January 2024

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 ISSN 1747-1826

CONTENTS
03 Comment
JANUARY 2024
32 Clean hulls, protect oceans
Tor Østervold, ECOsubsea, Norway, details sustainable high-tech
05 LNG news solutions to the global scourge of biofouling.

10 An evolving landscape
Kunal Sawhney, Kalkine, Australia, analyses how Russia’s invasion
of Ukraine led to an unprecedented jump in LNG prices.

32

10 36 Strategies for the digital age

Craig Harclerode, AVEVA, USA, looks at enabling a new level
of performance, capability, and sustainability across the LNG
value chain.

17 Keeping it simple 44 Cryogenic bridges

Jonathan Berg, Christopher Elko, Christoper Ott, and Alexander Ellis III, Managing Partner, Thomas Quine,
Colton Schrettner, Air Products, consider liquefaction trains for Technology Partner, and Scott Shields, Commercial Partner,
modern LNG facilities. New Energy Development CompanyTM, USA, highlight cryogenic
storage system designs.
21 Solving the solvent issue
Tony Collins, EonCoat, USA, examines health and safety best
practices for solvent exposure.

23 The new era of fire

protection
Richard Holliday, Global Director – Hydrocarbon Fire Protection,

ON THIS MONTH’S COVER

Corporate Science and Technology, PPG, identifies how to
elevate passive fire protection to meet the demands of harsh
climates and the LNG boom.

Air Products is a world leader in LNG technology and

28 Going for growth equipment – a majority of the world’s LNG is produced
Florian Krauss, Proposal Manager, and Jakob Nielsen,
Senior Sales Manager, TGE Marine, Germany, with its coil wound heat exchangers (CWHE) and
explain why LNG is set to play an important role liquefaction technology. With over 60 years of experience
within the fast-growing liquid carbon dioxide designing, engineering, and manufacturing CWHEs,
carrier sector. Air Products provides customers around the globe with
industry-leading technology for large export, small
and mid-sized, and floating LNG plants to optimise
the facility’s overall performance, cost, operability,
and availability.
For more information, visit: www.airproducts.com/lng

(Coral South FLNG, photo credit Eni.)

Copyright © Palladian Publications Ltd 2024. All rights reserved. No part of

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An audit certificate is available on necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers endorse any of
request from our sales department. the claims made in the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
Turn to Cryodynamic Products
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COMMENT
H
appy New Year everyone!
We’re only a couple of weeks into 2024,
and the awards season has already started. The
Golden Globe Awards and 75th Creative Arts Emmy
Awards both took place on the same weekend (6 and 8 January).
HBO’s The Last of Us was the biggest winner, with eight
Creative Arts Emmy Awards – the most of the night – while
The Bear, Wednesday, and The White Lotus were all tied with
four awards each.1
Meanwhile at the Golden Globes, the cultural phenomenon
of ‘Barbenheimer’ was still present, with both Barbie and
Oppenheimer highly nominated (nine and eight awards,
respectively). Oppenheimer dominated this battle, winning
five awards including best drama, best actor, and best
director. Nevertheless, Barbie didn’t go home empty-handed,
having won the new ‘Cinematic and Box Office Achievement
Award’ and award for best original song for Billie Eilish’s
“What Was I Made For?’2
With 2023 having come to an end, the LNG industry can
also hand out some ‘awards’ of its own. China reclaimed its title
as the world’s largest LNG importer, surging to 8.22 million t in
December, the highest since January 2021 according to Kpler.3
Perhaps most notable is the US overtaking Qatar and
Australia to become the world’s largest exporter of LNG for the
very first time in the industry’s history.4
The US has benefitted partly from a rising demand for
natural gas globally, especially in Europe, where countries are
increasing efforts to move away from Russian gas following
the Russia-Ukraine conflict that started in February 2022.
And, with over 12 approved LNG export terminals (seven
of which are currently under construction), and another six
proposed, there is a good chance the US will hold on to
the title for the near future.5 You’ll be able to gain more
Managing Editor Sales Manager
James Little Will Powell
james.little@palladianpublications.com will.powell@palladianpublications.com
Senior Editor Production Designer
Elizabeth Corner Kate Wilkerson
elizabeth.corner@palladianpublications.com kate.wilkerson@palladianpublications.com
Editor Digital Events Manager
Jessica Casey Louise Cameron
jessica.casey@palladianpublications.com louise.cameron@palladianpublications.com
Editorial Assistant Digital Events Coordinator
Théodore Reed-Martin Merili Jurivete
theodore.reedmartin@palladianpublications.com merili.jurivete@palladianpublications.com
Sales Director Digital Content Assistant
Rod Hardy Kristian Ilasko
rod.hardy@palladianpublications.com kristian.ilasko@palladianpublications.com
Editorial/Advertisement Offices, Palladian Publications Ltd
15 South Street, Farnham, Surrey, GU9 7QU, UK Tel: +44 (0) 1252 718 999
JESSICA CASEY
EDITOR
insight into the US LNG market in the second edition of our
North America supplement, coming out later this year.
It may be unknown at present what the year will hold for
LNG, but that’s what LNG Industry is here for, to bring you all
the latest updates, trends, developments, and more. And what
better way to start than with the January 2024 issue?
The issue begins with a keynote from Kalkine on p.10,
which analyses how Russia’s invasion of Ukraine led to an
unprecedented jump in LNG prices, and how this could present
opportunities to emerging markets, such as the US.
Another key trend to keep an eye on are technology
advancements. There have been some key trends in recent
years, such as digital twins and automation, and there is no
reason to believe this won’t continue. Starting on p.36, AVEVA’s
article looks at the importance of business and digital strategy
alignment with an operational excellence management system
in the content of a digital twin.
References
1. ‘SMYTH, T., ‘All the Winners of the Creative Arts Emmys’, Vulture,
(7 January 2024), www.vulture.com/2024/01/creative-arts-emmys-
winners.html
2. ‘Winners & Nominees’, Golden Globe Awards, (2024),
https://goldenglobes.com/winners-nominees/
3. ‘Asia’s LNG imports hit record, but supply surge keeps price muted’,
Reuters, (5 January 2024), https://www.reuters.com/business/
energy/asias-lng-imports-hit-record-supply-surge-keeps-price-
muted-russell-2024-01-05/
4. SHARMA, G., ‘U.S. Overtakes Qatar To Become The World’s Top
LNG Exporter’, Forbes, (5 January 2024), www.forbes.com/sites/
gauravsharma/2024/01/05/us-overtakes-qatar-to-become-the-
worlds-top-lng-exporter
5. ‘U.S. LNG Export Terminals – Existing, Approved not Yet
Built, and Proposed,’ Federal Energy Regulatory Commission,
(26 December 2023), https://cms.ferc.gov/media/us-lng-export-
terminals-existing-approved-not-yet-built-and-proposed
Administration Manager
Laura White
laura.white@palladianpublications.com
LNG Industry Subscription rates:
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HULL PERFORMANCE

Panama
Seaspan launches first
of three LNG bunkering
vessels
S easpan Energy has launched the first of three 7600 m3
LNG bunkering vessels, the Seaspan Garibaldi, named
after Mount Garibaldi, or Nch’ḵay̓’ as the Squamish Nation
has known it for thousands of years. This series of vessels
will be named after iconic West Coast mountains and the
first two vessels will be delivered in 2024, with the third
vessel arriving in 2025.
The Seaspan Garibaldi is set to deliver low-carbon
solutions to the global market and will be based in the
Panama region, and the second vessel is targeted to
support the West Coast market as it develops.
The Seaspan Garibaldi is 112.8 m in length,
18.6 m in width, and 5 m in draft, with a design speed
of 13 knots. The LNG bunkering vessels are being built
by CIMC Sinopacific Offshore & Engineering, one of the
most experienced small scale gas carrier shipyards in the
world, having delivered more than 30 LNG gas carriers.
For the design of the LNG bunker vessels, Seaspan
worked closely with the Canadian-based team at
VARD Marine Inc. to incorporate emerging technologies
resulting in a decrease in emissions and underwater
noise. The design is focused on safe, efficient, and
economical refuelling of multiple ship types with
an ability to transfer to and from a wide range of
terminals. The design will allow the vessel to engage
in ship-to-ship LNG transfer and coastal and short-sea
shipping operations.
Canada
Cedar LNG awards EPC contract for floating LNG
production unit
T he Haisla Nation and Pembina Pipeline Corp., partners
in the development of the proposed Cedar LNG
project, have selected Samsung Heavy Industries (SHI) and
Black & Veatch to provide EPC for the design, fabrication,
and delivery of the project’s floating LNG production unit
(FLNG), subject to a final investment decision (FID).
Cedar LNG now has major regulatory approvals, signed
memorandums of understanding for long-term liquefaction
LNGNEWS
Greece
Capital Product Partners
L.P. delivers LNG carrier
Axios II
C apital Product Partners L.P. (CPLP), an international
owner of ocean-going vessels, has successfully taken
delivery of the LNG carrier Axios II.
Pursuant to the agreement to acquire 11 LNG carriers
provided under the umbrella agreement entered into
on 13 November 2023, the partnership took delivery
on 2 January 2024 of LNG carrier Axios II (174 000 m3,
latest generation, two-stroke MEGA LNG carrier, built at
Hyundai Heavy Industries Co., Ltd). The vessel commenced
a one-year time charter at a market-linked rate, which
will be followed by a seven-year bareboat charter with
Bonny Gas Transport Limited, who maintain an option to
extend by an additional three years.
The vessel acquisition was financed with cash
from the balance sheet, a new senior secured
loan facility led by ING Bank N.V. for an amount of
US$190 million payable in 28 equal quarterly instalments
of US$2.5 million, in addition to a balloon payment of
US$120 million payable together with the final quarterly
instalment in December 2030, and the deferral of
US$92.6 million of the purchase price, in accordance with
the seller’s credit agreement included in the umbrella
agreement, maturing on 30 June 2027.
Axios II is the ninth latest generation LNG carrier
of the partnership and the second vessel delivery of
the fleet acquired under the umbrella agreement. The
remaining nine vessels are expected to be delivered
between 2Q24 and 1Q27.
services for the project’s total LNG capacity, and with the
achievement of this milestone, the project is at an advanced
stage of planning and development, with a FID expected by
the end of 1Q24.
Subject to a positive FID, onshore construction work
for the project could commence as early as 2Q24, with the
delivery of the FLNG and substantial completion expected
in 2028.
January 2024 5
LNGNEWS
Germany
Energos acquires FSRUs
from Dynagas
E nergos Infrastructure, an international marine
LNG infrastructure company, majority-controlled
by Apollo-managed funds and minority shareholder
New Fortress Energy Inc., has completed the acquisition
of two state-of-the-art FSRUs from affiliates of Dynagas.
The two 174 000 m3 closed-loop FSRUs, built in 2021,
will be renamed Energos Force and Energos Power.
Earlier in 2023, the FSRUs commenced long-term
charter contracts with the German Federal Ministry of
Economic Affairs and Climate Change. The Energos Force
is planned to operate in the port of Stade under direction
of Deutsche Energy Terminals, while the Energos Power
is planned to operate in the port of Mukran and has been
sub-chartered to Deutsche Regas.
With these two high-specification LNG regasification
vessels added to its platform, Energos will own and
operate 13 LNG infrastructure vessels consisting of nine
FSRUs, two FSUs, and two LNG carriers. The addition of
the Energos Force and Energos Power in Europe makes
Energos the largest owner and operator of LNG marine
infrastructure vessels by wholly-owned FSRU capacity
operating within the continent.
Singapore
First Gen awards contract
to TotalEnergies for
LNG cargo
F irst Gen Corporation (FGEN) has concluded its
international tender for an LNG cargo by awarding a
contract to TotalEnergies Gas & Power Asia Private Ltd
(TEGPA). TEGPA will supply one LNG cargo of
approximately 154 500 m3 with delivery in early
February 2024 on a delivered ex-ship (DES) basis to
FGEN’s wholly-owned subsidiary, First Gen Singapore Pte.
Ltd (FGEN Singapore).
The LNG cargo to be provided by TEGPA will be
delivered by an LNG carrier which will be unloaded
into the storage tanks of the BW Batangas FSRU that is
currently berthed at the First Gen Clean Energy Complex
(FGCEC) in Batangas City. The LNG will be utilised by
FGEN’s existing gas-fired power plants also located in
the FGCEC.
6 January 2024
Republic of Congo
Eni introduces gas into
Tango FLNG
E ni has announced the introduction of gas into
the Tango floating LNG (FLNG) facility moored in
Congolese waters.
Gas introduction has been achieved in record time
– only 12 months after the final investment decision.
This is a key milestone for the Congo LNG project, which
encompasses the adoption of new technologies and a
strong synergy with existing producing assets. Following
completion of the commissioning phase, Tango FLNG
will produce its first LNG cargo by 1Q24, placing the
Republic of Congo on the list of LNG-producing countries.
The Tango FLNG facility has a liquefaction capacity
of about 1 billion m3/y and is moored alongside the
Excalibur FSU, using an innovative configuration called
‘split mooring’, implemented here for the first time in a
floating LNG terminal.
Congo LNG will enhance the gas resources of
the Marine XII permit and achieve approximately
4.5 billion m3/y of plateau gas liquefaction capacity
through phased development and with a target of zero
routine gas flaring. A second FLNG facility with a capacity
of about 3.5 billion m3/y is currently under construction
and will begin production in 2025. The entire volume of
LNG produced will be marketed by Eni.
THE LNG
ROUNDUP
X Ksi Lisims LNG and Shell finalise SPA
X Delta, NNPCL, and UTM Offshore sign
agreement to develop floating LNG
X Gasum’s Coral Energy makes LNG
delivery to Inkoo terminal
Follow us on LinkedIn to read more about the articles
www.linkedin.com/showcase/lngindustry
 BRIGHTER
FUTURE
CO O L E R
BY D E S I G N ®
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solutions provide natural gas to hundreds
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LNGNEWS
Colombia
16 – 19 January 2024 Höegh LNG and SPEC LNG extend
The 20th Americas Energy partnership
Summit & Exhibition
Louisiana, USA
www.americasenergysummit.com F or the past seven years, the FSRU Höegh Grace has delivered high-quality and
reliable LNG storage and regasification services to the SPEC LNG Import Terminal in
Cartagena, Colombia.
11 – 12 March 2024 Höegh LNG has announced the extension and expansion of its services to SPEC LNG. As
10th International LNG Congress Colombia faces a significant shift in its power requirements and a decline in domestic gas
(LNGCON 2024) supply, LNG is positioned to continue supporting electricity generation and offsetting the
Milan, Italy projected natural gas deficit for industrial/residential demand.
https://lngcongress.com The agreement with SPEC enables continuity and increase of energy supply through
at least 2031. Both companies remain committed to sustainable operations and reduced
12 – 13 March 2024 emissions over the coming years.
StocExpo
Rotterdam, the Netherlands Germany
KN become commercial manager of four
www.stocexpo.com

