Q- Discuss the techniques of mural and fresco painting.

Ajanta cave painting are a testimony to the

golden age Buddhism in india and a unquine artistic achievement. Discuss.

Introduction

Ajanta stands as a single most important record of India’s Golden Age (3-4th century A.D) and might
be considered the mankind’s greatest creative achievement. The 30 Buddhist caves created by the
Vakataka’s in a remote ravine at Ajanta forms a devotional complex which ranks one of the world’s
most startling achievements. A lively debate is presently on among the archaeologist and art
historians about chronology of Ajanta Caves. The old view [1, 2] that Ajanta later development went
for two hundred or even three hundred years, under the succession of different dynasties, can no
longer be sustained and questioned by many art historians. After meticulous research and gathering
all the scattered information, a short chronology has now been suggested [3] lasting about 20 years.
Such an approach to Ajanta’s dating has remarkably revealing implications vis-à-vis considered view
on longer chronology. It is obvious that excavation of caves and carving out the decoration was quite
time consuming but the entire mud mortaring and painting would hardly have taken a year or so, for
a few dozen of artists. The short chronology theory is based on the famous Visrutacarita [4] that
almost point to point represents the recollection of the great Vakataka empire crepuscule. The
subject of the wall narratives at Ajanta are various Jatakas, spread out almost like unrolled scroll [5].
As the short/long chronology at Ajanta is based on archaeologists/art historian’s physical features
and geometrical designs of paintings and sculptures, necessity was felt to look the mud mortar and
pigments layer through scientific investigation to explore any differences in material/painting
techniques. Under the Indo-Italian conservation programme (Indo-Italian Conservation Programme
Cave no. 17, Ajanta, India from 2005 to 2008), the components of the mud mortar and paint layers
were observed under stereo-microscope and through various scientific instruments such as FTIR,
SEM, Micro-Raman, XRF etc at the site as well as micro grains in laboratory [6]. It is assumed that
component materials or technique of execution may undergo some modification in 200-300 years
period The conservators of Ajanta are also supposed to be able to compare data emerged from the
analysis of mud mortar and pigments with what has been described in ancient Indian literature
written in Sanskrit language [7-9]. Evidences of flowering artistic tradition in Sanskrit literature are
found in texts on mythological subjects. The main ancient literature dedicated for artistic techniques
in ancient India and technical aspects of paintings are the Vastustras (treaties of habitat),
Vastuoastras (treaties on dwelling) and Silpaoastras (technical treaties). One should have specific
knowledge about the technical treaties to write a history of Indian painting art. The narrative
mastery and technical knowledge demonstrated by artists at Ajanta suggest existence of several
schools of arts already employed in decorative work of structural buildings and temples. Among the
aforesaid text, there are many works where painting technique and procedures to be followed are
described. The main Indian texts for painting techniques are: - The Vishnudharmottara Purana [7]
composed in 6-7th A.D. shortly after the mural works of Ajanta. - The Samaraga Sutradhara [8], a
silpaoastra attributed to Bhoja king of the Paramara dynasty of 11th century mainly dealing with
pictorial and iconographic art. - The Manasollasa [9], the text of southern India paintings tradition
attributed to king Somesvara of early 12th century Chalukya dynasty. - The Silparatna [10], written in
16th century, a section of which entitled “characteristic of image” which contains lot of information
on painting technique. - The Aparajita Pecha of Bhuvana Deva [11], probably composed after
Silparatna [10], that describe architecture and contains concepts on decorative design and
preparation of paint ground. There are many other texts written in Sanskrit slokas in which
instructions on mural paintings techniques are systematically stated. Some of the ancient paintings
texts have not yet been translated and others [7-9] have been translated in English, Hindi and Tamil
languages. Almost all the text describes the methods of preparation of paint ground and stages of its
application along with preparation of colors for painting work. Although Vishnudharmottara was
composed one or two centuries after the execution of Ajanta murals, it may be considered as true
reference text for proper understanding of painted procedure on site. The other text written at
distant time from Ajanta and pertains to various periods. In all the text it seems figurative work
precedes the literacy both in iconographic and iconological field. The writing works of silpas were
allotted to the poets (and not artists) who grasp the basic concepts of paintings during observation
