.

6. It is reliable and effective.

7. Residual chlorine can be maintained in water.ad taste to the water, which is not accepted by
certain consumers.

Disinfection action of chlorine

When chlorine is added to water, it forms hypochlorous acid or hypochlorite ions, which have an
immediate and disastrous effect on most forms of microscopic organisms.

pH of water is maintained between 5-7

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Reason:

Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is 80 times more destructive than Hypochlorite ions (OCl -). Thus, we
need more HOCl in the solution.

CHLORINE DEMAND
Chlorine and its compounds are consumed by a variety of organic and inorganic materials present
in water due to its oxidising power before disinfection is achieved. The amount of chlorine
consumed in the oxidation of these impurities, before any disinfection is achieved, is known as
chlorine demand of water.

After the chlorine demand is fulfilled, chlorine will appear as free available residual chlorine. The
free available residual chlorine will then serve as disinfectant to kill to the pathogens present in
water. Thus the difference between the amount of chlorine added to the water and the residual
chlorine is called chlorine demand.

Generally, most waters are satisfactorily disinfected if the free available residual chlorine is about
0.2 mg/litre at the end of 10 minutes contact period.

FORMS OF APPLICATION OF CHLORINE

Chlorine may be applied to water in one of the following form:

1. As free chlorine

2. As chloramines

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3. As bleaching powder

4. As chlorine dioxide.

(1) Free chlorine

Free chlorine is available in gaseous or liqiud form. Chlorine is stored in cylinder, 80% of the
contents being in liquid form and the rest in gaseous form. The chlorine is fed to a water-supply by
means of a device called chlorinator. It regulates the flow of gas from the chlorine container at the
desired rate.

Advantages
 It can be stored for long time.
 It is very powerful and effective disinfectant
 It is available cheaply
 Initial coast of chlorine plant is low.
 There is no sludge formation.
 Skilled supervision is not necessary.

(2) Chloramines
Chlorine is not stable in water. Hence it is sometimes mixed with ammonia to form stable
compounds called chloramines.
• Chlorine readily reacts with the ammonia present in the water to form various chloramines.

• When all the ammonia available is consumed, Chlorine remains as free chlorine which is 25
times less effective.

• Chlorine with ammonia in the form of chloramine is called combined chlorine is also much
less effective than free chlorine.

• However according to Enzymatic hypothesis, the so formed chlorine enters the cell wall of
bacteria and kills those enzymes essential for their metabolism, thus bringing about the
disinfection.

In this treatment, ammonia as NH3 is added to the water just before the chlorine is applied. The
usual proportions are 1 part of ammonia to 4.5 parts of chlorine by weight. These have adequately
good disinfecting properties and are specially useful for disinfecting swimming pools.

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Advantages

 It is more effective than chlorine alone.

 It prevents bad taste and odour, particularly those due to phenols.
 The quantity of chlorine required becomes less, especially if organic matter is present in
large amounts.
 Water treated with this causes less irritation to skin, nose and eyes.
 There is no danger of over dose.

(3) Bleaching powder

 Bleaching powder is a compound of chlorine and contains about 30% chlorine.

 When bleaching powder is used as disinfectant, it is also called hypo-chlorination.
Bleaching powder is available in the form of powder.
 It is unstable and loses chlorine when exposed to atmosphere.
 Hence it has to be stored carefully. It is therefore used only on small installations or under
emergency conditions.
 Hypochlorite is applied to water as a solution by means of hypochlorite feeding apparatus.

Advantages

 They are available in small packets in powder form.

 Their chlorine content does not decrease with storage.
 They can be applied to water in dry condition or as solution.

(4) Chlorine dioxide

 Chlorine dioxide is a very effective and powerful disinfectant.

 The chlorine dioxide gas is costly and very unstable and has to be used immediately after its
production.
 For these reasons, it is generally not used for treating ordinary public supplies.
 However, because of its stronger disinfecting powers, it may be used for treating waters
containing larger disinfecting powers, it may be used for treating waters containing larger
amounts of organic impurities.

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TYPES OF CHLORINATION

Depending upon the stage at which chlorine is applied to water chlorination can be of the following
types.

1. Plain chlorination
2. Pre-chlorination
3. Post-chlorination
4. Double chlorination
5. Break point chlorination
6. Super chlorination
7. Dechlorination

(1) Plain Chlorinationn such cases no treatment such as sedimentation, coagulation etc. is
necessary. When no other treatment except chlorination is given before supplying water to
consumers, it is called plain chlorination. It removes bacteria, colour and organic matter. Dosage of
chlorine is 0.5 mg/L or more.
(2) Pre-Chlorination
Pre-chlorination is the process of applying chlorine to the water before filtration or before
sedimentation. It helps in reducing the loads on the filters. It also reduces the taste, odour, algae and
other organisms. The normal doses required are as high as 5 to 10mg/L. Pre chlorination is
followed by post chlorination.
Advantages
1. It reduces the bacterial load on filters.
2. It helps in maintaining longer filter runs.
3. It controls the algae and planktons in basins and filters.
5. It eliminates tastes and odour.
(3) Post-chlorination
Post chlorination or sometimes simply called chlorination is the normal standard process of
applying chlorine in the end, when all other treatments have been completed. While treating normal
public supplies, the post chlorination is adopted after filtration and before the water enters the
distribution system. The dose of the chlorine should be so adjusted that the residual chlorine is
about 0.1 to 0.2 ppm before water enters the distribution system.
(4) Double chlorination
The term double chlorination is used to indicate that the water has been chlorinated twice. The pre-
chlorination and post-chlorination are generally used in double chlorination. Post chlorination,
however, is generally always used. The pre-chlorination is used when the waters is highly turbid
and contaminated.
(5) Break point chlorination
It is the addition of chlorine after break point. After break point ,any addition of chlorine appear as
free residual chlorine. When chlorine is added to water, initially it react with ammonia and form

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chloramines. Break point is the point at which chlorine consumed all the ammonia and further
addition of chlorine remains as free chlorine.

(6) Super chlorination

Super-chlorination is the application of chlorine beyond the stage of break point.It is the amount of
excessive amount chlorine (5-15mg/L) so as to produce a residue of 1-2mg/L. It is used under
special cases like highly polluted water or during epidemics.
(7) De chlorination
It is the process of removing excess chlorine from water before distribution to the consumers to
avoid chlorine tastes. This is generally required when super-chlorination has been practiced. Extra
chlorine is removed from water such that a residue of 0.2 mg/L do remain even after de
chlorination.
De chlorination is done by adding some de chlorination agents. Some de chlorinating agents are
 S02
 Activated carbon
 Sodium thiosulphate
 Sodium sulphite
 Sodium bisulphate
 Ammonia
This term is used to indicate that only chlorine is added to water and no other treatment has been
given to raw water. Water from deep wells, lakes, reservoirs etc., is comparatively clear with
turbidity less than 30ppm.