03 – 05 April 2024 German LNG terminals

26th Annual International
Aboveground Storage Tank
Conference & Trade Show I nternational energy terminal operator, KN Energies AB, has secured the public tender for
the commercial management of four German LNG terminals on the North Sea coast. The
company has signed a contract with Deutsche Energy Terminal GmbH (DET), the German
Florida, USA
www.nistm.org state-owned company that operates state-controlled LNG terminals.
On behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economics Affairs and Climate Action, the
30 April – 02 May 2024 DET operates Germany's first LNG terminals on the North Sea coast, the Wilhelmshaven 1
2024 AGA Operations LNG terminal and the Brunsbüttel LNG terminal. Additionally, DET will operate two upcoming
Conference terminals: the second LNG terminal in Wilhelmshaven and the LNG terminal in Stade on the
Washington, USA Lower Elbe River.
www.aga.org/events/2024-aga-operations- The two-year contract between KN and DET covers the commercial management of all four
conference-spring-committee-meetings/ LNG terminals. Until now, KN already provided these services for the 1 Wilhelmshaven and
Brunsbüttel LNG terminals, but after DET took over the management of these facilities, a new
07 – 08 May 2024 tender was launched for the consolidated commercial management of four LNG terminals.
ITLA 2024 Annual International In recent years, Germany is rapidly embarking on the development of the construction of
Operating Conference & floating LNG terminals in order to provide new sources of supply for LNG following the failure
Trade Show of gas supplies via pipelines from Russia. The German government is using the state-owned
Texas, USA LNG terminals to secure reliable energy supplies to the federal market. Germany is expected
https://ilta2024.ilta.org to have a total of five FSRU-based LNG import terminals within this year, four of which will be
operated by DET.
07 – 09 May 2024 According to the contract signed by KN and DET, commercial management services for the
Canada Gas Exhibition four LNG terminals will include managing commercial and logistics operations, gas dispatching
& Conference processes, accounting and reporting of the commercial activities to the DET, development
Vancouver, Canada and provision of IT systems and tools, and other terminal operational services adapted to the
www.canadagaslng.com customer’s needs.
The contract also includes a commitment to capacity building and knowledge transfer of
KN expertise to DET staff. During the term of the contract, the objective is to train the local
team to be able to ensure the commercial operation of the terminals themselves.

8 January 2024
 AN
EVOLVING
T
he LNG industry has witnessed remarkable growth
and transformation in recent years, with LNG
becoming an increasingly important component
of the global energy landscape. LNG, a low-emission
fossil fuel, plays a crucial role in the shift towards more
sustainable and eco-friendly energy alternatives.
As the world grapples with the challenges of climate
change and seeks cleaner energy alternatives,
understanding the emerging trends in the LNG market is
crucial for industry stakeholders, policymakers, investors,
and energy enthusiasts alike.

LNG industry overview

The global LNG industry has evolved significantly
over the past few decades, transforming how natural
gas is transported, traded, and consumed worldwide.
LNG, derived from natural gas cooled to extremely low
temperatures to transform it into a liquid form, presents
multiple benefits compared to conventional natural gas
pipeline transport.
The roots of the LNG industry can be traced back to
the mid-20th century, with the first successful large scale
liquefaction plant operating in the US in the 1940s. The
primary advantage of LNG is its significantly reduced
volume compared to gaseous natural gas, making it
feasible to transport gas over long distances via specially
designed tankers. This breakthrough paved the way for
global trade in natural gas and opened up new markets
that were previously inaccessible.
Key milestones in the development of the global LNG
industry include establishing LNG export facilities in
countries like Algeria and Indonesia in the 1960s

10
LANDSCAPE
Kunal Sawhney, Kalkine,
Australia, analyses how
Russia’s invasion of Ukraine
led to an unprecedented jump
in LNG prices.

11
 and 1970s. These facilities played a pivotal role in creating
a global LNG market. In the ensuing years, major LNG
producers and exporters, such as Qatar and Australia,
emerged as dominant players in the industry.
LNG has emerged as an integral component of the
global energy landscape, finding applications in diverse
sectors such as power generation, heating, and serving as
a feedstock for numerous industries.
The demand for LNG has been steadily rising due to its
lower environmental impact than other fossil fuels, making
it a transitional energy source in the global shift toward
cleaner energy options.
Major export and import regions in
the LNG industry
Major exporting regions
The Middle East
The Middle East, particularly Qatar and the UAE, is a
major LNG export region. Qatar is the world’s leading LNG
exporter. As per data from the U.S. Energy Information
Administration (EIA), Qatar ranked as the sixth-largest
global producer of dry natural gas, the second-largest
exporter of LNG, and the third-largest holder of natural
gas reserves in 2021.

Asia-Pacific
Australia, Malaysia, and Indonesia are prominent LNG
exporters in the Asia-Pacific region, catering to the
growing demand in Asia, including Japan, South Korea,
and China.

North America
Figure 1. LNG has emerged as an integral component of The US is a growing LNG exporter, with a focus on
global energy landscape, finding applications in diverse supplying LNG to Asia and Europe.
sectors. Source: Krish Capital Pty Ltd.

Russia
Russia, particularly from the Arctic
region, exports LNG to various
destinations, including Asia
and Europe.

Major LNG import

regions
Asia
Asia, including Japan, South Korea,
China, and India, is a significant
importer of LNG due to its
increasing energy demand and
Figure 2. Leading LNG exporting countries in January by tonnes. Source: Krish Capital efforts to reduce reliance on coal
Pty. Ltd. Data source: statista.com.
and oil. McKinsey’s Global Gas
and LNG Outlook to 2035 report
revealed that in 2019, China
assumed the position of the world’s
leading importer of gas/LNG,
surpassing Japan, and became the
second-largest importer of LNG,
surpassing South Korea.

Europe
European countries, such as the UK,
Spain, and France, import LNG to
diversify their energy sources and
ensure energy security.

South America
Figure 3. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine reduced supply and led to a surge in LNG spot Countries like Argentina, Brazil,
prices. Source: REFINITIV. and Chile import LNG to meet