but lack first hand knowledge about the real technique being followed. Due to this reason, the
prescription supplied in the ancient text does not dwell on the detailed technical processes. The
other reason lies in the fact that the main part is written in sutra forms, which simply serves as
guiding principle for the artists to recall the various passages of execution. Besides, there is diverse
interpretations and translations of sutra’s by various authors. In fact, there are many conflicting
opinion among experts on particular points regarding various procedures described in the texts. Out
of many sutras, the four most important sutras describe the method for preparation of paint ground.
Among this the text Vishnudharmottara [7] and Samaraga Sutradhara [8] describe the technique of
preparation of paint ground using clays earths. The text Manasollasa [9] and Silpratna [10]
represents the preparation of ground under southern traditions of the subcontinent where the basic
component is lime or burnt and powdered conch shells or white earth of calcareous nature,
available in south of India. Some of the important ancient Indian painting text showing basic
ingredients and procedure to be followed in the preparation of paint ground and colors are
elaborated. In India beautiful painted remains can be found from prehistoric period to Mughal
period of 16-17th century A.D. Most of the prehistoric paintings are found in sand stone shelter of
central India where roughness and porosity of sand stone was utilized for painting. Later paintings
are either on mud mortar or lime mortar ground. Known as monument of paintings, clay mortar
forms backing of lime layer coat and basaltic stone support at Ajanta. The pigments identified at
Ajanta are red ochre, yellow ochre, green earth, lapis lazuli, carbon black and shell/kaolin lime [12].
The pigments found used in India from prehistoric to Mughal period have remained almost identical
and same without much variations [13]. The pigments identified at Ajanta also show close
resemblance with Roman painted works of fresco [14]. The outlines of the Ajanta paintings are
mostly drawn by carbon black or red ochre. The mud mortar thickness varies from few millimeters to
an inch [15] in some cases where basaltic stone is very roughly cut. Organic matters such as rice
husks, plant seeds and plant fibers are generally found admixed within the mud mortar. The theme
of the paintings is Buddhist Jataka tales with beautiful human figures, geometrical designs and
animal’s figures. Most of the paintings show three dimensional appearances and highlights the
artistic skill of Indian painters in 3-4th A.D, known as the Golden Age period. The raw materials used
for the preparation of clay ground are mostly locally available materials collected from either
Waghura river in front of Ajanta caves or nearby places. Except blue, all the pigments are locally
available materials including green which is the product of basaltic rock disintegration. It appears
that aggregate used as fillers to the mud mortar at Ajanta are also byproduct of weathered basalt
collected from ravine of Waghura. The aggregates mostly identified are quartz, zeolites and
celandonite. It is observed that 8-10% lime with organic additives was mixed in the low swelling clay
to prepare the mud mortar at Ajanta. The technique of paintings is purely tempera and animal glue
has probably been used [16] as binding agent to the pigments at Ajanta and related sites. Unlike
fresco painting [17], the paintings technique in India is either tempera or secco and binding medium
identified at Ajanta is animal glue. An understanding of the composition of ancient mortar and
technology is necessary for creation of new mortar for restoration [18] at Ajanta and other sites.
Along with the primary knowledge of ancient Indian painting technique and preparation of paint
ground, identification of materials and their decay process are of great significance. It is also
essential to study micro-structures of the layers, their strata and binding media for the paint layer
and clay mortar. With the range of scientific methods and experimental procedures, an attempt has
been made to identity the method of application of mud layer ground and painting technique
followed for Ajanta murals. During the course of studies material structure, composition and
additives used in the mortars were also investigated. Such study of ancient technology in terms of
materials and its application is essential for undertaking any conservation activity aimed for
preserving the painted mortar. In view of above, it is necessary to scientifically investigate the
components to fully understand the Ajanta paintings for its future preservation as well as to gain
some idea in support to the chronology of Ajanta. Analysis was carried out for material composition
and additives of mud mortar of Ajanta. Further study of the micro-structure of layers and its strata
were carried through colorimetry, XRF, SEM-EDX etc.