WATER SOFTNENING

Water softening is the process of removing hardness. Hardness is defined as the water‟s ability to
consume soap. Besides making water more pleasing for washing purposes, softening water can also
provide benefits of preventing encrustation and scaling inside boilers, water heaters, hot-water
lines, as well as some industrial processes.

Hardness is usually expressed in terms of “ppm as CaCO3”, or ppm as calcium carbonate.

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The terms, “hard water” and “soft water” are used loosely, as there are no accepted standards or
“measuring scale” to determine if water is soft or hard.

The primary constituents in water that cause hardness are calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg),
especially calcium. Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) can also promote to water hardness, but typically
at a much lesser degree.

Types of Hardness

Hardness in water is caused by a variety of divalent cations, primarily calcium and

magnesium. These cations have a tendency to combine with anions (negatively charged ions) in the
water to form stable compounds known as salts.

The type of anion found in these salts distinguishes between the two types of hardness - carbonate
and noncarbonate hardness.

Carbonate hardness compounds Noncarbonate hardness compounds

Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
Calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2)
Magnesium bicarbonate (Mg(HCO3 )2)
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2)
Calcium sulfate (CaSO4)
Magnesium sulfate (MgSO4)
Calcium chloride (CaCl 2)
Magnesium chloride (MgCl2

As you can see in the table above, carbonate hardness is caused by metals combined with a form
of alkalinity. As you may remember, alkalinity is the capacity of water to neutralize acids and is
caused by compounds such as carbonate, bicarbonate, hydroxide, and sometimes borate, silicate,
and phosphate. In contrast, noncarbonate hardness forms when metals combine with anything
other than alkalinity.

Carbonate hardness is sometimes called temporary hardness because it can be removed by boiling
water. Noncarbonate hardness cannot be broken down by boiling the water, so it is also known
as permanent hardness. In general, it is important to distinguish between the two types of
hardness because the removal method differs for the two.

When measuring hardness, we typically consider total hardness which is the sum of all hardness
compounds in water, expressed as a calcium carbonate equivalent. Total hardness includes both
temporary and permanent hardness caused by calcium and magnesium compounds.

Softening is the removal of hardness from water. This is not a required part of the water treatment
process since hard water does not have any health consequences. However, hard water is
problematic for a variety of reasons. Hard water makes soap precipitate out of water and form a

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scum, such as the ring which forms around bathtubs. In addition to being unsightly, the reaction of
hard water with soap results in excessive use of soaps and detergents. Hard water may also cause
taste problems in drinking water and may shorten the life of fabrics washed in hard water. Finally,
hard water harms many industrial processes, so industries often require much softer water than is
usually required by the general public.

1. Boiling

When water is boiled, the carbon dioxide gas will get out leading to the precipitation of calcium
carbonate, which can be sedimented out in settling tank.

2. Addition of lime

Lime (CaO), generally hydrated lime [Ca(OH) 2] is added to the water. The following raction takes
place

Methods of removing permanent hardness

1. Lime soda process

In this method, Lime [Ca(OH)2] and soda ash(Na2CO3) are added to hard water, which reacts with
calcium and magnesium salts and form insoluble precipitates of calcium carbonate and magnesium
hydroxide. These can be precipitated out in sedimentation tank. The chemical reactions involved are

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From the above reactions, it can be easily seen that lime helps in removing the entire carbonate
hardness and non-carbonate hardness of magnesium and gets converted into non-carbonate
hardness of calcium, which is finally removed by soda, and these sodium salts formed are not
objectionable in the amounts resulting from softening process.

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Lime also helps in removing the free dissolved CO 2 when it exists in the water.

Recarbonation

Most of the calcium and magnesium salts which forms insoluble precipitates of calcium carbonate
and magnesium hydroxide can be precipitated out in sedimentation tank. However a liitle quantity
may remain as finally divided particles and may cause troubles by getting deposited on the filter
causing enlargement of the sand grains called incrustation of filter media or in the pipes in the
distribution system. To prevent this, it is generally necessary that the water is recarbonated by
passing carbon dioxide gas through it as it leaves sedimentation tank.

Lime-soda water softening plant consists of the following units:

(i) Feeding and Mixing Devices:

These devices are similar to those used for coagulation.
(ii) Settling Tank or Settling Basin:

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This tank is similar to coagulation- sedimentation tank. However, in this case a longer
detention time, varying from 2 to 4 hours, is provided to obtain greater clarification. Mechanical
devices for continuous removal of the sludge are also ordinarily provided.
(iii) Recarbonation Plant:
Most of the calcium carbonate CaCO3 and magnesium hydroxide Mg (OH)2 which are formed in
this process get deposited in the sedimentation tank. However, the effluent from the sedimentation
tank may contain some quantity of calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide as finely divided
particles, which should be removed; otherwise these may cause troubles by getting deposited in
sand filters and also cause incrustation in pipes of the distribution system.
This is usually accomplished by recarbonation process in which carbon dioxide CO 2 gas is diffused
through the effluent so that the insoluble calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide combine
with carbon dioxide to again form the soluble bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium as indicated
by the following equations-

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Although in the process of recarbonation due to the formation of bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium some hardness is imparted to water, but recarbonation is necessary to avoid the above
noted troubles. Recarbonation of water is carried out in a recarbonation plant.
The carbon dioxide gas produced in a coke burner is passed through a chamber containing lime
stone over which water trickles. The gas then passes through excelsior or moisture trap for its
partial drying. It is then passed through a dryer containing steel chips or turnings, to remove
remaining water and active oxygen.
Then with the help of a compressor the carbon dioxide gas is diffused at the bottom of a
carbonation chamber which contains the effluent from the sedimentation tank. The minimum
reaction time allowed in the carbonation chamber is about 20 minutes.
(iv)Filters:
The recarbonated water is passed through filters to ensure complete clarification. The filters may be
of ordinary type rapid sand filters or pressure filters.

Advantages and disadvantages

The various advantages and disadvantages of lime-soda process are as follows:
Advantages of Lime-Soda Process:
(i) The process is economical.