12 January 2024
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 their energy needs and supplement domestic natural
gas production.
North America
While the US exports LNG, it also imports LNG to
supplement domestic supply during peak demand periods.
Africa
Several African nations, such as Egypt, rely on LNG imports
to address their increasing energy demands.
Recent trends and forward outlook
of the LNG industry
The global LNG market has undergone a profound
transformation due to the significant disruptions caused
by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February 2022. Reduced
supply from Russia led to an unprecedented jump in
LNG prices, altering the demand and supply dynamics of
the industry.
Following the Russia-Ukraine war, some visible trends
are emerging in the industry.
Figure 4. The primary advantage of LNG is its significantly
reduced volume compared to gaseous natural gas, making
it feasible to transport gas over long distances via specially
designed tankers. Source: RoyKin@pexels.com.
Figure 5. Between January – November 2022, the combination of Russia’s
pipeline gas and LNG imports accounted for less than one-quarter of the EU’s
total gas imports. Another 25% came from Norway, and 11.6% from Algeria.
Source: Krish Capital Pty. Ltd. Data source: European Council.
14 January 2024
European countries reducing
dependence on Russian pipeline gas
The European Union (EU), which was primarily dependent
on Russian pipeline gas for its energy requirement,
proposed a plan to reduce its energy dependence on Russia
following the war. The European Commission put forth a
provisional emergency measure aimed at expediting the
adoption of renewable energy sources, broadening supply
sources, and conserving energy in an effort to reduce
reliance on Russian fossil fuels.
According to the European Council, until 2H21, EU
countries sourced around 50% of their LNG requirement
from Russia. After the war, the proportion of Russian gas
began a swift descent, while other suppliers saw their
market shares rise. This trend gained significant momentum
in 2022. By June 2022, Russia’s share of gas imports into
the EU had dropped to below 20%, further decreasing to
12.9% in November. Throughout the period from
January to November 2022, the combination of Russia’s
pipeline gas and LNG imports accounted for less than
one-quarter of the EU’s total gas imports. Another 25%
came from Norway, 11.6% from Algeria. Excluding Russia,
LNG imports, primarily sourced from the US, Qatar, and
Nigeria, accounted for 25.7% of the total, as reported by the
European Commission.
In 2022, European nations increased their LNG imports
by 60% to offset the declining pipeline gas supplies from
Russia. The EU’s policies, focused on climate and energy
security, are expected to drive a gas demand reduction of at
least 40% by 2030. Despite expanding new LNG terminals,
Europe’s energy transition goals may lead to significant
unused import capacity.
Asian nations reducing reliance on
LNG imports
Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in February
2022, LNG prices started to move northward (as shown
in Figure 3) and spot LNG prices touched a peak of
around US$55/million Btu in August 2022 from around
US$28/million Btu at the beginning of
February 2022. However, subsequently,
LNG prices cooled off to less than
US$30/million Btu in November 2022 and
are now hovering around US$15/million Btu
(September 2023). However, the LNG price
surge in 2Q22 and 3Q22 was so profound
that many Asian countries considered
LNG as pricy and unreliable. Even some
of the proposed LNG import projects
in these countries now face delays and
cancellations. Governments of key Asian
importers introduced policies that aimed at
reducing their dependence on global gas
imports. Currently, Asian importers are doing
as follows.
Japan and South Korea advancing
decarbonisation objectives
Historically, Japan and South Korea have
been pillars of global LNG demand. However,
both countries are planning to decrease LNG
purchases while concurrently increasing
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 nuclear, wind, and solar power generation to enhance
energy security, stimulate economic growth, and advance
decarbonisation objectives.
China relying more on Russian pipeline
LNG imports
China reduced its LNG purchases by 20% in 2022, owing
to a combination of elevated prices, COVID-19-related
shutdowns, and slower economic growth. Continuously
high LNG prices have led China to increasingly prioritise
cost-effective Russian pipeline imports and domestic gas
production. This preference placed downward pressure
on LNG demand, resulting in a price decline by the
close of 2022. According to a report by Reuters, China is
projected to import 22 billion m3 of LNG from Russia in
2023 through the 4000 km (2500 mile) Power of Siberia
pipeline, connecting East Siberian fields to northeastern
China. This is up from 10.5 m3 in 2021 and 15.5 m3 in 2022.
Additionally, Russia is planning the construction of another
gas pipeline to China, known as Power of Siberia 2, with a
yearly capacity of 50 m3, and the route will pass through
Mongolia. This will be done as part of the 30-year contract
worth more than US$400 billion with China, mentioned the
Reuters report.
South Asian countries reduced LNG purchases
in 2022
Countries such as India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh
experienced a 16% decrease in their LNG procurement in
2022. Buyers in the South Asian region retreated from the
spot markets, as suppliers bound by long-term contracts
sometimes failed to meet cargo deliveries as they pursued
more lucrative opportunities in alternative markets.
Concerns regarding fuel supply security and the affordability
of LNG dampened the outlook for LNG demand growth.
LNG demand faces challenges
The expanding demand for LNG in Southeast Asian
nations is currently encountering several hurdles due to
restricted availability of LNG contracts and infrastructure
limitations. It has been reported that long-term contracts
with deliveries scheduled before 2026 are entirely allocated
on a global scale, leaving price-sensitive Southeast Asian
buyers vulnerable to the fluctuations and higher costs of
spot markets.
Over the next few years, global LNG markets are
projected to experience limited supply expansions, even as
European nations continue substantial LNG imports to
substitute lost Russian pipeline gas.
Continuing to alienate Asian buyers, high prices have
prompted European policymakers to pursue aggressive
measures aimed at curtailing gas consumption. This
initiative is motivated by the necessity to cut energy
expenditures, bolster energy security, and achieve emission
reduction goals. Although Europe witnessed a short-term
spike in LNG imports to offset the loss of Russian pipeline
resources, environmental and energy programs are
anticipated to steady and ultimately reverse the trend of
growing LNG demand in the region later in this decade.
According to the Institute for Energy Economics and
Financial Analysis’ (IEEFA) projections, continual high global
LNG prices, sluggish LNG demand growth, heightened price
16 January 2024
sensitivity in Asia, reductions in gas consumption across
Europe, and sustained investments in cost-effective energy
alternatives will erode global LNG demand expansion over
the coming years.
After several years of sluggish supply growth, IEEFA
anticipates a tidal wave of new LNG projects commencing
operations around mid-2025. This wave is anticipated to
reach its peak in 2026, introducing an unprecedented
annual liquefaction capacity increase of 64 million t — the
largest expansion ever witnessed in the history of the
global LNG industry. This influx of supply will augment
global liquefaction capacity by approximately 13% in a
single year.
However, liquefaction projects targeting in-service dates
beyond 2026 may confront a substantially smaller demand
pool than previously optimistic market forecasts envisioned.
As new supply inundates the market, the tight market
conditions of today could give way to an oversupply
situation, resulting in prices that are lower than anticipated,
reduced netbacks, narrower margins, and diminished profits
for LNG exporters.
US LNG exports likely to grow
According to the EIA, the current conditions in the
international natural gas market present a favourable
landscape for increased US LNG exports. Elevated natural
gas prices in various European and Asian price hubs, when
compared to US natural gas prices, are driving this trend.
The EIA’s Short-Term Energy Outlook anticipates a continued
shift towards US LNG exports, replacing Russian pipeline
gas previously destined for Europe. This phenomenon arises
due to the constrained growth in worldwide LNG export
capacity for the next couple of years, leading to increased
demand for flexible LNG provisions, predominantly
originating from the US, in order to satisfy the growing
global demand.
According to EIA forecasts, US LNG exports are expected
to reach an average of 12.0 billion ft3/d in 2023, and this
figure is projected to rise to 13.3 billion ft3/d in 2024 due to
the introduction of two new LNG export projects.
In 2022, US LNG exporters utilised 98% of their nominal
capacity, primarily due to operational factors. It is expected
that this figure will rise to 105% in 2023 and 108% in 2024,
equivalent to 88% and 90% of peak capacity in those
respective years.
Two significant sources of uncertainty in this forecast
are the timelines for the commencement and ramp-up of
the new US LNG export projects. The Golden Pass Trains 1
and 2, a joint venture between ExxonMobil and QatarGas,
are expected to come online in late 2024, with Train 3
following in early 2025. The Venture Global’s
Plaquemines LNG Phase 1 project in Louisiana is scheduled
to commence operations by the close of 2024.
Together, Golden Pass Trains 1 and 2, along with
Plaquemines Phase 1, are expected to provide a nominal
LNG export capacity of 2.7 billion ft3/d and a peak capacity
of 3.2 billion ft3/d. By the close of 2024, US LNG nominal
liquefaction capacity is expected to reach 14.1 billion ft3/d,
with peak capacity at 17 billion ft3/d across nine US LNG
export facilities. This increase underscores the US’ pivotal
role in supplying LNG to global markets amid evolving
energy dynamics.
 COVER STORY
Keeping
it simple
Jonathan Berg, Christopher Elko,
Christoper Ott, and Colton Schrettner,
Air Products, consider liquefaction trains
for modern LNG facilities.
T oday’s LNG market is
motivated by critical
demand for worldwide
energy security and the
rapid transition to fuels and
manufacturing facilities with
ever-decreasing carbon intensity.
These demands require liquefaction
trains with high efficiency
and availability, coupled with
construction methods that offer
reduced CAPEX and the shortest
time between final investment
decision and first shipment of
product. With the trend toward
highly-modularised liquefaction
trains rising to meet those project
delivery objectives, the LNG
industry is turning its attention
to electrically-driven liquefaction
plants to achieve custom-tailored,
low-carbon production capacity.
Electrically-driven processes in
conjunction with more widespread
modularisation capability enables
more freedom to ‘right-size’ a
liquefaction plant’s production
capacity. With more degrees of
design freedom than ever before,
one size rarely fits all. EPCs and
owners may wonder, “what is the
best way to configure modules for
optimal plant production for
baseload facilities?” A configuration
that is simple, elegant, and efficient
at one capacity can become
complicated, cumbersome, and
inefficient at other sizes.
Mid-size liquefaction
facilities
Single mixed refrigerant (SMR)
processes have gained popularity in
recent years due to their simplicity:
in its most basic form, an SMR
liquefaction unit consists of one
refrigerant compressor and one
main cryogenic heat exchanger.
Besides straightforward scalability
over a wide range of production
capacities, this equipment can
be easily modularised for quick
17
 installation at site, relative to traditional stick-built
facilities. Figure 1 shows the elegance of this solution.
The AP-SMRTM liquefaction process is well-proven with
decades of reliable operation. This simple process is a
natural fit for facilities exporting up to a nominal
Figure 1. The AP-SMR Process pairs low per-train
equipment count with proven coil-wound heat exchanger
technology.
Figure 2. The AP-DMR Process employs integrated
pre-cooling to improve thermal efficiency by 10 – 12% over
AP-SMR.
Figure 3. An ideal “equal-third” power split using three
identical drivers for the AP-DMR refrigeration compressors.
18 January 2024
1.5 – 1.7 million tpy of LNG. High liquefier availability and
enhanced performance is achieved over a wide operating
range by integrating a robust, well-referenced coil wound
heat exchanger. Air Products’ experience in offering fully
dressed, modularised exchangers directly translates
into reduced field execution time – enabling shorter line of
sight to first drop. This technology is proven at both small
and mid-sized scales, with over 40 years of field operation.
This is also the basis of the company’s AP-1MTM LNG
module, a 1 – 1.4 million tpy AP-SMR modularised
product offering.
Similarly, because AP-SMR liquefaction processes
targeting approximately 1.5 million tpy of production
require a refrigerant compressor driver size in the
50 – 60 MW range, they can leverage well-referenced
frames from a variety of electric motor manufacturers.
Note that for optimal compressor aerodynamic
performance in this size range, a speed-increasing gearbox
is often employed to increase shaft speed when a
single-speed, synchronous driver is used. Additional lube
oil circulation for thermal management of the gearing
translates into a larger accessory skid. However, the
additional capital impact of the gear box and nominal
increase in package footprint actually decrease
compressor casing size while improving liquefaction cycle
efficiency – thus reducing carbon intensity for a given
production capacity.
Larger liquefaction facilities
To minimise CAPEX, simple solutions are desirable for
capacity below 1.5 million tpy. However, what is simple
at 1.5 million tpy may not necessarily remain simple
as capacity is scaled larger. In addition, larger capacity
plants will require more power and produce more
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, reduced
carbon intensity will be of higher value. For example,
three AP-SMR liquefaction trains can achieve a capacity
of 4.5 million tpy, but other liquefaction technologies can
provide a more efficient option.
Simply put, precooled liquefaction processes are
thermodynamically more efficient than single refrigerant
processes. Dual mixed refrigerant (DMR) processes can
improve the overall economics of a large scale facility with
fewer trains. Shown in Figure 2, the AP-DMRTM liquefaction
process offers 10 – 12% better efficiency than the AP-SMR
liquefaction process; that means that for a given electric
driver size, the AP-DMR process produces approximately
10 – 12% more LNG than the AP-SMR process. This in turn
reduces specific power and improves project economics,
making the AP-DMR process the cycle of choice for
reducing carbon intensity.
Figure 3 depicts an optimal machinery arrangement
for the AP-DMR liquefaction process that leverages an
equal-third power distribution: three equally sized electric
motors are used to drive the entire liquefaction process.
In this configuration, one motor powers the warm mixed
refrigerant (WMR) compressor, the second motor powers
the first stage of cold MR compression, and the third
motor powers the final two stages of cold MR
compression. Note that for a nominal 4.5 – 5 million tpy
of production, each of these is the same 50 – 60 MW
motor used in the nominally 1.5 million tpy AP-SMR
Worldwide Coverage

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 process example. In this case, speed-increasing gearboxes
are generally not required when combined with
synchronous-speed motors because the refrigerant duties
contribute to satisfactory compressor aerodynamic
performance when directly driven. This shrinks the
compressor package footprint and reduces the lubricant
circulation requirement, thus reducing capital expenditure,
operating expenditure, and plot space.
The AP-DMR process also employs Air Products’ coil
wound heat exchanger technology for the precooler and
main cryogenic heat exchanger (MCHE). These exchangers
can be just as easily modularised for rapid integration at
site to fit even the most aggressive project schedules and
– most importantly – they have already been successfully
applied in onshore and floating applications of the
AP-DMR liquefaction process (Figure 4).
Equipment count comparison
While the use of a precooled liquefaction process, such as
the AP-DMR process, increases the equipment count and
CAPEX compared to the AP-SMR process, this logic is only
valid on a per-train basis. For larger quantities of the LNG
production, it is important to look at the larger picture and
evaluate the CAPEX, plot space, and execution schedules
per unit of production. For the production target of
4.5 million tpy, the AP-DMR process is more efficient and
has the lower overall equipment count. Lower equipment
counts generally translate to lower overall CAPEX, as well
as reduced plot space. If the plant will be modularised,
less plot space is particularly attractive as this reduces the
module size and cost. This illustrates that one train size
does not necessarily fit all projects.
While a single AP-SMR liquefaction train will have the
shortest construction schedule and produce LNG quickest,
any common infrastructure (such as pretreatment, loading
jetty, storage tanks, etc.) is likely to eliminate that benefit.
For the full liquefaction capacity, the AP-DMR process is
expected to have the shortest construction schedule given
that it contains fewer pieces of equipment, as illustrated in
Table 1.
Besides the performance benefits inherent to the
AP-DMR liquefaction process at this train size, the reduced
equipment count directly reduces carbon intensity by
decreasing the number of potential hydrocarbon leak
paths. Fewer valves – with less stem packing to wear out
and fail – and fewer overall flanged connections reduce
the probability of fugitive greenhouse gas emissions
escaping into the atmosphere.