Deterioration and degradation causes

The major causes of deterioration and degradation of Ajanta murals are variation in temperature
and humidity, increase in flow of visitors inside the caves, seepages of waters, insect activity within
the mud mortar, human vandalism (graffiti) and urine and excreta of bats. Presence of old varnish
coatings used for copying the paintings by earlier artists is also a major conservation issue at Ajanta.
Inside the caves the humidity reaches up to 80% in the rainy season and low up to 40% in the
summer season causing expansion and contraction of paint layer and mud ground. This variations in
the long run causes flaking of the painted layers, disaggregation of the mud mortar and formations
of ridges, gapes and lacunas in the painted layer. There is also large variation in temperature and
humidity from outside to inside the caves. Whereas the caves are thermally stable (temp. varies
from 27°C to 30°C inside the caves), wide fluctuation in temperature are noticed from outside to
inside [19]. In some of the caves with large opening such as Hinyana cave no. 10, temperature and
humidity both inside and outside are almost identical with little variations [20]. Ajanta caves attract
around 5000 visitors per day in the tourist season from October to February every year. The visitors
have to climb Ajanta hill and enter inside the caves with fast breathe and exhale of carbon dioxide. A
detailed investigation on impact of visitors on cave murals of Ajanta has already been made [21]. The
Archaeological Survey of India, giving top priority for conservation of murals of Ajanta has
constructed two causeways for proper distribution of visitors besides providing suitable illumination
to all the caves, with some of the important painted caves illuminated with optical fiber light. The
major scientific preservation of murals of Ajanta was carried out in 1920 by Italian conservators
when the cave was under the domain of Nizam of Hyderabad State. Besides filling the gaps and
lacuna with Portland lime, most of the painted surfaces were applied with unbleached shellac
varnish as preservative coating. The shellac in the Indian climate has oxidized to reddish orange color
masking the clear view of the paint layer. Besides it has also hindered the breathability of mud
mortar and paint layer thereby causing ridges, gapes and sometimes loss of paint/mortar layers.
Figure 1 shows the view of the painted mortar applied with shellac varnish. One of the primary tasks
of Ajanta conservators is to slowly remove the varnish layers previously applied during the course of
conservation. The most ancient 2nd BCE caves 9 and 10, Ajanta were copied in 19th century by
applying different kind of varnishes under the light of an oil lamp causing extensive deposition of
many kinds of varnishes admixed with soot and grime. There were also problem of graffiti by visitors
when the cave was not under the control of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), and Figure 2 show
one such view from cave no. 10. Besides, some of the painted caves of Ajanta were under worship
during 3-4th century A.D. and deposition of soot on the painted surfaces is noticed due to burning of
incense Sticks. The mud mortar contains organic additives such as rice husk, plant seeds and fibers
which are the food for insects like silver fishes who thrives on it by making holes into the soft mortar.
The movement of the insects within the mud mortar makes it weak and prone to fall. Necessary
measures like spraying, fumigation, dusting etc. are regularly under progress to eradicate the insect
activity from the caves. Another major problem is roosting of bats in the interior of the caves.
Although bats menaces are totally been eradicate from Ajanta, the removal of bats excreta and urine
deposited earlier is the major issue of conservation.