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(ii) The pH value of water treated by this process is increased which results in decrease in corrosion
of the distribution system.
(iii) The process is suitable for turbid, chalybeate (i.e., impregnated with iron) and acidic waters for
which zeolite process cannot be used.
(iv) When this process is adopted, less quantity of coagulant will be required for coagulation.
(v) In this process there is removal of iron and manganese also to some extent.
(vi) There is reduction in total mineral content of water.
(vii) There is likelihood of killing of pathogenic bacteria in this process. This occurs when
causticity caused by calcium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide of 20 to 50 p.p.m is retained in the
treated water for a period of about 4 to 5 hours.
viii) The whole process is easy and simple and it can be accommodated in the existing filter plant of
any water supply scheme.
(ix) The process is better for excessively hard waters, particularly those high in magnesium
hardness, and for water high in sodium.
Disadvantages of Lime-Soda Process:
(i) A large quantity of sludge (i.e., insoluble precipitates of calcium carbonate and magnesium
hydroxide) is formed in this process which needs to be disposed-off by some suitable method. The
sludge can either be discharged directly into river or stream or municipal sewers or it can be used
for raising the level of low lying areas.
(ii) The process requires skilled supervision for its successful working.
(iii) In this process recarbonation is required. In the absence of recarbonation a thick layer of
calcium carbonate will be deposited in the filtering media and distribution system.
(iv) Calcium carbonate is slightly soluble in water to the extent of about 30 mg/l, and hence by
lime-soda process water of zero hardness cannot be produced. However, for public water supply
water of zero hardness is not required. As such this disadvantage is not that serious.

Zeolite Or Base Exchange or Cation-Exchange Process

Zeolite are the natural salts or clay which are hydrated silicates of sodium and aluminium, having
the general formula as-Na₂OAl₂O₃x.SiO₂y.H₂O (green sand-green coloured). The usual value of x
is 2 or more and that of y in ranging amounts.

Naturally occurring zeolite like substances can also be manufactured and they are known as resins.
Zeolites and Resins have the excellent property of exchanging their cations and hence during
softening operations the sodium ions of the zeolite get replaced by the calcium and magnesium ions
of hard waters. The chemical reactions which may be involved are given in the following equation,
where Z stands for the complex zeolite radical.

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The calcium and magnesium Zeolite can be regenerated into active sodium zeolite by treating
it with 5-10% solution of NaCl. The Zeolite softener resembles as filter bed with Zeolite as
media, washing is reversed with brine solution (10%) for regeneration of Zeolite. The excess
brine is removed by washing with fresh water

The exchange reaction that take place during regeneration can be represented as-

A zeolite softener resembles a sand filter in which the filtering medium is a zeolite rather than sand.
The hard water enters through the top, and is evenly distributed on the entire zeolite at the base.
When a significant portion of the sodium in the zeolite has been replaced by calcium and
magnesium, it is regenerated bt first washing it with water by reversing the flow, and then treating it
with 10% solution of brine. The excess brine solution retained in the zeolite after the treatment is
removed by again washing it with good water. The regenerates zeolite can be used afresh for
softening.

Zeolite softeners may be gravity or pressure filters, pressure filter type zeolite softeners, such as
shown in figure(1) being more common. The rate of filtration through a zeolite softener is about
300 litres/ sq.m/minute.

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Figure (1): Zeolite Softener

Advantages

i. Zero hardness→ can be used for specific purpose/ in industries like textile, dyeing etc.
ii. Plant is automatic, no skilled supervision, compact unit.

iii. No sludge is formed, hence no disposal problem.

iv. Process is quite economical where salt is cheaply available.

v. Remove ferrous iron and manganese.

vi. No difficulty to treat water of varying quality.

vii. No incrustation.
viii. Any degree of hardness can be treated.
Disadvantages

i. Not suitable for highly turbid water ( suspended particles get deposited around zeolite
particles). Trouble in filter bed functioning.

ii. Form sodium bicarbonate in water which causes priming and foaming in boiler feed water.

iii. Unsuitable for water containing iron and manganese, the iron and manganese zeolite cannot
be regenerated in to Na. zeolite

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Necessity for sanitation

1 Every community produces both liquid and solid wastes .The liquid portion –waste water–
is essentially the water supply of the community after it has been fouled by a variety of
uses such as spent water from bathroom, kitchen, lavatory basins, house and street
washings, from various industrial processes semi solid wastes of human and animal
excreta, dry refuse of house and street sweepings, broken furniture, wastes from industries
etc are produced daily.

2 If proper arrangements for the collection, treatment and disposal are not made, they will
go on accumulating and create foul condition. If untreated water is accumulating, the
decomposition of the organic materials it contains can lead to the production of large
quantity of mal odorous gases. It also contains nutrients, which can stimulate the growth
of aquatic plants and it may contain toxic compounds. Therefore in the interest of
community of the city or town, it is most essential to collect, treat and dispose of all the
waste products of the city in such a way that it may not cause any hazardous effects on
people residing in town and environment.
3 Waste water engineering is defined as the branch of the environmental engineering where
the basic principles of the science and engineering for the problems of the water pollution
problems. The ultimate goal of the waste water management is the protection of the
environmental in manner commensurate with the economic, social and political concerns.

4 Although the collection of stream water and drainage dates from ancient times the
collection of waste water can be treated only to the early 1800s. The systematic treatment
of waste water followed in the 1800s and 1900s.

Definitions of some common terms used in the sanitary engineering

Refuse: This is the most general term to indicate the wastes which include all the rejects left as
worthless, sewage, sullage – all these terms are included in this term.

Garbage: It is a dry refuse which includes, waste papers, sweepings from streets and markets,
vegetable peelings etc. The quantity of garbage per head per day amounts to be about .14 to .24
kg for Indian conditions. Garbage contains large amount of organic and putrifying matter and
therefore should be removed as quickly as possible.

Rubbish: It consists of sundry solid wastes from the residencies, offices and other buildings.
Broken furniture, paper, rags etc are included in this term. It is generally dry and combustible.

Sullage: It is the discharge from the bath rooms, kitchens, wash basins etc., it does not include
discharge from the lavatories, hospitals, operation theaters, slaughter houses which has a high
organic matter.

Sewage: It is a dilute mixture of the wastes of various types from the residential, public and
industrial places. It includes sullage water and foul discharge from the water closets, urinals,
hospitals, stables, etc.