Making the right choice

The evolving landscape of the LNG market demands
innovative solutions that balance efficiency, reduce
carbon intensity, and provide flexibility in plant design.
For mid-size and smaller liquefaction facilities, the
simplicity and scalability of processes such as the
Figure 4. A fully dressed and module-ready coil-wound AP-SMR process can offer an elegant solution. For
pre-cooler and MCHE saves valuable field execution time. larger liquefaction facilities, options like the AP-DMR
process provide enhanced efficiency
and reduced overall equipment count,
Table 1. SMR vs DMR cost, and schedule. These processes
AP-SMR AP-DMR leverage Air Products’ proven coil
Hardware Advantage
Process Process wound heat exchanger technology for
reliable operation, supporting the global
Number of trains 3 1 –
demand for LNG. As the LNG sector
60 MW e-motor or GT drivers 3 3 – navigates the path towards cleaner,
more efficient production, the company’s
Machinery

Speed-increasing gearboxes 3 0 AP-DMR commitment to innovative technology

and modularisation continues to shape
Compressor casings 3 3 –
a future where ‘right-sized’, low-carbon
Anti-surge valves 6 5 AP-DMR LNG facilities are the standard.

Coil-wound heat exchangers 3 2 AP-DMR References

1. OTT, C., SCOTT, K., ELKO, C., and
Liquefier

Coil-wound bundles 9 4 AP-DMR

JT valves
Separator vessels
LNG production (million tpy)
KRETZ, C, ‘Turning LNG Greener; LNG
Liquefaction Using Electric Drive’,
12 4 AP-DMR Gastech Exhibition & Conference
Proceedings, (2022).
9 3 AP-DMR
2. OTT, C., BERG, J., and KRETZ, C,
‘Large or Small: Which is Better?’,
4.5 5 AP-DMR LNG2023 Proceedings, (2023).

20 January 2024
Tony Collins, EonCoat, USA, examines health and safety best
practices for solvent exposure.
Y
ears ago, it was common to
hear jokes about painters
being a goofy bunch, but
people now know that is not the case.
The data regarding solvent exposure
shows it is causing brain damage, with
industry exposing people to solvents
that do irreparable harm to them.
One of the best attributes of LNG
is that it is a cleaner fuel that provides
a safer alternative. Might this group be
the one to set an example by being
the standard for safety of the people
who work in its facilities? Part of that
example might include eliminating the
solvents from corrosion coating. This
decision should be easier to make
considering research by NASA and
others have demonstrated that the
best performing corrosion coating is
water based and contains no
other solvent.
Research into impacts
on health
A Harvard School of Public Health
study concludes sustained, high-level
exposure to vapours from industrial
paints and coatings, adhesives, and
other solvent-based products may
compromise brain function in workers
decades after they have left the job.
“The Harvard study adds to the
mounting evidence not only of the
harmful effects of solvent exposure on
cognitive function in the short term,
but also of the health effects that
may last long past the time of
exposure,” Dr Erika L. Sabbath, the
study leader, said.1
Retirees have shown problems
30 – 50 years after their exposure, and
it has now been established that
people who are exposed to solvents
for extended periods see their IQ’s
lowered by 10 – 15 points.
National Institute for Health and
Care Research reports it can affect
more than just the painter’s own
health consequences, such as
mesothelioma, bladder cancer,
21
 scleroderma, leukemia, renal cancer, and a host of other personal
maladies due to toxins – multiple studies indicate genetic
damage as well.
Remedies
Companies buy personal protective equipment (PPE) and insist
that everyone wears it. Unfortunately, a P100 mask is only
tested to stop particles 0.3 microns and larger. Volatile organic
compounds have a diameter in picometers. 1 micron is 1 million
picometers. Vendors talk about 99.97 efficiency of N100 masks
but do not advertise that P100 masks do not stop VOC’s and
many other hazardous substances at all. A mask cannot stop a
toxin 30 picometers in diameter when the holes in the protective
mask is 0.3 microns – 100 000 times the size of the toxin.
SINCE PPE cannot eliminate the health or physical hazards
of a chemical, PPE can provide a false sense of security, and
should always be a last resort.
Operators should remember the Hierarchy of Safety controls:
z Elimination.
z Substitution.
z Engineering controls.
z Admin controls.
z PPE.
Notice that PPE is always intended to be the last resort, but
eliminating the hazard is always the best solution. For corrosion
coatings, it is easy to eliminate the hazard and save money in
the process.
An alternative solution
The price of an alternative product that is water-borne and
contains no VOC’s or toxins (such as EonCoat) costs about the
same as a typical three-coat system of zinc, epoxy, and urethane.
The labour cost difference for using an alternative is less –
EonCoat, for example, utilises about half the labour that it takes
Figure 1. The samples spent 18 months on the beach at Kennedy Space Center.
EonCoat is the fourth row down on the left, with all the major coatings
represented here. A formal copy of the NASA report is published and available.
22 January 2024
to apply a typical three-coat system. Many of the typical
activities are eliminated, including workers constantly blasting
and cleaning up, as it only requires one coat and a topcoat for
looks if desired.
EonCoat use reduces the downtime by at least half
compared to that required for a typical three-coat system. A
NACE 3 surface is more than sufficient rather than white metal.
Even painting over flash rust is acceptable. The entire asset
can be blasted at one time and then cleaned up one time –
regardless of the weather – and can be painted in a few days.
Lower surface prep and 15-minute dry time enables a job
speed that cannot be achieved with polymer paints.
NASA has demonstrated that EonCoat provided more
effective corrosion protection in a real-world environment
compared to all other alternatives.
EonCoat is inorganic and does not age the way polymers
do. The anticipated life of EonCoat exceeds the life of
the asset.
The net cost of eliminating the hazard is a negative
number. It is possible to increase profits immediately while
providing a safer workplace.
In addition to increasing profits while making a workforce
healthier, there are some other inherent benefits to a
chemically bonded phosphate ceramic like EonCoat. By being
water based and 100% inorganic, all the environmental, social,
and governance issues regarding asset maintenance are solved.
There are no HAP’s, no VOC’s, no toxins, and an extremely low
carbon footprint.
An additional benefit of EonCoat is the elimination of the
disposal costs that are part of every polymer paint system. The
chemical formula for EonCoat is MgKPO4.6H20. This technically
and legally is considered a fertilizer. It is a solid cement that
can be disposed of anywhere that one might put a rock. This is
particularly useful if a plant is in a sensitive area, such as on
the waterfront.
Finally, another inherent benefit for the use of EonCoat on
LNG assets is that chemically bonded phosphate ceramics are
the best passive fire protection mechanisms in the world. The
excess magnesium hydroxide in the coating is one of the
ingredients in fire-fighting foam.
Conclusion
The LNG industry has a pivotal opportunity
to exemplify safety by addressing the solvent
exposure issue through transitioning to
water-based corrosion coatings. This move
not only promotes a healthier workplace, but
also presents a strong business case with its
cost-effectiveness and increased performance.
The evidence from numerous studies highlights
an urgent need for action, transcending beyond
just the painters’ realm to a broader societal
concern. The industry’s proactive response
in adopting safer practices will set a high
standard of operational excellence and ethical
responsibility, aligning with global strides
towards environmental stewardship and
human-centric practices.
References
1. ‘Erika Sabbath’, Harvard School of Public Health,
www.hsph.harvard.edu/profile/erika-sabbath
 h e n e w
T

Richard Holliday, Global Director – Hydrocarbon Fire Protection,

Corporate Science and Technology, PPG, identifies how to elevate passive
fire protection to meet the demands of harsh climates and the LNG boom.

T
he challenges surrounding passive fire protection (PFP) standards have
become increasingly complex in the evolving landscape of the oil, gas,
and petrochemical industry. Hydrocarbon processing facilities grapple
with complex fire hazards, extending to some of the harshest climates in remote
areas such as Alaska, Northern Asia, and Northern Canada.
Steel begins to contract with fluctuating temperatures, especially in bitterly
cold environments (often dipping into sub-zero conditions). This contraction
stresses the PFP coatings, leading to cracks and corrosion. In the event of a fire,