Experimental

Paint grounds and binders according to ancient sutras (A) Vishnudharmottara Purana For the
preparation of paint ground this text prescribes three types of brick dust and three parts of mud
mortar to which Guggula (gum or resin), madhucchlliioa (bee wax) are added in equal quantity.
According to the text all these must be mixed with one third of powdered burnt lime, pulp from bilva
(Aegle marmelos) in two to one ratio along with necessary quantity of salt free sand. The text
recommends storing this mixture in water mixed with the bark of picchila (a legume, probably
Dalbergia sisoo, Bombax heptaphyllum) for one month. An experienced artist removes this mixture
from the container and applies it to the wall and allows drying. Particular care has to be observed
that this layer is smooth and uniform and neither too thin nor too thick. If the wall that is starting to
dry does appear not properly done, then it must be carefully polished to make it uniform with a
layer of intonacco (lepna) made up of earth mixed with a juice of oarja (Shorea robusta). The surface
is also polished with a fine lamp black (anjana) and repeatedly spread with milk. The text confirms
that the wall mortar treated in this way will not deteriorate even after one hundred years. It also
says that the same procedures must be followed to prepare various paint grounds. For the binder,
the Vishnudharmottara prescribes the use of decoction of skins (Carmakvatha) which corresponds to
famous Vajralepa glue, used in the mixture to cover the surface that act as protective coat. The text
provides five different recipes for the preparation of vajralepa. One of the recipes lists ox or buffalo
horns among the ingredients, a buffalo or cow or goat skin mixed with juice of bimbo (Momordica
monadelpha) and kapittha (Feronia elephantum). In Vishnudharmottara the use of binders with
vegetable origin is also prescribed. One such recipe is the juice of bakula (Minusops elengi) and
sindura (Grislea tomentosa) which are mixed with Carmakvatha. For protective agent or fixative the
text recommend application of juice of Cynodon dactylon (durva grass) to the finished paintings with
the help of cloth soaked in it. (B) Samaragao Sutradhra The Samaragao Sutradhara describes very
clearly to Vishnudharmottara between the first preparatory layer known as bhumibandhana and
intonaco, known as Lepkarma. It recommends that juice from various plants, such as Snuhivastuka
(Euphoria antiquorum), kuimaoa (a cucurbit, Beninacasa cerifera), kuddali (Bouhina variegata),
Opamarga (Achyrantes aspera) and Ikika (Sugarcane sp.) are let to rest for a week and them mixed
with the juice of Siaoapa (Dalbergia sisso), Ashoka tree, Nimba (Azadirachta indica), Triphala
(Myrobalan sp.), kuooja (Wrightia antidysenterica) and kaiayaka (Acacia catechu) together with sea
salts (about 2%). This mixture is sprayed in previously leveled wall where the painting work has to be
undertaken. The juices of these plants are used to wash the wall surface that also probably works as
insecticides. Some of the fine earth is mixed with double quantity of sand, to which juice of kakubha
(Terminlia arjuna), maia (seeds of beans or other legumes), oalmali (Salmalia malabarica) and
oriphala (Aegle marmelos, bilva or bel tree) in variable proportions are added. The mortar thus
prepared by mixing the ingredients are applied to the wall in sufficient quantity to get what has been
described as thickness of elephant skin. When the wall is dry it must be washed with care. Whitish
lime stone fine powder is mixed with boiled rice and starch in correct proportions and applied three
times to the prepared wall. After the application of first preparatory layer (bhumibandhana), neutral
colored, red or brown clay collected from different places (such as bank of lotus pond, side of the
wall under the roof of tree or along the bank of the river etc.) is applied on the wall. For the third
layer the text says that earth from anthill (free from stone grains) should be added to the juice of
Oalmali (Salmalia malabarica), kakubha (Ferninalia arjuna), triphala (myrobalan), chopped betel nuts
(Areca catechu, kramukha), bilva pulp (Aegle marmelos, bel tree), horse hair, ox hair, coconut fiber, a
certain quantity of rice husk, and double quantity of mud and sand in one to two ratio in respect to
mud is applied on the already prepared wall. A further mixture of mud slip and marble dust, gypsum