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Different Methods of domestic waste water disposal include (Systems of Sanitation)

Depending upon the type of waste, two systems may be employed for its collection, conveyance
and disposal :

1. Conservancy system
2. Water carriage system.

Conservancy system :
The following are the methods of collection of various types of wastes in the system
1. Night soil - Night soils or human excreta in latrines, privies or cesspools etc. is collected
separately in pans or pails and carried on heads of sweepers to a central place from where it
is transported in bullock carts or motor vans to a place away from the town for its final
disposal. Normally, it is buried into ground, in trenches, to give excellent manure in one or
two years.
2. Garbage is collected separately, in dust bins and conveyed on hand carts or motor van once
or twice is a day. It may consist of waste matter of both non-combustible as well as
combustible type. The two are therefore sorted out. Then it is dumped by suitable method
3. Sullage and storm water are collected and conveyed separately in closed or open gutters.

Disadvantages of conservancy system

1. Hygiene and sanitary aspect:: The conservancy system is highly unhygienic and cause
insanitary conditions since the excreta starts decomposing within few hours of its
production.
2. Transportation aspect::Transportation of night soil takes place in open carts through
streets and other crowded localities. This is highly undesirable.
3. Labour aspect: The working of the system depends entirely on the mercy of labour
(sweepers). If they go on strike even for one day for any reason whatsoever, the previes/
lavatories can not be used because of foul smell. The whole locality will smell very badly.
4. Building design aspect: The lavatories or previes are to be located outside the house and
slightly away from the main building. The compact design is therefore not possible.
5. Condition of drains: Insanitation may be there due to carriage of sullage through open
drains laid in the streets.
6. Human aspect: In the present day world, when man has progressed much, it is highly
humiliating to ask human beings to transport night soil in pails on their heads.
7. Epidemic aspect: Due to improper or careless disposal of night soil, there are more chances
of. outbreak of epidemic.
8. Pollution aspect: The liquid wastes from lavatories etc., during their washing, may soak in
the ground, thus contaminating the soil. If the ground water is at a shallow depth, it may
also be polluted due to percolation of waste water.
9. Cost consideration: Though the system is quite cheap in the beginning, its maintenance and
establishment costs (i.e. recurring expenditure) are very high The system requires
considerable land for the disposal of sewage.
10. Disposal land requirement: The system requires considerable land for the disposal of
sewage.

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Water carriage system:

In this system, the collection, conveyance and disposal of various type of wastes are carried out
with the help of water. Thus, water is used as medium to convey the waste from its point of
production to the point of its treatment or final disposal. Sufficient quantity of water is required to
be mixed with the wastes so that dilution ratio is so great that the mixture may flow just like water.
1. Hygienic and sanitary aspect : The system is very hygienic since the night soil and other
waste water is conveyed through closed conduits which are not directly exposed to the
atmosphere. There is no bad smell because of continuous flow.
2. Epidemic aspect: There are no chances of outbreak of epidemic because flies and other
insects do not have direct access to the sewage.
3. Pollution aspect: The liquid wastes etc. are directly conveyed through the sewers, and
therefore there are no changes of the waste water being soaked in the ground thus
contaminating the soil. No possibility of groundwater contamination
4. Building design aspect: Since the latrines are flushed after every use, excreta does not
remain and there are no foul smells. The latrines can therefore be attached to the living and
bed rooms. This permits a compact design.
5. Labour aspect: The labour required for the operation and maintenance is extremely small.
Labour may be required for pumping operations and blockage cleaning
6. Treatment aspect: The system permits the use of modern methods of treatment of the
sewerage collected through the sewers. The treated waste water and sewage can be safely
disposed off without any risk.
7. Land disposal: Because of treatment facilities, the land required for the disposal of the
treated wastewater is very much smaller than· that required for the conservancy system.
8. Cost consideration: Though the initial cost of installation of the system are very high, the
running costs are very small since manual labour is very much reduced.

Separate system
The separate system provides two separate systems of sewers. The one intended for the conveyance
of foul sewage only; and the other for the rain water, including the surface washing from certain
streets, overflow from public baths and foundations etc.
The sewage from the first system of sewers can be led to the treatment works, while the flow from
the second system of sewers can be discharged directly to natural streams etc. without any
treatment.

Advantages:
1. The cost of installation is low - The storm water can be disposed off through the open
channels along the road sides. Old sewers may also be suitably converted to carry rain
water. Thus, the actual sewers carrying foul sewage will be of smaller size
2. The load on the treatment units will be lowered, since only the foul sewage carried by the
separate sewers need be treated.
3. The sewages in the separate system will be of more uniform character, and so will lend itself
more easily to putrification.
4. There is no necessity of providing automatic flushing tanks, for use in dry weather, because
the flow in a sewer of smaller section is much more efficient.

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5. Sewers of smaller section can be easily ventilated than those of larger section.
6. The night flow will be comparatively small this may facilitate operations at the outfall
works.
7. Rain water can be discharged into streams or rivers without any treatment.

Disadvantages :
1. Since the sewers are of small size, it is difficult to clean
2. They are likely to get chocked.
3. Two sets of sewers may ultimately prove to be costly.
4. There is a likelihood of connections being wrongly made through a confusion of the
systems.
5. Storm water sewers or drains comes in use only during the rainy season. During other part
of the year, these may serve as dumping place for garbage, and may get chocked.
6. Because of lesser air contact in small size sewers, foul smell may be there due to the sewage
gas formed.

Combined system
The combined system provides only one sewer to carry both the foul sewage as well as the rain
water. The sewage and rain water are carried to the sewage treatment plant, before its final disposal.

Advantages:
1. The system requires only one set of sewers. Hence the maintenance costs are reduced.
2. The sewers are of larger size, and therefore the chances of their choking are rare. Also, it is
easy to clean them.
3. The strength of the sewage is reduced by dilution.
4. There is more air in the larger sewers than in smaller ones of the separate system. Hence the
sewer gas that may be formed gets diluted. Thus the chances of foul smell are reduced.

Disadvantages :
1. The cost of construction are very high because of large dimensions of the sewers to be
constructed at sufficient depth to receive the sewage from the basement.
2. Because of large size of sewers, their handling and transportation is difficult.
3. Due to the inclusion of the storm water, the load on the treatment plant increases.

Partially Combined or Partially Separate System:

In this system, only one set of underground sewers is laid. These sewers admit the foul sewage as
well as the early washings by rains. As soon as the quantity of storm water exceeds a certain limit,
the storm water overflows, and is thus collected and conveyed in open drains to the natural streams.