fire
PROTECTION
23
 these cracks compromise the fire-resistive properties of
traditional coatings, raising significant safety concerns.
Moreover, with the growth of the LNG market, there is
now an expectation for PFP coatings to protect against both
fires and cryogenic spills, further amplifying the necessity
for enhanced testing standards.
Understanding UL 1709: From its
inception to Edition 5
Introduced in 1989, UL 1709 set the benchmark for testing
protection materials for structural steel against rapid rise
fires. PPG’s original PITT-CHAR® product is the first epoxy
intumescent to clear the initial UL 1709 standard. Over
the years, four iterations of the standard followed, each
fine-tuning the requirements for materials exposed to
high-intensity, hydrocarbon-fuelled fires.
The industry realised new, more rigorous testing
standards that simulated real environment conditions were
needed. Products that once cleared the first four test
versions began to fail when exposed to the newer, more
severe environmental conditions.
In response, 2015 saw the debut of the UL 1709 Edition
5. The highlight of this edition introduces the UL 2431
durability test, formulated to test the resistance of coatings
against temperature-induced stress cracks. The test employs
a stringent wet/freeze/dry cycle. A cycle consists of the
equivalent of rainfall at the rate of 18 mm/h (0.7 in./h) of
water for 72 hours, followed by a temperature of -40 ±2.8˚C
(-40 ±2.8˚F) for 24 hours, and then a dry atmosphere of
Figure 1. PITT-CHAR NX on steel structure on petrochemical
plant in Northern Europe. Winter temperatures reach below -47˚C
(-53˚F).
24 January 2024
+60 ±2.8˚C (+140 ±5˚F) for 72 hours to simulate real-world
conditions. This cycle will be repeated 12 times before the
specimen is fire-tested and compared to a control specimen.
By integrating the UL Environmental Standard 2431 test
into UL 1709 Edition 5, the standard gauges the fire
resistance of materials and ensures that they can withstand
the severe environmental conditions and extreme
hydrocarbon hazards.
UL 1709 Edition 5: Raising the bar in
fire protection testing
UL 1709 Edition 5 has plenty of similarities to Edition 4.
Still, it is the addition of a few aggressive tests and new
standards that manufacturers must put their products
through that make it a better barometer of fire protection
performance. Similar to UL 1709 Edition 4, UL 2431 includes
the following tests of individual samples:
z Ageing test.
z High humidity test.
z UV test with a 135-day exposure.
z Salt spray test.
z Wet freeze dry cycle.
z Industrial atmosphere exposure.
z Optional acid and solvent spray.
After subjecting individual samples to these test
environments, they were evaluated under the UL 1709 fire
test. To achieve the UL 1709 Edition 4 certification, a sample
exposed to the above conditions had to perform within a
25% deviation range from an unexposed control sample.
As part of UL 2431, UL 1709 Edition 5 includes the same
tests, in addition to new durability tests, including:
z Combined high humidity and UV tests: Merging these
tests challenge the material with an eight-hour
cycle of UV at +70˚C (+158˚F), followed by four-hour
condensation at +50˚C (+122˚F), running for
5000 hours. This combined test intensifies the strain
on tested materials.
z Enhanced wet-freeze-dry cycle test: Introducing a
challenging 12-cycle repetition that subjects the
product to 72 hours of rain, 24 hours of freezing
temperatures, and 72 hours in dry, hot conditions. This
process simulates the rapid environmental changes
materials face in many real-world settings.
z Salt spray testing: This 90-day (2160-hour) test,
following ASTM B117 salt spray, evaluates corrosion
resistance under prolonged saline conditions.
z Air erosion test: To assess a material’s resilience
against persistent high winds, an ASTM E859 method
is employed where materials face wind speeds up to
96.6 km/h (60 mph).
z Impact resistance test: This test drops a 2 in. steel ball
from 20 ft through a 3 in. diameter pipe, which may be
more challenging for cementitious-based products.
z Vibration test: Reflecting the vibrations structures
endure, this test evaluates the coating’s resistance
to frequencies between 10 – 60 Hz. The sample is
subjected to a five-minute exposure each at a 2 Hz
increment, plus a two-hour exposure at the maximum
resonance or 60 Hz should no resonance be observed
during the variable frequency test.
z Enhanced performance requirements: The permissible
deviation from an unexposed sample’s fire performance
is now tightened from 25% to 15%.
Test regimens and results
Before the launch of UL 1709 Edition 5, certification
changes from the first to the fourth edition were marginal.
This often meant a product certified under Edition 1
could still be applicable under Edition 4. However, by
July 2022, this leniency ceased. For a UL 1709 certification,
products must comply with the stringent requirements
of Edition 5, which includes the rigorous UL 2431
environmental standards.
The public can access the UL directory Product iQ® to
verify product certifications.1 It offers comprehensive
insights, such as the protective topcoat required for
UL 2431 compliance. These topcoats remain vital,
so neglecting their maintenance can considerably
jeopardise fire protection efficiency.
The addition of UL Environmental
Standard 2431
Several contributing factors led to the addition of UL 2431
as part of UL 1709 Edition 5. Hydrocarbon processing
facilities, progressively situated in diverse and extreme
climatic conditions, remain at the forefront of these
concerns. The hazards posed by temperature extremities
leading to cracks in metal substrates and PFP coatings
cannot be overemphasised, as they become vulnerable
points for heat ingress, elevating fire risks. Likewise,
offshore facilities grapple with the challenges of high
humidity, forceful winds, and even the direct impact of
waves on specific structural areas.
The Köppen climate classification, which categorises
global climates into 30 distinct zones with five primary
clusters – tropical, dry, temperate, continental, and polar –
further underscores the complexity of these environmental
conditions, thus ensuring that durability tests robustly
represent these varied regions is paramount. The
establishment of UL 1709 Edition 5 serves as a versatile
standard, with its testing rigor emulating the challenges of
these diverse climates, ensuring coatings that secure this
certification offer unparalleled fire protection, even in the
most severe environments.
This edition also integrates insights from the tragic
11 September 2001 World Trade Center attacks.
 The significant damage to the fireproofing witnessed after
the initial crash necessitated the inclusion of tests focusing
on air erosion, vibration, and impact. Recognising the
environmental pressures specific to various global locales
– be it UV exposure, humidity fluctuations, temperature
extremes, erosive elements, or seismic activities – the
updated UL 1709 standard underscores the importance of
resistance to these challenges.
Beyond environmental considerations, the edition
delves into non-environmental factors, accentuating
rigorous impact, abrasion, and chemical tests. However, it is
pivotal to understand that these comprehensive tests do
not encompass all facets of durability. Manufacturers
should include further tests such as three or four-point
bend testing, elongation, adhesion, shore hardness, and
fatigue in their evaluation regimes to gauge durability.
The evolution of PFP coatings
As testing standards have evolved, so have the solutions.
For instance, PPG PITT-CHAR NX epoxy intumescent coating
is designed specifically to meet the dual challenges of
Figure 2. PITT-CHAR NX tested to NFPA 290 torch fire and hose
stream resistance testing PITT-CHAR NX tested to NFPA 290 torch
fire and hose stream resistance testing.
Before After
Figure 3. UL 2431 fire testing of ‘mini tubes’ before and after
environmental exposure at UL’s Northbrook facility, USA.
26 January 2024
severe fire hazards and cryogenic spills. It remains the
only product to have been verified by UL to endure double
exposure to the demanding UL 2431 testing standards.
This enhanced durability indicates that the coating went
through each conditioning test and passed each after
exposure not once but twice (achieved without needing
a protective topcoat) to provide owners and operators
of LNG, oil, gas, and petrochemical facilities with a high
performance PFP coating.
When exposed to high fire temperatures, coatings such
as PPG PITT-CHAR NX expand to form a robust, insulating
char that significantly reduces the heat-up rate of the
protected item. The insulation maintains steel integrity and
hence buys critical time for emergency response and helps
ensure the structures do not collapse, leading to escalation
of the event.
In many global LNG projects, PPG’s PITT-CHAR NX
protective coating proves instrumental in safeguarding
against severe fire hazards. The coating was applied to
critical infrastructure, such as structural steel, foundations,
piping, and LNG cold boxes, in order to provide protection
against high-intensity jet fires in extreme conditions.
Performance evaluations revealed that PPG
PITT-CHAR NX coating maintained structural integrity
under rapid temperature escalation and kept steel
temperatures below critical thresholds, effectively
mitigating the risk of structural failure.
This new coating system embodies the industry’s
move towards materials that meet and surpass the
highest fire protection standards. With
UL 1709 Edition 5 pushing the boundaries of what we
can expect from PFP materials, products like PPG
PITT-CHAR NX set a new gold standard for protection
and durability.
What is ahead for PFP?
The world of PFP is transforming. As LNG and
hydrocarbon processing facilities expand, the demands
on PFP coatings and the standards that guide them
have grown. UL 1709 Edition 5 exemplifies this change,
focusing on real-world environmental challenges.
By setting higher benchmarks for fire protection and
integrating tests that simulate real-world challenges,
this edition ensures that the materials employed help
safeguard assets and lives.
UL has now decided that future editions of the
UL 1709 standard should be applicable to items other
than structural steel such as critical process control
equipment, fire stopping penetration systems and fire
compartment divisions. For this reason, they have
recently reformatted the document to split into parts for
inclusion of these future items to be tested resulting in
a new 6th Edition. This edition contains no technical
changes or additional requirements.
Aligning with a partner, such as PPG, for innovative
solutions ensures that the LNG industry meets the
current safety benchmarks and stands well-prepared to
face the complexities of fire protection’s future.
References
1. UL Product iQ®, https://productiq.ulprospector.com/en
PPG PITT-CHAR® NX
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and cryogenic spill protection system

Enhanced durability Enhanced durability

verified by doubling verified by doubling
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environment exposures, environment exposures,
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 C arbon capture and storage (CCS) and
associated liquid carbon dioxide (LCO2)
shipping is expected to play a crucial role in
helping global industries to decarbonise.
While currently only a few LCO2 carriers exist, within
the beverage industry, this is set to quickly change, with
a fast-growing range of projects, studies and the
creation of value chains that will help establish this
market. Notably, all the LCO2 carriers on order are
fuelled by LNG.
To allay the technical risk of carbon dioxide (CO2)
carriage, as this technology is not yet proven, it makes
sense for ship operators to rely on an established
technology for the propulsion system, such as LNG.
There is enough LNG availability and a developed
infrastructure to fuel these vessels. This is a big
advantage over using other alternative fuels such as
ammonia which, despite seeing considerable interest
and development, is not currently available on the
market, with ammonia vessel engines still being tested
by large engine manufacturers.
Furthermore, the large advantage of deploying LNG
vs diesel oil is the reduced CO2 emissions it offers. If a
ship is carrying CO2 as a waste product from the
atmosphere it only makes sense to use a fuel that
submits less CO2, otherwise it is counterproductive.
As the designs of LCO2 carriers progress, depending
on the price of a capture system vs the emissions’
price, they could potentially capture the carbon that
they emit and store it within the same tanks as the
CO2 waste they are carrying. In another advantage LNG
holds over diesel, it is easier and cheaper to collect
carbon from LNG fuel. Unlike diesel, there is no need
for a scrubber to remove all the other particles and
contamination beforehand. Therefore, much less
energy is used in collecting the carbon from LNG,
compared to diesel.
28
While the maritime industry is still waiting for the
delivery of the first large purpose-built LNG-fuelled
LCO2 carriers, this is set to be a strong sector for the
LNG bunkering industry. Around 28 large scale CCS
infrastructure projects are ongoing, driving demand for
LNG-fuelled LCO2 carriers (Figure 1). It has been forecast
that as a moderate number, 30 – 40 LCO2 carriers will
be needed before 2030.
Currently, the most prolific area for CCS and LCO2
carriers is Northern Europe, with Scandinavia, the UK,
Belgium, the Netherlands, and France all invested in
carbon capture. But other locations are also expected to
develop CCS value chains, with South East Asia,
including Indonesia and Japan, very interested in carbon
capture. The Japanese Government has launched test
programmes to develop the technology for the
transport of CO2. Elsewhere, the US is building an
onshore CO2 storage infrastructure that will be capable
of receiving CO2, thus creating the potential for the
transport of CO2 from elsewhere to the US.
Overcoming challenges
There are a number of challenges and potential
issues that need to be overcome to allow the CCS
and associated shipping market to progress, including
regulation, bottlenecks, and pricing.
Value chains are currently limited to single
countries as regulations do not allow waste products
to be transported between different countries. These
will change and adapt to enable this but it will
take time.
Elsewhere, while LCO2 carriers are governed by the
IGC code, there is little regulation currently when it
comes to CO2. Ongoing discussions suggest that these
will become more developed. One issue is that there is
a debate about whether CO2 cargo could be classed as
toxic. If this happens then LCO2 carriers will change
Florian Krauss, Proposal Manager, and Jakob Nielsen,
Senior Sales Manager, TGE Marine, Germany, explain
why LNG is set to play an important role within the
fast-growing liquid carbon dioxide carrier sector.

29
 drastically in terms of what they need to be equipped with in
terms of safety systems, making transportation much
more complicated.
Many CCS projects have the timeframe of 2027 as a target
for the injection of CO2. There is a risk that shipyards, with
their full orderbooks, could create a bottleneck in the supply
chain. Usually, onshore technology scales up faster than
maritime. If CCS becomes a viable route for industry, the scale
up of CCS value chains and terminals could overtake the pace
at which the shipping industry can supply vessels.
One of the greatest challenges is price. The business
model for carbon capture value chains is not yet viable, so
current projects are funded by governments. Current prices are
estimated to range between US$120 – US$160/t CO2. If the
total costs of CCS are at the lower end of this estimate, then
the market will grow quickly, but if at the higher end of these
predictions, it will take some time and there will be an
ongoing need for government support and incentives.
Underlying many of the challenges that this burgeoning
industry faces is that so much is unknown. But this will
change next year when the world’s first dedicated
vessel for carbon capture and storage is delivered as part of
the Northern Lights project (Figure 2), helping to provide
clarity and learnings to the rest of the CCS and
maritime industry.

Enter world-first LCO2 carriers

Indeed, this joint venture between Shell, Equinor, and
TotalEnergies, which is the world’s first large scale CO2
storage and transport project, is expected to act as a catalyst
for this industry. Its trio of LNG-fuelled LCO2 carriers are part
of a Norwegian state-founded effort to decarbonise large
emitters in Norway. CO2 will be captured, reliquefied onshore
and subsequently shipped to the Norwegian continental shelf,
Figure 1. An artist’s impression of several LCO2 carriers.
where it will be pressed underground via a terminal just
outside of Bergen.

Designing and supplying the cargo

handling processes and system
There is some hesitation in the shipping industry because
CCS and the associated LCO2 carriers are not yet proven
technologies. Therefore, many ship owners are examining
this project closely to see how it will turn out. Depending on
the technical challenges Northern Lights faces, this will be
the starting point for the CCS and LCO2 carrier industry to
take off.
There are many parts of the value supply chain that need
to fall into place; if this first mover can prove that CO2 can be
captured from emitters at a reasonable cost and be
transported safely, then the industry will accelerate.
Northern Lights will be instrumental in allowing the
industry to understand what the cost of carbon capture and
storage will be. While there are a lot of predictions about the
cost, no one actually knows the exact prices. Through
learnings generated from the project’s entire value chain, it is
likely that costs will reduce from the project’s first vessel to
the third.
Figure 2. The Northern Lights vessels will be the world’s Innovative solutions were applied to these vessels, which
first dedicated carriers for CCS. Source: Northern Lights.
will help provide knowledge for future LCO2
newbuilds. For example, the cold-water
environment of the North Atlantic was a
challenge to the vaporiser needed by the
carriers to prevent a decrease in the storage
tank pressure as cargo is unloaded. The
vaporiser process deploys sea water, but
there was a risk that the cold waters in
Norway in winter could lead to freezing.
The shipyard, ship operator, and
TGE Marine partnered together to overcome
this obstacle by deploying water glycol,
Figure 3. The CCS value chain for the GreenSand/Dan-Unitiy project. which has anti-freeze qualities, to act as
Source: Dan-Unity. a buffer.

30 January 2024
Scaling up
While the first movers have started on a small scale and will
only voyage for a day or two maximum, the industry’s goal
is to scale up these ships as far as possible, enabling the
transport of CO2 waste to be as efficient and economically
viable as possible. Precedents can be seen in other maritime
industries, where container ships and LNG and LPG carriers
started as small but quickly grew to reap all the benefits
of economies of scale. Indeed, further CCS and LCO2 carrier
projects highlight an upscale in the size of vessels and CO2
storage. Denmark’s GreenSand/Dan-Unity project in the
North Sea has a storage potential of 0.5 – 1 million tpy
of CO2 from 2025, increasing to 4 – 8 million tpy of
CO2 by 2030 (Figure 3). The vessels are still under
development, but TGE Marine carried out a FEED study,
providing conceptual designs for 12 500 m3, 22 000 m3,
and 50 000 m3 CO2 carriers (Figure 4). An important
milestone for the development of larger tanks is that these
designs were granted an Approval in Principle (AIP) from
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS).
The company also provided expertise on CO2 carrier
C-Type tank related storage issues for the Stella Maris CCS
project, which aims to provide cost efficient floating CCS
infrastructure solutions for a global market.
Deveoping storage solutions for the
LCO2 carrier market
The CO2 storage solutions deployed onboard are developing
to allow larger capacity LCO2 carriers. CO2 is stored in
medium pressure type C tanks in the Northern Lights carriers
(at -35˚C at 13 – 19 barg). This large window of 13 – 19 barg
decreases the risk of reaching a dangerous triple point.
The other industry standard is storage at low pressure
(8 – 9 barg and -55˚C). The advantage is that because of
this lower pressure, the size of the tank can be increased.
Low pressure tanks will increasingly be seen as LCO2
carriers become larger.
As LCO2 carriers become bigger and their voyages
longer, there will be a greater need for them to fitted with
reliquefaction systems.
Furthermore, there is uncertainty about what services
terminals will provide to the carriers. There is currently
only one such terminal in the world (Northern Lights), so it
remains to be seen what the standards will be. If they are
not equipped to receive vapour return and treat it, then
ships will be required to carry out the reliquefaction
Figure 4. An artist’s impression of a 50 000 m3 LP LCO2 carrier.
themselves.
which would enable some of the cold energy from the LNG
to be extracted to cool the CO2, before the former is
heated up.
A main challenge to such a procedure is that if very
large cargo tanks for CO2 are deployed, there could be a lot
of boil-off gas due to the vapour created from the heat
ingress into the tanks. This is in contrast to the relatively
small volume of LNG. But despite the difference in
quantities, it would still be very advantageous to create
an interface.
A reliquefaction plant for cooling cargo down is very
complex and leads to large OPEX and CAPEX costs. By
creating an interface with the LNG fuel gas system instead,
as well as gaining a less complex system, OPEX and CAPEX
costs would be much cheaper. Instead of deploying a system
that consists of a number of compressors, piping and a
control system, a simple heat exchanger or water glycol
could potentially be a solution.
The potential for an interface between the LNG fuel gas
system and CO2 is not something that can be replicated by
the use of other propulsion fuels. Ammonia for example is
stored at a much higher temperature while diesel is stored
at an ambient temperature.
TGE Marine is researching this area, and believes this
will be an important development for the LNG-fuelled LCO2
carrier market.
Conclusion
While the CCS market is only in its infancy, it will be an
important step forward towards reaching net zero, and
LNG-fuelled LCO2 carriers will play a pivotal role within it.

LNG and CO2 synergies

This is where there is the potential for synergies between
the LNG fuel gas system and the CO2 cargo solution. Cold
liquid LNG needs to be warmed up and made gaseous,
enabling it to feed the engine, where with CO2 the
opposite is needed: relatively warm CO2 needs to be cooled
down, and this is where there is an opportunity to create
synergies between the two processes.
If cold LNG used for the fuel gas system could be used
to cool the CO2, then ships’ voyages could be extended, and
in some cases, it would bypass the need for a
reliquefaction system.
Such an interface between the LNG fuel gas system Figure 5. A 3D model showing showing thicknesses of a Type C
and CO2 storage could be achieved by a heat exchanger, LCO2 tank.

January 2024 31
 Tor Østervold, ECOsubsea, Norway, details sustainable high-tech
solutions to the global scourge of biofouling.

Clean
hulls,

32
,protect
oceans
F
ouling on ships remains an uncontrolled, global
problem that has increased since the banning of the
biocide tributytin (TBT) in antifouling paints in 2008.
While removing toxins (including cybutryne, which was
banned at the start of 2023) is absolutely necessary to protect
marine environments, it also reduces the efficacy of hull
coatings, and by extension increases fouling rates. Hull paints
and coating systems include heavy metals and chemical
compounds; moreover, they are a source of microplastics
pollution. These problems are exacerbated by conventional
open-loop hull cleaning methods using divers and brushes,
with no collection of waste material.
More importantly, biofouling on the hulls of international
trading vessels is suspected to be the largest vector for the
transportation of marine invasive species (and diseases)
between geographies – which is a major environmental
concern given that one-eighth of the world’s fauna is currently
threatened with extinction.
Considering the current world-spanning flows of LNG and
the fact that, according to McKinsey, LNG demand is expected
to grow 3.4% per annum to 2035, biofouling on LNG carriers
is by default a contributor to the problem.1
To take an example, in New Zealand, the arrival of
approximately 87% of known established marine non-native
species already present in the country are likely to be from
biofouling on vessel hulls, while research has found that 3%
of the species have been introduced through ballast water
discharges. A species-level example is the tunicate Didemnum
vexillum, known colloquially as ‘sea vomit’, which has invaded
not only New Zealand but also North America and many parts
of Europe. Sea vomit is aggressively fast-growing and has a
negative effect on local biodiversity by outcompeting
33
 local species. Forming a mat on the ocean floor, it smothers
other flora as it grows, including high-density kelp forests,
which cover many coastlines around the world and are
directly responsible for hosting a flourishing biodiversity
while also serving as a natural carbon sink.
The knock-on effect of reducing kelp forests means sea
vomit can contribute to the collapse of local wild fisheries,
cause profit loss in aquaculture, and lower the ocean’s carbon
absorption capacity, which is critical at a time of climate
change triggered by the steady increase of carbon dioxide
(CO2) in the atmosphere. Sea vomit therefore has a heavy
impact on biodiversity, economy, and human health and
welfare, and it continues to be spread into new environments.
Lack of data
Impacts of marine invasive species are under-reported and
still not well understood, so the global impact is likely to be
even higher. No species mapping data currently exists that
compare water samples in ports with biofouling samples from
ships, but ECOsubsea is currently working to develop a system
based on eDNA detection methods. The situation has led to
New Zealand, for its part, imposing regulations requiring all
ships to provide evidence of biofouling management prior
to arrival, and denying entry to dirty ships. Australia also
introduced biofouling regulations in early 2023.
The Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Services (IPBES) notes in its 2023 Invasive Alien
Species Assessment that sufficient resources, political will,
Figure 1. An ECOsubsea mobile control station alongside
the 143 535 gt NCL cruise ship Norwegian Prima (built in
2022) in the Port of Southampton in August 2023.
Figure 2. ECOsubsea’s remotely operated robotic hull
cleaner at work sending fouling material to the quayside via
an umbilical where it undergoes extensive filtration.
34 January 2024
and long-term commitment, preventing and controlling
invasive alien species are attainable goals that will yield
significant long-term benefits for people and nature.
Antifouling paints can of course go part of the way to tackling
the problem, but as yet there are no international regulations
mandating sustainable closed-loop hull cleaning.2
Hull fouling can also markedly reduce vessel performance
due to drag, contributing to fuel ‘leakage’ that results in an
extra 100 million t of CO2 being emitted to the atmosphere
every year. This is estimated to cost the shipping industry
US$20 billion annually in excess fuel costs. ECOsubsea is also
exploring a data solution that can accurately measure
biofouling quantity and fuel leakage for each vessel. Not only
is this wholly unsustainable in terms of climate-change
impact but is also wholly preventable through sustainable
hull cleaning.
How the closed-loop solution works
The company’s closed-loop solution has taken 15 years to
develop and perfect, and effectively address the intertwined
issues of invasive species, climate change, and pollution.
Hull cleaning is performed in port by a subsea remote
operated vehicle (ROV) that ‘carries’ a robotic cleaning unit
measuring approximately 2 m high by 3 m long. The ROV is
equipped with 10 separate thrusters (propellers) that keep the
unit firmly in place as the unit transverses the hull from aft to
bow. The system can also operate in strong currents, for
example in the Port of Singapore, that make conventional
cleaning too dangerous for divers.
The ROV is supplied with power as well as water for the
cleaning system from a mobile quayside control station
mounted on a truck trailer. The cables and hoses are bundled
together to form a 200 m flexible umbilical, enabling the
system to clean a 300 m long vessel if the station is
positioned mid-ship. To clean larger ships, the station can
simply be moved along the quayside. The ROV can also be
deployed for cleaning from a barge, if necessary.
The mobile station is self-supplied with power from an
integrated generator but can alternatively be supplied with
electricity from outlets on the quayside. As well as the
generator, the station houses a control room, workshop,
hangar for the ROV, winch/drum for the umbilical, switch
board, a crane for launch and recovery and, of course, the
effluent filtering system. Being self-powered makes it easy to
transport the station to where it is needed; it can simply be
hooked up to a truck and driven to another berth or port. This
makes the solution very scalable.
The system ‘pilot’ sits in the control room from where they
can manoeuvre the submerged ROV and steer/monitor the
cleaning unit. A technician on the dock keeps an eye on the
ROV ensuring the umbilical runs freely and does not get
snagged on fenders or other structures. The robotic cleaner
itself uses water exiting under high pressure through nozzles
installed on discs that the water causes to spin. The spinning
discs comprise the ‘brushes’ that remove marine growth as
they pass over the hull while leaving the ship’s antifouling
coating intact and unharmed.
Onboard, the ROV is a suction pump that ‘hoovers up’ all
the material removed from the hull and sends it topside
for filtering and collection of the biomass. The filtering
system is staged; the first is a settling tank to catch heavy
bio-components such as barnacles, with the remaining
biomass fed through increasingly small filters (up to six
steps), leaving the effluent clean and free from biofouling
and microplastic.
ECOsubsea is currently working on a new unit that will
be even more effective, designed for the busy schedules of
LNG carriers.
The importance of a sustainable
proactive cleaning regime
A newbuild undergoes hull cleaning typically after one
year in operation and intermittently after that. ECOsubsea
highlights a misconception in the market that this is enough.
Witness this scenario; suppose a ship has a small hole in
its fuel tank that leaks 1% of its total fuel on every voyage.
Would it make sense to wait two, three, four years before
repairing the hole to save 10% of the accumulated fuel
spend? Of course not, the hole should be closed immediately.
Similarly, if an operator only performs hull cleaning once
every two years or less, they will certainly gain a saving but
this would hide the larger accumulated loss over time. Ships
should ideally be cleaned more frequently for a smaller
percentage saving but avoiding the hidden loss over time.
ECOsubsea suggests two times a year, and even up to six
times a year for slow-steaming ships and after idling, perhaps
due to port congestion, in tropical waters. The strategy will
differ according to trading profile and coating.
The company also offers what it terms ‘Quick Covid Tests’
using its Detector optical tool where an agent will board a
ship in port and use the tool to assess the biofouling layer
and transmit the data to the UK for analysis as to the density,
size and type of organisms present. The analysis is based on
US Navy methodology and the result is graded from 1 to 10,
helping operators make appropriate scheduling plans for hull
cleaning for each vessel.
The ECOsubsea solution is in use in some of the strictest
ports in the world and customers include the highest-rated
shipowners and navies. The company is currently in
expansion mode and by scaling up aims to make sustainable
hull cleaning both affordable and available in strategically
located ports worldwide. Many shipping companies, with a
clear focus on operating expenses, will opt for the cheapest
option (i.e., conventional hull cleaning), thus affordability is
crucial in the absence of regulations mandating sustainable
hull cleaning.
The company’s stated ambition is to embrace every vessel
with an IMO number (including LNG carriers), firstly through
saving 10 million tpy CO2 by cleaning 1000 ships and
ultimately saving the equivalent of Norway’s total annual CO2
emissions – or 50 million t – by cleaning 5000 vessels per
year, thereby helping to prevent the transfer of non-native
species and helping to make the shipping industry more
sustainable through reduced fuel consumption while
saving costs.
References
1. ‘Global Gas Outlook to 2050’, McKinsey Energy Insights,
(February 2021).
2. ‘Summary for Policymakers of the IPBES Assessment Report
on Invasive Alien Species and Their Control’, IPBES, (2023).
 Strategies
for the
digital
age
T
he continued rapid evolution
of digital technologies offers
both existing and future
LNG operators the opportunity
to take the LNG design-operate-
optimise lifecycles to new levels
of performance, reliability, safety,
and sustainability. To be truly
successful and transformative in
the digital age, the LNG business
strategy should include both a
digital strategy and operational
excellence. The alignment
between these business strategy
components should be guided by
a defined, asset-based information
management standard to ensure
consistency, completeness,
and alignment across the LNG
enterprise. A definition of the
LNG digital twin consisting of
data sources, modelling/analytics
capabilities, and enterprise
36
visualisation should be used
as a framework for alignment.
operational excellence, digital
strategy, the digital twin, and
information standards should be
defined in the FEED to ensure data
sources are budgeted, selected, and
designed and conform though the
engineering, operate, and optimise
lifecycles.
Starting off with
a solid digital
foundation and
alignment
LNG companies should first start
with a solid definition of their
business strategy and requisite
key performance indicators
(KPIs), priorities, culture, and
value-focused capabilities
supported by a definition and
implementation of an operational
Craig Harclerode, AVEVA, USA, looks at enabling a new
level of performance, capability, and sustainability across
the LNG value chain.