Advantages:
1. The sewers are of reasonable size.Their cleaning is therefore not very difficult.
2. It combines the advantage of both the separate as well as the combined systems.
3. The storm water permitted in the sewers eliminates its chances of chocking. The sewers are
completely cleaned during rainy season.
4. The problem of disposing off storm water from homes is simplified.

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Disadvantages :
1. During the dry weather, when there is no rain water, the velocity of flow will be low. Thus
self cleansing velocity may not be achieved.
2. The storm water increases the load on treatment units.
3. The storm water also increases the cost of pumping.

Suitable conditions for separate sewerage systems:-

A separate system would be suitable for use under the following situations:

 Where rainfall is uneven.

 Where sanitary sewage is to be pumped.
 The drainage area is steep, allowing to runoff quickly.
 Sewers are to be constructed in rocky strata. The large combined sewers would be more
expensive.

Suitable conditions for combined system

 Rainfall in even throughout the year.
 Both the sanitary sewage and the storm water have to be pumped.
 The area to be sewered is heavily built up and space for laying two sets of pipes is not
enough.
 Effective or quicker flows have to be provided.

Disposal of the Treated Sewage or Sewage Effluent:

The disposal of sewage effluent is the last stage of getting rid of sewage after subjecting it to
various steps of processes (i.e.) .Treatment of transforming the sewage into the harmless liquid
which fulfils the minimum standard of health and sanitation. The main objective of controlling
disposal of sewage are

1) To render the sewage inoffensive

2) To save the aquatic life in streams

There are two general methods of disposing of the sewage effluents:-

1- Effluent Irrigation or Broad Irrigation or Sewage Farming (disposal on land)

2-Dilution (disposal in water)

1. Disposal of sewage on to land

In this method, the sewage treated or diluted is generally disposed of by applying it on land. The
percolating water may either join the water table or is collected below by a system of under drains.
When raw or partly treated sewage is applied on to the land, a part of it evaporates and the
remaining portion percolates through the ground soil. If proper voids are maintained in the soil , the

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organic sewage solids are oxidized by the bacteria present in the soil under aerobic
condition.However, if the soil is made of heavy, sticky, and fine grained materials, the void space
will soon get clogged resulting in non aeration of these voids which would lead to anaerobic
condition and subsequent evolution of foul gases.Application of too strong or too hard of sewage
will also result in the quick formation of anaerobic conditions. The loads of sewage can be reduced
by dilution or pretreatment.

This method, in addition to disposing of the sewage, may help in increasing crop yields (by 33% or
so) as the sewage generally contains a lot of fertilizing minerals and other elements.The sewage
effluent before being used as irrigation water must be made safe.

Table-1 Recommended Doses for Sewage Farming

The effluent irrigation method for disposal of sewage can be favorably adopted under the
following conditions:

(i) When some natural rivers or water courses are not located in the vicinity, the land treatment
is the only alternative left, and has to be adopted.

(ii) When large areas of open land are available, broad irrigation may be practiced over it with
the help of sewage effluents, and good returns can be earned by raising cash crops.

Crops like wheat, cotton,/sugarcane, plantain, grasses, fodder, coconut, orange trees etc.
have been successfully grown with advantage on sewage farms.

(iii) When irrigation water is scarcely available, the use of sewage for irrigating crops is a good
alternative.

(iv) The method of effluent irrigation will prove useful in areas of low rainfall, as this will help
in maintaining good absorption capacity of the soil.

(v) This method is preferred in areas of low water-table, where rate of percolation may be quite
high.

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(vi) The area for land treatment or sewage farming should preferably be porous, such as sandy,
loamy or alluvial soils, or soft moorum. It should not be made of heavy retentive soils like
clay etc. which prevent easy aeration of the soil voids and thus creating anaerobic conditions

Methods of applying sewage effluents to farms

1. Surface irrigation called broad irrigation

2. Sub-surface irrigation

3. Sprinkler or spray irrigation

Surface irrigation/Broad irrigation

• In this method sewage is applied in different ways, on to the surface of the land. Depending
upon the mode of application, it can be of different types

a. Free flooding

b. Check flooding

c. furrow irrigation method

d. Border flooding

e. Basin flooding

Flooding method

In this method, land is divided into rectangular plots and sewage is flooded over these plots at
depth of 30 to 60 cm. The under drains are provided to remove the percolated effluent through
soil.

Ridge & Furrow method

Furrows are the ditches of depth 30 to 50 cm and width of 120 to 150 cm.Ridges have length 15 to
30m and width 120 to 250 cm.Furrows are filled up to 2/3 depth and on ridge crops are grown.

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Sub-surface Irrigation

Sewage is applied directly to root zone of the plants throughperforated pipe or pipe with open
joints.Pipe network laid about 30 cm below the ground level. The sewage rises up due to capillary
action and utilized by plant.

Sprinkler or Spray Irrigation

Effluent sewage is spread over the land through nozzle of pipe under pressure.If sufficient head
available and wastewater have no any solid matters the only it can be sprayed under pressure
through pipe fitted at tips of pipes.

Sewage Sickness

When the sewage is applied continuously on a piece of land, the soil pores or voids may get filled
up and clogged with sewage matter retained in them. The time taken for such clogging will depend
upon the type of the soil and the load present in sewage. But once these voids getsclogged, free
circulation of air will be prevented an anaerobic conditions will develop within the pores.
Decomposition of organic matter would take place under anaerobic conditions with evolution of
foul gases like H2S, CO2 and methane.This phenomenon of soil getting clogged, is known as
sewage sickness.

Methods of Preventing SewageSickness

1. Primary Treatment of Sewage

The sewage should be disposed of only after primary treatment, such as screening, grit removal
and sedimentation. This will help in removing settle able solids and reducing the BOD load by 30
% or so and soil will not get clogged frequently

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2. Choice of Land

The piece of land used for sewage disposal should normally be sandy or loamy. Clayey lands
should be avoided.

3. Under drainage of soil

The land, on which the sewage is being disposed of can be drained, if a system of under drains is
laid below, to collect the effluents. This will also minimize the possibility of sewage sickness.

4. Giving rest to the land

The land being used for disposal should be given rest, periodically by keeping some extra land as
reserve and standby for diverting the sewage during the rest period. Moreover, during the rest
period, the land should be thoroughly ploughed, so that it gets broken up and aerated.

5. Rotation of crops

Sewage sickness can be reduced by planting different crops This will help in utilizing the
fertilizing elements of sewage and help in aeration of soil.