37
 excellence management system consisting of the
dimensions of people/culture, work processes, ‘technology’,
and continuous improvement. The ‘technology elements’
should clearly be linked to a defined digital strategy
and foundational information management across the
engineering operations, optimised with sustainability and
additionally, defined in the context of a digital twin.1
While this sounds logical and straight-forward, many
LNG companies do not include or poorly align a link across
their business and digital strategies with an operational
excellence management system with an information
management standard that fully define the systems and
interoperability of the LNG digital twin,1 even as a vision.
What are the steps, process, and deliverables of a
business strategy and the alignment of the operational
excellence-focused and digital strategy? How are the
people/culture, work processes, and continuous
improvement areas of operational excellence enabled by
technology and associated digital strategy? Why is it
important to fully define the ‘digital twin’ and leverage as a
tool to aid in this alignment and execution? Why is treating
information as a strategic asset critical and foundational to
an effective and successful execution of a business
strategy? Why is it critically important to leverage a ‘layers
of analytics’ approach?
These questions will be answered by first defining each
of these areas, followed by examples from Cameron LNG
and Cheniere Energy.
Starting with a solid LNG business
strategy and defined operational
excellence management system
A business strategy is the framework that outlines an
organisation’s goals, objectives, and purpose for existence.
There are many examples of business strategies but in the
context of LNG, may include dimensions of governance
Figure 1. Alignment of business and digital strategy with operational excellence
leveraging the LNG digital twin,1 enabled by a reference architecture with a focus
on integrated information management.
38 January 2024
structure, financial structure and priorities, LNG value chain
focus and operating model, and other strategic priorities
such as sustainability, flexibility, agility, and reliability.
However, in review of many current LNG company
strategies gleaned from public information and personal
experience, many do not include another key area –
operational excellence or a formalised defined digital
strategy that includes an information management
standard in the context of the digital twin with
associated data/information sources, modelling/analytics,
and visualisation.
Business strategy and operational excellence alignment
is critical for the success and growth of any organisation. It
involves the synchronisation of the overall business
strategy with the operational activities and processes to
mitigate risk and achieve maximum efficiency, productivity,
profitability, safety and, in today’s world, environmental
sustainability. Stated another way, operational excellence
focuses on the execution of the business strategy and
should ensure the necessary capabilities and resources to
execute it effectively. It bridges the gap between strategic
intent and operational reality, enabling an organisation to
translate its vision into tangible outcomes. It defines,
supports, and reinforces arguably the most challenging and
critical area of a company – culture. As Peter Drucker once
stated: “Culture eats strategy for breakfast” as transforming
employee beliefs and behaviours is challenging. He also
stated “what gets measured gets managed,” further
reinforcing the importance of information management
and metrics/KPI in supporting cultural alignment and
business execution.
Defining the desired LNG
company culture and the associated
work processes
People or culture refers to the shared values, beliefs,
attitudes, behaviours, and norms that
exist within an organisation. Culture
plays a vital role in driving continuous
improvement, efficiency, performance, and
the effectiveness of the business strategy.
Common attributes of culture include
leadership, innovation, empowerment,
knowledge capture, agility, accountability,
and defined and reinforcing
organisational roles and responsibilities.
Work processes are the systematic and
structured way an LNG company follows
to ensure efficiency, quality, risk
mitigation, safety, and continuous
improvement within a defined
organisational structure and associated
roles and responsibilities generally
defined in a RACI matrix: Responsible,
Accountable, Informed, Consulted.
A critical organisational structure with
RACI definition is between the
engineering, operational, and information
technology teams or ET, OT, and IT. Too
often, there is bias towards IT application
development, control, and use at the
expense of OT enablement and support
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 leading to OT dependency vs a more balanced and effective
OT-IT-ET partnership. Key is the selection and use of an
OT subject matter expert (SME) configurable operational
data infrastructure, as used in over 90% of the LNG
production globally.
To support culture, automated, effective work processes,
and enable effective continuous improvement, a technical
strategy guided by the digital strategy must enable many
areas including the following:
z Asset based maser data (information) management
across the various data sources or ‘systems’ of the
LNG digital twin necessary to guide the effective
contextualisation and use of all the information
consistently within an LNG company.
z Capturing SME knowledge, propagation and consistent
use of best practices, enabling ingenuity, accountability,
enhancing organisational performance, reliability and
reducing capital and operational expenses, energy, and
greenhouse gases (GHG).
z Development and reinforcement of a proactive,
intelligent (not just data), exception-based decision
making organisational culture from the executive suite
to the front-line operators and SMEs necessary for
flexible and agile operations.
z Remote connectivity for SMEs, operators, and other
supporting stakeholders commonly referred to as the
‘connected worker’ that has become critically important.
z Growingly, increasing integration of more advanced
analytics including artificial intelligence (AI) and
emerging technologies like ChatGPT guided by
analytics strategy.
Figure 1 illustrates this alignment around a portfolio of
solution areas the centre of which is information
management and ‘layers of analytics’, all defined in a
reference architecture with an ‘edge-to cloud’
implementation.
Elements of an effective digital
strategy that supports alignment
and performance
An LNG company’s digital strategy refers to the
comprehensive plan and use of a broad range of digital
technologies and techniques to support the effective
execution of the LNG business strategy using an
operational excellence management system. The digital
strategy should be aligned through the operational
excellence management system to the digital strategy
elements and attributes and ultimately framed in the
context of the LNG digital twin ‘systems’ and capabilities.1
Common elements of a digital strategy include the
ingratiation of the following areas:
z Information management standards enabling
comprehensive and foundational information
management necessary for interoperability and
40 January 2024
asset-based, contextualised, self-serve views between
the digital twin data sources.
z Analytics and modelling – defining the different types
of analytics and modelling with the integration and
evolution in ‘layers of analytics and modelling’.1
z Visualisation and decision support defined in a
framework of integrated and interrelated, persona-based
layers, including enterprise visualisation.
z Cyber and data security, governance, and data sharing
generally across a hybrid (on prem, single tenant, and
multi-tenant Software-as-a-Service [SaaS]) architecture.
z Mobility and the enablement of the connected worker
and integration of smart wireless sensors commonly
referend to as Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT).
z Buy, build, configure – a strategy to guide the decision
to buy solutions, build internally, and/or configure and
leverage infrastructure or platforms.
Alignment with LNG digital twin: A
‘system of systems’
As described in the LNG Industry June 2023 article
‘Visualising the Digital Future’,1 the LNG digital twin can
be best described in a collection of integrated systems or
data sources including engineering, operations, financial,
maintenance, HR, and a recent addition, the EHS system,
with integrated analytics and modelling.
These data sources need to be visualised in “single
pane of glass” visualisation capability providing provide a
complete view of the LNG enterprise and associated value
chain. The digital twin provides the framework to guide the
alignment between the business and digital strategies with
the operational excellence management system.
Illustrative use cases of business strategy,
OEMS, and digital strategy: Cheniere Energy
Cheniere Energy is one of the largest LNG operators
globally with 45 million tpy in current production,
with current expansions increasing LNG production
by an additional 30 million tpy for total of
75 million tpy between two gulf coast facilities over the
next several years.
Cheniere Energy strategically and effectively leverages
digital technologies to support operational excellence and
its defined and documented business strategy found in
their public facing collateral and investor information.
While not fully defined in public facing collateral, its
digital strategy focuses on information management and
intelligence augmented with ‘layers of analytics’ and
real-time, exception, based decision support as gleaned
from its presentation at AVEVAWorld 2022’s Oil&Gas Tract.2
Highlights that illustrate Cheniere’s focus on alignment
include the following solutions and areas of focus:
operational data management, intelligence, and real-time
decision support.
Foundational to Cheniere Energy is the use of on
operational data infrastructure that enables the
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 abstraction, normalisation, and contextualisation of vast
amounts of operational ‘tag’ based information from
sources including their control systems, safety systems, IT,
and electrical infrastructure and engineering data including
structured and unstructured data such as engineering
limits, performance curves, etc.
Cheniere’s SMEs, with training, support, and
governance developed smart asset objects or templates for
all assets such as pumps, compressors, control valves,
towers, exchanger, cold boxes, compressors, in effect creating
an asset based operational digital system of the facilities
and associated infrastructure including feed gas systems.
The asset templates were developed by SMEs using a
no code, drag and drop configuration, enabling the capture
of their knowledge and best practices. The use of
abstraction, normalisation, and contextualisation permitted
the migration from tags to assets and the ability to use the
templates broadly across the two LNG facilities, enabling
the rapid start-up of both sites by sharing of intelligence
and best practices.
The use of assets vs the hundreds of thousands of ‘tags’
was critical in the operational excellence management
system implementation and to support the journey to full
master data management and the associated digital twin.
The asset templates included smart visualisation displays
used to provide exception based operational intelligence in
context for the various users, groups, and
organisational levels.
Smart dashboards that included KPIs, conditional
formatting, totals, and other intelligence that spanned not
only traditional dashboards, but also provided more
advanced capabilities including:
A portfolio of hierarchical production KPIs status and
constraint identification (Figure 2).
z Operating envelopes based on KPIs and their
interrelationships.
Figure 2. Example of Cheniere Energy’s intelligent KPI and constraint dashboard. The alignment and communication of complex
concepts across broad teams is critical.
42 January 2024
z A portfolio of applications, such as refrigerant
inventory management.
z Safety system integrity and bypass notification
and tracking.
z Control system, IT, application, software updates, and
electrical infrastructure performance and tracking.
Cheniere Energy uses a layer of ‘layers-of-analytics’
approach with descriptive and diagnostic analytics
performed using the capabilities of the operational data
infrastructure. Additionally, they leverage more advanced
capabilities such as configurable and tuneable event
frames and notifications as a foundation for higher level
advanced analytics integrated capabilities including
predictive analytics and other advanced analytics tools. The
layered approach enables continued evolution to include AI
and more advanced capabilities, including applications
using ChatGPT.
Cameron LNG: Digitising LNG production
operations
Cameron LNG discussed its digital strategy and execution
in its AVEVAWorld 2023 Oil&Gas tract presentation3 and
the continued effort to leverage digital technologies to
support its business strategy and operational excellence
management system.
One area of focus is the enablement of field access to
operational systems and data in usable and comprehensive
formats to minimise time in the field gathering and
entering data in addition to minimisation of ‘wrench time’.
A second area of focus is the leverage of wireless
technologies to support a large and growing portfolio of
wireless filed sensors.
As a key element of the digital strategy and need to
support business objectives and operational excellence,
Cameron focused on the
use of wireless
technologies, such as:
z Consumer grade
mobile tables and
smartphones rated for
use in hydrocarbon
hazardous areas
with high-speed
data access enabled
using a private 4G
LTE band 48 (CBRS)
high-speed data
wide area network Figure 3. Example of LoRaWAN temperature sensors used to support the hot air recirculation
with high security. application.
This has enabled
the use of mobile digital applications such as
AVEVA Mobil Operator, shift logbook with electronic
work permitting, access to the CMMS system for
workorder and spare parts information, access to the
document management system enabling field access to
1D, 2D, and 3D information.
z The use of low-cost wireless sensors such as
temperature, position, and vibration enabled by the
installation of a LoRaWAN wireless data infrastructure
with direct integration with the operational data
infrastructure bypassing the control system for security
and performance.
Figure 3 is one of the several LoRaWAN examples, this
one for hot air recirculation (HAR) which requires a large
number of strategically placed wireless temperature
sensors around their three large air-cooled heat exchanger
(ACHE) banks.
The use of more sensory data enables more advanced
applications to address areas, such as:
z HAR – determining and modelling the impact
of weather (temperature, humidity, and wind
speed/direction) on the performance of the large banks
of ACHE.
 With an increase of low-cost temperature sensors
strategically mounted above and below the air-cooled
exchange banks, Cameron plans to monitor for HAR
and the impact on cooling efficiency and associated
LNG production enabling improved decision making.
 Plans are to leverage the operational data
infrastructure and integrated advanced analytics
to model and forecast the projected impact of
weather events such as rain, high wind, and change
in humidity to provide prescriptive and proactive
operational changes to optimise LNG production.
z Advanced asset performance management (AAPM) for
key assets such as the refrigerant compressors and
cold boxes.
Summary
The alignment between these business strategy
components should be guided by a defined, asset-based
information management standard to ensure consistency,
completeness, and alignment across the LNG enterprise.
A definition of the LNG digital twin consisting of data
sources, modelling/analytics capabilities, and enterprise
visualisation should be used as a framework for
alignment. The alignment matrix, operational excellence
management system, information standards and digital
twin framework should be defined in the FEED to
ensure data sources are selected and designed and
conform though the engineering, operate, and
optimise lifecycles.
Business and digital strategy alignment with the
operational excellence management system in the
context of an LNG digital twin is critical to ensure
success and growth of an LNG company. Alignment ensures
that the organisation’s strategic intent is translated into
tangible outcomes in the areas of culture, work processes,
and continuous improvement. This alignment enables LNG
companies to drive innovation, be agile and opportunistic,
manage risks, lower energy and GHG emissions, and operate
with operational excellence.
The key areas of digital strategy include data
management, layers of bi-directionally integrated analytics
with an associated evolutionary approach towards and
including advanced analytics/AI. Additional capabilities
should include layers of visualisation and decision
support facilitated using advanced communications
technologies including wireless sensors and field devices
across a hybrid cloud that includes highly secure on
prem/multi-tenant and a multi-tenant SaaS enabling secure
industrial data sharing.
References:
1. HARCLERODE, C., and PARKER, St., ‘Visualising the
Digital Future’, LNG Industry Magazine , (June 2023),
www.lngindustry.com/magazine/lng-industry/june-2023
2. HINDERSON, M., et al., ‘Advanced Data Analytics and
Dashboards with AVEVA PI System at Cheniere Energy’,
AVEVAWorld 2022, https://resources.osisoft.com/
presentations/advanced-data-analytics-and-dashboards-
with-aveva-pi-system-at-cheniere-energy/
3. FIELD, F., ‘Digitizing LNG Production Operations –
Actionable Insights from the Cameron LNG Digital
Journey’, AVEVAWorld 2023 , https://resources.osisoft.
com/presentations/digitizing-lng-production-operations-
-actionable-insights-from-the-cameron-lng-digital-
journey/
January 2024 43
 here is a widely-held belief that natural gas and LNG will
serve as a bridge to a renewable future. Recognising the
increasing importance of hydrogen in future energy
landscapes, New Energy Development CompanyTM advocates a
bridge strategy to cultivate the market for hydrogen with
intermediate renewable offerings. No matter what the future
brings, new LNG facilities are required in the US that simplify
siting and provide ease of operation and maintenance.
In response to this need, the company (which specialises in
delivering pre-engineered systems, comprehensive EPC services,
and investment capital for projects related to LNG, hydrogen, and
e-methane) introduced a pre-engineered cryogenic tank design
44
aimed at reducing the challenging siting requirements
associated with LNG and other cryogenic projects. The company
invested in developing ASME section 8 specifications, detailed
engineering designs, and 3D models for a full-containment
cryogenic storage system with a double cryogenic wall. To
safeguard this intellectual property, New Energy has filed a
US Patent Application (No. 17323622) for this cryogenic
storage system.
This article highlights the patent-pending system and
pre-engineered cryogenic tank design, featuring double
stainless-steel cryogenic walls, absence of bottom penetration,
and elimination of internal pumps. The focus of New Energy’s
vision is to create a more renewable version of renewable
natural gas (RNG). The traditional RNG processes typically vent
carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, but the company’s
systems integrate vented CO2 with green hydrogen to produce
e-methane. This versatile e-methane can be converted into LNG,
injected into a pipeline, or seamlessly integrated into a
distribution system.
The company’s plant designs vs older
technology
Approximately 110 LNG facilities in the US have been
built since 1966. Much of the LNG technology from the
Alexander Ellis III,
Managing Partner,
Thomas Quine, Technology Partner,
and Scott Shields, Commercial Partner,
New Energy Development CompanyTM,
USA, highlight cryogenic storage
system designs.
mid-20th Century is still in use today. This older technology
includes single-containment LNG tanks with earthen
impoundments, bottom penetrations, and large thermal and
vapour exclusion zones.
The US Federal Safety Standards for LNG are published in
49 CFR 193. These safety standards apply to LNG facilities that
serve jurisdictional gathering, distribution, and transmission
companies. 49 CFR 193 incorporates various other codes and
standards by reference, such as NFPA-59A 2001 and 2006.
The New Energy™ system is intended to meet and exceed
the requirements of 49 CFR 193, NFPA-59A, and EN 1473. The
New Energy GreenER™ LNG tank design is explicitly provided
45
 with ASME-rated with double stainless-steel walls, no internal
pumps, and no bottom penetrations. The company uses a small
pressure build system to move LNG in and out of its tank
systems, and define full containment as a complete containment
tank design with a double tank designed and constructed so that
the inner and outer tanks can independently contain the stored
refrigerated liquid. The inner tank contains the refrigerated liquid
under normal operating conditions.
Cryogenic storage tanks are typically designed with a single
containment cryogenic tank internal tank and secondary tank of
carbon steel. The New Energy system is specifically designed
with double cryogenic tanks. The GreenER cryogenic full
Figure 1. 3D model 6 X LNG tank closeup: The low profile
compact from a current project provides high volume
pre-manufactured storage in a small space.
Figure 2. 3D model platform view. Includes platforms
and utility racks and provides safe and ergonomic access
and egress.
Figure 3. 3D model ISO close-up look (NE) provides a fully
developed 3D model with tanks, pressure build, piping,
appurtenances, and platforms.
46 January 2024
containment system is typically designed to hold a 100% liquid
design spill, and the present disclosure is configured to safely
store and dispense cryogenic liquid gas using a double cryogenic
wall tank storage system without bottom penetrations and with
no internal liquid pumps needed. A GreenER cryogenic storage
system with a large containment structure design is available
adhering to the aspect mentioned above.
A complete containment tank design is defined as a double
tank designed and constructed so that the inner and outer tanks
can independently contain refrigerated liquid. The inner tank
contains the refrigerated liquid under normal operating
conditions. The outer tank is intended to contain the refrigerated
liquid and control the venting of vapour resulting from a
product leakage after a credible event. A complete containment
tank may be referred to as a full-integrity LNG container. For the
full containment design philosophy, pipe penetrations below
the liquid level are prohibited (NFPA 59A, 5.3.2.7; EN 1473, 6.3.3).
This GreenER storage design also includes no internal
pumps, which reduces the complexity and operations and
maintenance (O&M).
Safety enhancements include no bottom penetrations,
significantly reducing ‘design spill’ as defined by 49 CFR 193 and
NFPA-59A. If an LNG tank has bottom penetrations, then the LNG
plant design spill must accommodate all the contents of the LNG
tank. On the other hand, designs that minimise spills result in
minimal vapour and thermal exclusion zones, and if an LNG tank
has no bottom penetration, the LNG facility design spill is
reduced to a 10-minute duration.
External pressure build system
The GreenER storage design includes an external pressure build
system for the motive force of LNG, moving LNG from tanks to
vaporisers or LNG customers at the tailgate of a plant. In this
construction, a single small external pressure build system can
supply vapour pressure to multiple full containment tanks. The
schematics in Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the operation of the
tanks in four modes and the 3D engineering model of multiple
tanks in parallel.
Mode 1 represents ‘standby mode’ with LNG in tanks and
boil-off occurring. A back-pressure regulator maintains a
pre-determined tank operating pressure. The LNG saturates at
this pressure generally from 60-250 PSIG for shop-fabricated
tanks. Mode 2 is the ‘LNG transfer mode’, representing LNG
transfer to vaporisation or offsite LNG customers. In Mode 2, the
pressure build storage and vaporiser system externally stores a
small amount of LNG and vaporises it to provide motive pressure
in the larger storage tank. The liquid is then pressure relieved via
the top entry liquid line to the lower pressure vaporiser or
custody transfer system. In Mode 3, ‘LNG at a higher pressure’,
pressure is relieved into the full containment GreenER LNG
storage tank(s) via a top and bottom fill system. As the code
requires, the tanks are filled to 90% capacity with dual
liquid-level gauges.
New Energy’s GreenER cryogenic tank design system is
suitable for LNG, and liquified hydrogen (LH2), oxygen (LO2), and
nitrogen (LN2), and provides a safer, cost-effective, and
code-compliant tank with minimal vapour and thermal exclusion
zones on site. The site’s civil and structural work is simplified, and
O&M is minimised by eliminating internal liquid pumps.
New Energy developed this patented design for its projects
and is currently installing or specifying these tanks in the US for
LNG, LH2, LO2, and LN2 components. This family of GreenER
systems meet and exceed the stringent siting requirements, as
well as material codes and standards in the US and Europe, and
significantly reduce the cost and complexity of these systems.
The development of LNG systems in the US (from 1966 to
today) required the development of codes and standards
beginning with the Federal Safety Standards of LNG. 49 CFR 193
in 1978. The company believes that similar safety regulations will
develop in parallel with LH2. US Patent Application 17323622
offers a safe, simple, and code compliant solution to minimise
exclusion zones and increase safety.
The system is suitable for LNG, LH2, LO2 and other cryogenic
liquid applications. The systems meets and/or exceeds the
requirements of 49 CFR 193,
The company also believes that hydrogen production
markets can be provided a bridge by combining with CO2 to form
e-methane as a better and more abundant source of a truly
renewable version of methane. This provides an opportunity to
utilise these systems with other cryogenic liquids such as LH2
and LO2.