2. Disposal by Dilution

In this process the treated sewage or the effluent from the sewage treatment plant is discharged into
a river stream, or a large body of water, such as a lake or sea. The degree and amount of treatment
given to raw sewage before disposing it off into the river-stream depend on:-

*The quality of raw sewage

*Self purification capacity of the river stream and the intended use of its water.

Conditions Favoring Disposal by Dilution

I. When sewage is comparatively fresh (4 to 5 hour old), and free from floating and settle able
solids, (or are easily removed by primary treatment).

II. When the diluting water has high dissolved oxygen (DO) content.

III. Where diluting waters are not used for the purpose of navigation or water supply for at least
some reasonable distance on the downstream from the point of sewage disposal.

IV. When the outfall sewer of the city or the treatment plant is situated near some
natural waters having large volumes.

V. Where the flow currents of the diluting waters are favorable, causing no deposition,
nuisance or destruction of aquatic life.

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It means that swift forward currents are helpful, as they easily carry away the sewage to the points
of unlimited dilution.On the other hand, slow back currents tend to cause sedimentation, resulting in
large sludge deposits.

Self Purification of Natural Streams

When sewage is discharged into a natural body of water, the receiving water gets polluted due to
waste products, present in sewage effluents.But the conditions do not remain so forever, because
the natural forces of purification, such as dilution, sedimentation, oxidation-reduction in sun-light,
etc., go on acting upon the pollution elements, and bring back the water into its original condition.
Which is known as self purification process of natural water.

The various natural forces of purification which help in effecting self-purification process are

1- Physical forces

a) Dilution and dispersion

b) Sedimentation

c) Sunlight (acts through bio-chemical reactions)

2-Chemical forces aided by biological forces

a) Oxidation (Bio)

b) Reduction

a) Dilution and dispersion

When the putrescible organic matter is discharged into a large volume of water contained in the
river-stream, it gets rapidly dispersed and diluted.The action, thus, results in diminishing the
concentration of organic matter, and thus reduces the potential nuisance of sewage.

When sewage of concentration C S flows at a rate Q S in to a river stream with concentration C R

flowing at a rate Q R, the concentration C of the resulting mixture is given by:-

b) Sedimentation

The Settleable solids, if present in sewage effluents, will settle down into the bed of the river, near
the outfall of sewage, thus, helping in the self purification process.

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C) Sunlight (acts through bio-chemical reactions)

The sun light has a bleaching and stabilizing effect of bacteria. Also helps certain microorganisms
to derive energy from it, and convert themselves into food for other forms of life, thus absorbing
carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen by a process known as photosynthesis.

The evolution of oxygen in river water due to sunlight will help in achieving self-purification
through oxidation.

2- Chemical forces aided by biological forces

a) Oxidation (Bio)

The deficiency of oxygen so created, will be filled up by the atmospheric oxygen. The process of
oxidation will continue till the organic matter has been completely oxidized. This is the most
important action responsible for effecting self purification of rivers. The oxidation of the organic
matter present in sewage effluents will start as soon as the sewage outfalls into the river water
containing dissolved oxygen.

b) Reduction

Reduction occurs due to hydrolysis of organic matter settled at the bottom either chemically or
biologically. Anaerobic bacteria will help in splitting the complex organic constituents of sewage
into liquids and gases, and thus paving the way for their ultimate stabilization by oxidation.

The various factors on which these natural forces of purification depend on :-

1-Temperature
Besides affecting the dilution and sedimentation rates, the temperature also affects the rate of
biological and chemical activities, which are enhanced at higher temperatures and depressed at
lower temperatures

2- Turbulence
The turbulence in the body of water helps in breaking the surface of the stream or lake, and helps in
rapid re-aeration from the atmosphere.

3- Hydrograph such as the velocity and surface expanse of the river-stream

Affects the velocity and surface expanse of the river stream. High velocities cause
turbulence and rapid re-aeration, while large surface expanse will also have the same effects.

4 -Available dissolved oxygen, and the amount and type of organic matter present

The larger the amount of dissolved oxygen presents in water, the better and earlier the self
purification will occur.

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5 -Rate of re-aeration

The rate at which the DO deficiency is replenished, will considerably govern the self-purification
process. The greater is this rate, the quicker will be the self purification, and there will be no
chances of development of anaerobic conditions.

Zones of Pollution in a River-Stream

A polluted stream undergoing self-purification can be divided into the following four zones.

I. Zone of degradation

II. Zone of active decomposition

III. Zone of recovery

IV. Zone of cleaner water

Figure: Zones of Pollution in a River-Stream

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Standards Of Dilution For Discharge Of Wastewater Into Rivers

The bureau of Indian standards has therefore laid down its guiding standards for sewage effluents,
vide 4764-1973 and for industrial effluents vide IS 2490 - 1974 . These standards are the national
guide lines for each state pollution control board, using which they prescribed their legally
enforceable standards depending upon the water quality and dilution available in their respective
surface water sources. When the industrial waste water are disposed of in to public sewers, their
quality should be control by using the standards IS 3306-1974.

Standard of Dilution

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Disposal of Sewage on Land

Sampling of wastewater
Wastewater Sampling and Analysis involves the collection of wastewater samples and
measurement for chemical and biological characteristics to determine its quality. These results are
compared against wastewater permissible limits in regulations and guidelines to determine its
treatment required to make the wastewater suitable for its final disposal. These standards are
defined by legislation and guidelines that govern acceptable levels of components in wastewater
that can cause health or aesthetic problems

Types of Sampling
1. Grab sampling
2. Composite sampling
3. Integrated sampling

Grab sampling
A grab sample, also known as a catch sample, consists of a single sample taken at a specific
time. This is the most common type of sample and is the sampling technique you will use for most
of your labs. For example, you took a grab sample when you collected a beaker of raw water and
tested it for pH. A grab sample has certain limitations. In essence, a grab sample takes a snapshot
of the characteristics of the water at a specific point and time, so it may not be completely
representative of the entire flow. Grab samples are most appropriate to small plants with low flows
and limited staffs who cannot perform continual sampling.

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On the other hand, grab samples do provide an immediate sample, and are thus to be preferred for
some tests. Specifically, pH, dissolved oxygen, and total residual chlorine can change very rapidly
in water once the sample is removed from the flow, so grab samples are preferred for these tests.

Ways to take grab samples

• No special equipment is needed. Usually, a sampling container is used to take the sample.
• The container can be dipped directly into the water or a sampling rod can be used to collect
the water and fill the container.
• Samples are then packed in a cooler box with ice and taken for testing.

Composite Sampling
Composite samples: The term "composite sample" refers to a combination of grab samples
collected at the same sampling point at different time. Composite sampling involves taking a
number of small samples, called sub-samples, over a period of time.

As an alternative to the separate analysis of a large number of samples، followed by computation of

average and total results, the use of composite samples represents substantial saving in laboratory
effort and expense. These are then combined to reflect the overall condition of a water body, like a
lake.

Integrated Sampling
For certain purpose, the information needed is provided best by analyzing mixtures of grab samples
collected from different points simultaneously, or as nearly so as possible. An example of the need
for integrated sampling occurs in a river or stream that varies in composition across its width and
depth.

Decomposition of Sewage
1. Aerobic Decomposition
2. Anaerobic Decomposition

Aerobic Decomposition
Aerobic decomposition is caused by both aerobic bacteria as well as facultative bacteria operating
aerobically, in presence of air or oxygen which is available in the wastewater in the dissolved
form. The stable end products like nitrates, carbon dioxide, sulphates, are formed, respectively for
the three forms of matter, i.e. nitrogenous, carbonaceous, and sulphurous matter. Water heat and
additional bacteria will also be produced in the biological oxidation, which can be represented by
following equation

COHNS + Bacteria + O2 CO2 + H2O + Bacteria + Energy

Anaerobic Decomposition
If free dissolved oxygen is not available to the sewage, then the anaerobic decomposition, called
putrefaction will occur. Anaerobic bacteria and facultative bacteria operating anaerobically, will

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then flourish and convert the complex organic matter into simpler organic compounds of nitrogen,
carbon, and sulphur. These anaerobic bacteria survive by extracting and consuming like nitrate and
sulphates. Gases like ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, methane etc. are also evolved in this
decomposition, producing obnoxious (bad) odour.

Figure 2: Anaerobic decomposition pathway

Wastewater characteristics/ Characteristics of wastewater

1. Physical characteristics
2. Chemical characteristics
3. Biological characteristics

Physical characteristics
Colour
The colour of the sewage indicates the freshness of the sewage. if the colour of the sewage is
greyish brown or yellowish, it indicates fresh sewage. With passage of time, as putrefaction
starts it begins to get black. The colour of the stale and septic sewage is black. Other colors may
also be formed due to presence of some specific industrial waste. The color of the sewage can
normally be detected by the naked eye

Odour
The odour of a fresh sewage is not offensive or practically it can be considered odourless, but as it
starts to get stale, it begins to give offensive odour. Within 3 to 4 hours, all oxygen present in the
sewage gets exhausted and it starts emitting offensive odour by hydrogen sulphide gas which
is formed due to anaerobic decomposition of sewage.

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Temperature
The temperature has an effect on the biological activity of bacteria present in the sewage and it also
affects the solubility of gases in sewage. It also affects the viscosity of sewage (more is the
temperature, lesser is the viscosity of sewage). The normal temperature, of sewage is slightly
higher than the temperature of the water supply because of the additional heat due to utilization of
water. Also when the wastewater flows in a closed pipes, its temperature future increases.

Turbidity
Sewage is normally turbid representing dirty water or wastewater from baths
having other floating matter like fecal matter, pieces of paper, cigarette ends, match sticks,
greases, vegetable debris, fruit skins, soaps, etc.. The turbidity depends on the quantity of
solid matter present in suspension state. The turbidity depends on the quantity of solid matter
present in suspension state. The turbidity can be determined by the turbidity rod or by
turbidimeters e.g. Nephlometric turbidimeter.

Chemical Characteristics

The Chemical Characteristics of sewage helps in indicating the stage of sewage decomposition, its
strength, and extent and type of treatment required for making it safe the chemical characteristics
of sewage includes.

Solids

Solids normally contain 99.9 % water and only 0.1 % of total solids present in the sewage may
be in any of the four: suspended solids, dissolved solids, colloidal solids, and settle able solids.

Suspended solids are those solids which remain floating in sewage, dissolved solids are those
which remain dissolved in sewage just as a salt in water. Colloidal solids are finely divided solids
remaining either in solution or in suspension . Settleable solids are that solids which settles out, if
sewage is allowed to remain undisturbed for a period of 2 hrs.

Figure : Classification and size range of solids in wastewater

Volatile and Fixed Suspended Solids

Fixed solids or inorganic ash is the measure of solid matter in a water that remains after the total
solids, total dissolved solids or total suspended solids have been evaporated and then ignited to burn
off the combustible portion.

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Volatile solids are the combustible portion. Volatile solids are a rough estimate for the organic
portion of the solids.

pH
The pH value of sewage indicates the logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration
present in the sewage. It is thus an indicator of the acidity or the alkalinity of sewage. If the pH
value is less than 7, the sewage is acidic and if the pH value is more than 7, the sewage is alkaline.

The fresh sewage is alkaline, with passed of time pH tends to fall due to production of acid by
bacterial action in anaerobic or nitrification processes. However with treatment of sewage the pH
tends to rise.

Determination of pH is important because efficiency of certain treatment methods depends on it.

Especially the biological treatment, for better result the pH of sewage should be around 7.0 in
biological treatment as microorganisms can flourish in that pH range. pH can be determined using
pH meter ( Potentiometer) .

Nitrogen Content (Nitrogen Compounds)

The presence of nitrogen in sewage is an indication of the presence of the organic matter and may
occur in one or more of the following forms:

• Free ammonia called ammonia nitrogen

• Albuminoid or Organic Nitrogen
• Nitrites
• Nitrates
The free ammonia indicates the very first stage of decomposition of organic matter ( thus
indicating recent pollution); albuminoid nitrogen indicates the quantity of nitrogen in sewage
before the decomposition of organic matter. Nitrates indicates the presence of fully oxidized
organic matter in sewage. The nitrites thus indicates the intermediate stage of conversion of
organic matter of sewage into stable forms, thus indicating the progress of treatment. Their
presence shows that the treatment given to the sewage is incomplete, and sewage is stale.
Whereas, the presence of nitrates indicates the well oxidized and treated sewage.
Organic nitrogen can be measured by adding strong alkaline solution of KMnO 4 to already
boiled water sample and again boiling the same. Ammonia gas thus liberated is measured which
gives the quantity of organic nitrogen. The sum total of ammonia nitrogen is called kjedahl
nitrogen.