Creating greener LNG

New Energy develops projects that create GreenER hydrogen
and combine that with emitted CO2 to create e-methane and
GreenER LNG.
New Energy is developing joint hydrogen, e-methane and
LNG facilities as part of the future infrastructure in the US.

Customising the system

This GreenER storage system design can be customised for
the actual operating conditions on the site. Only knowledge
of the ambient conditions, flow rate in and out, and maximum
operating pressure is required for customisation of the storage
system. As an added safety feature, New Energy prefers to design
tanks for lower liquid nitrogen temperatures (to -323˚F/-196˚C)
Figure 4. Birdseye view combined large scale LNG, hydrogen,
e-methane plant provides a better than net-zero platform for
keeping in mind the boiling point of LNG is -260˚F/-162˚C. These methane..
specifications allow for the use of inert nitrogen in precooling
and leak testing the system with inert liquid and purging with
inert gas before commissioning with LNG.

US energy consumption, natural gas

usage, and hydrogen
In the US, energy consumption in 2022 was approximately
100 quadrillion Btu/y. Figure 5 illustrates the primary energy
consumption by energy source in 2022. Approximately 33%
(33 quadrillion Btu) of this consumption is natural gas. Daily
natural gas production is approximately 100 billion ft3/d
(0.10 quadrillion Btu/d). On the coldest days of the year, the US
consumes approximately 150 billion ft3/d (0.15 quadrillion Btu)
or higher of natural gas daily. This excess peak daily supply is
acquired from underground gas storage and peak shaving LNG
facilities for excess capacity. In many US locations, geology for
underground storage does not exist. LNG facilities supply the Figure 5. Illustrates that virtually no hydrogen is currently
best alternative for storage for natural gas in the US in the used in the 100 quadrillion Btu/y US economy of today. A bridge
regions without underground storage. is needed for hydrogen to be a part of the mix.
Although LNG siting is constantly debated and often
misunderstood, LNG has enjoyed an outstanding safety record in
the US. While the US produces approximately 10 million tpy of
hydrogen, virtually none of it is used for energy. The hydrogen is
currently used as feedstock for items like fertilizer and
hydrocarbons. Hydrogen markets need a bridge. The company
believes that e-methane can be part of that bridge.

Closing
Natural gas and e-methane will be a part of the energy mix
for decades to come. This fact, coupled with resistance to new
pipelines, makes LNG plant construction to be an inevitable and
important solution.
LNG Federal Safety Codes were adopted in 1978. These
codes provide significant siting benefits for the New Energy
design. The company’s cryogenic tanks storage system provides Figure 6. LNG schematic from New Energy patent application
one of the few dramatic changes in LNG technology in decades. #17323622.

January 2024 47
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