Nitrites are dangerous but as oxidation of nitrites to nitrates is vey fast it is generally not find in
water bodies.
As Nitrates represent fully oxidized matter its presence in sewage is not dangerous. But if the
sewage contains higher nitrates and if it is disposed of in a water body then the nitrates content in

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the water body would increase. Higher quantity of nitrates adversely the health of infants, causing
a disease called mathemoglobinemia ( commonly called as blue baby disease). Children suffering
from this disease may vomit; their skin colour may become dark and may die in extreme case.
Nitrates causes Eutrophication (excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water,
frequently due to run-off from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life).

Chlorides Contents
Chlorides are generally found in sewage and are derived from kitchen wastes, human feces and
urinary
discharges. The permissible limit of chloride content in water is 250 mg /lit. However, large
amount of chlorides may enter from industries like ice cream plants, meat salting etc.. Hence,
when the chloride content of a given sewage is found to be high, it indicates the presence of
industrial wastes or infiltration of seawater, thereby indicating strength of sewage.

Fats, Oils and Greases

Fats, oils and greases are derived in sewage from the discharge of animals and vegetable matter, or
from the garages, kitchens of hotels and restaurants, etc. Such matter form scum on thetop of
the sedimentation tanks, clogs the voids of the filter media and affects the diffusion of
oxygen. They thus interfere with the normal treatment methods. Hence these detection and removal
is important.
Oils and greases are soluble in ether. Hence for their determination, a sample of sewage, sample is
first of all evaporated, leaving behind the oil and grease as a residue, which is then weighed.

Sulphides, Sulphates and Hydrogen Gas

Sulphides and sulphates are formed due to the decomposition of various sulphur containing
substances in sewage. This decomposition also leads to evolution of hydrogen sulphide gas,
causing bad odours, besides causing corrosion of concrete sewer pipes.
In aerobic digestion of sewage, the aerobic and facultative bacteria oxidizes the sulphur and its
compounds present in the sewage to initially form sulphides, which ultimately breakdown to form
sulphates ions, which is a stable and unobjectionable end products.
In an-aerobic digestion of sewage the anaerobic and facultative bacteria reduce the sulphur and its
compounds into sulphides, with evolution of H 2 S gas along with methane and carbon dioxide, thus
causing very obnoxious odours.

Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen in the dissolved state in the wastewater. Through the
wastewater generally does not have DO, its presence in untreated wastewater indicates that the
waste water is fresh. Similarly, its presence in treated wastewater effluent indicates that the
considerable oxidation has been accomplished during the treatment stages.

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While discharging the treated wastewater into receiving waters, it is essential to ensure that at
least 4 mg/l of DO is present in it. If DO is less, the aquatic animals like fish etc. are likely to
be killed near the vicinity of disposal. The presence of DO in wastewater is desirable because it
prevents the

formation of obnoxious odour. DO determination also helps to find the efficiency of biological
treatment.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

There are two types of organic matter
(i) Biodegradable or biologically active
(ii) Non biodegradable or biologically inactive
Organic matter is often assessed in terms of oxygen required to complete oxidize the organic
matter to CO2, H2O, and other end products of Oxidation.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is defined as the amount of oxygen required by the
microorganisms (mostly bacteria) to carry out decomposition of biodegradable organic matter
under aerobic conditions.
The BOD test is widely used to determine the pollution strength of domestic and industrial
wastes in terms of the oxygen that they will require if discharged into natural watercourses.
It is the one of the most important test in stream pollution control activities.
This test is of prime importance in regulatory work and in studies designed to evaluate the
purification capacity of receiving bodies of water.
It is also useful in design of wastewater treatment plant and also to measure the efficiency of some
treatment processes.
The organic matter present in the wastewater may belong to two groups:
• Carbonaceous matter
• Nitrogenous matter
The ultimate carbonaceous BOD of a waste is the amount of oxygen necessary for microorganisms
in the sample to decompose the biodegradable carbonaceous material. This is the first stage of
oxidation and the corresponding BOD is called as first stage BOD. In the second stage the

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nitrogenous matter is oxidized by autotrophic bacteria, and the corresponding BOD or nitrification
demand.

In fact, polluted water will continue to absorb oxygen for many months, and it is not practically
feasible to determine this ultimate oxygen demand.

Hence the 5 days period is generally chosen for the standard BOD test, during which oxidation is
about 60 to 70 % complete, while within 20 days period oxidation is about 95 % to 99 %
complete. A constant temperature of 20 0 C is maintained during incubation. The BOD value of 5
Day incubation period is commonly written as BOD 5 or simply as BOD.

Now a day BOD test is also done at 27 0C and duration of 3 days (BOD3 27), results can be obtained
faster and it is more nearer to the actual field conditions in INDIA .

Test for BOD:

BOD test can be performed by two methods :
i. Direct method
ii. Dilution method

Direct method:
The test consists of keeping the sample of wastewater in contact with a definte air or oxygen, in a
specially prepared vessel. The BOD is then measured menometrically.

Dilution method:

The sample is first diluted with a known volume of specially prepared dilution water. Dilution
water contains salts and nutrients necessary for biological activity and phosphate buffer to
maintain pH around 7 to 7.5. Diluted water is fully aerated. The initial D.O of the diluted
sample is measured. The diluted sample is then incubated for 5 days at 20 0C. The D.O. of the
diluted sample after the incubation period is found out. The difference between the initial D.O.
of the diluted sample after the incubation period is found out. The difference between the initial
D.O value and the final D.O. value will indicate the oxygen consumed by the sewage sample in
aerobic decomposition in 5 days. The BOD in mg/lit or ppm is then calculated by using the
equation:

BOD, mg/L = (Initial DO - Final DO) x bottle volume)

Sample volume

or

BOD= D.O. consumed in the test by the diluted sample x dilution ratio
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
Dilution ratio =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

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Chemical Oxygen Demand

The BOD test takes minimum 5 days time and due to this it is not very useful in control of
treatment processes. An alternative test is COD test. It is widely used as a means of measuring the
amount of organic matter in the waste. It can be used to measure both biodegradable and non
biodegradable organic matter.

COD test, takes 3 hours in comparison to 5 days for BOD test, In COD test, a strong chemical
oxidizing agent like potassium dichromate is used in acidic medium to oxidize the organic matter
present in the waste. Almost all type of organic matter with a few exceptions can be oxidized by
the action of strong oxidizing agents under acidic conditions.

COD can be defined as amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize organic matter
using a strong oxidizing agent like potassium dichromate under acidic condition.

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