or sugar dust is applied to the mortared ground with a brush. Finally, the mixture of lime putty and
wax is applied. (C) Silpratna Silpratna is the southern Indian traditions of preparing paint ground with
lime based materials. The text prescribes that the mixture of first layer is prepared with lime
obtained from conch-shells burnt in wood fire and grounded into powder, mixed with a quarter part
of mudga juice (Phaseolus mungo), a quarter parts of sand and molasses and a quarter part of paste
of banana burnt in fire. After proper mixing these are stored for three months, after which it is
grounded in the form of a mortar with molasses until it has the consistency of fresh butter. In the
mean time, the wall is first leveled and polished with coconut coir brush. It is then tampered with
molasses water to keep it wet for at least a day. The lime mortar prepared as above slowly applied
layer by layer to the wall so that the surface becomes smooth and uniform. While intanaco
application is under progress water must be sprayed on to the surface using coconut coir brush. For
the preparation of upper preparatory layer, powdered shells or white earth fine powder mixed with
kapittha (Feronia elephantum) and nimba (Azardirachta indica) is applied to the wall. This compound
must be applied using the bark of ookooa (Trophis aspera) tree or with a brush made up with the
stem of ketaki plant (Pundunus odoratissimus) plant until the wall becomes smooth and polished.
The same powdered lime having been moistened with the milk of a tender coconut is again
grounded and diluted with hot water and applied again to the intonaco as described above.
Methods of investigation of mortar and pigments The grains of mud mortar samples of cave no. 1,
15 and 17 were investigated in this study along with pigment layer of cave no. 1 and 15 of Ajanta. In
order to conduct different analytical analysis many test were conducted on site using non-
destructive technique, while micro-invasive methods were applied in laboratory on micro fragments
sampled on site. Cross-section view of mud mortar under stereomicroscope (WILDE) indicated
succession of layers of painted mortar. Laser light scattering methodology (Beckman Coulter make
particle analyzer) was used for partied size analysis as it requires least quantity of sample. Optical
microscopy was used for initial examination of the sample to identity painted layer and mortar
structure. Physical methods provided useful information on the mineralogical composition and
surface structure of mud mortar. Stereomicroscopic analysis was performed for succession of layers
to investigate the painting technique. The mud mortar samples were analyzed using XRF, FTIR and
SEM-EDX [22, 23]. The specific gravity of the mud mortar was determined using classical methods.
The ancient mud mortars of Ajanta were also observed through FTIR using KBr pallet for absorption.
Preparation of mud mortar as per Ancient Recipes An attempt was made to prepare mud mortar at
Ajanta as per ancient recipes reflected in the ancient text as above. First, the river bank soil from
Waghura River just in front of Ajanta caves was collected and mixed with about 15% lime, 10% of
sand and 15% of aggregates in different grain sizes. In the second experiment different plants or
parts of the plant were collected and cut into small pieces: Guggul (Boswellia serrata), Behada
(Terminalia pellerica), Jaw (Linum usitatissimum), Bargad ka ped (Ficus recemosa), Urad ki Dal (Vigna
mungo), Roots of ladies finger (Abelmoschus esculentus), Kale sawar (Bombax ceiba), Bel or bilva
(Aegle marmelos). The aforementioned plants in equal ratio were cut and tied in a cotton cloth and
dipped in water for about a month. This process ensures complete oozing out of all gummy adhesive
material into the water solution. The process was continued for about a month by keeping the
container in a dark place. The extract from these plants were mixed with the mixture (soil + lime +
aggregates) prepared in the first step and some rice husk (Oryaza sativa) was also added to this mix
in minimum quantity. The plant extract mixed in the soil + lime + aggregate is as per requirement
avoiding any excess pouring. Figure 3 shows various steps applied in the preparation of mud mortar
at Ajanta as per ancient recipes.

For the application of mud mortar on the wall, the basaltic stone surface was previously prepared. It
was dry brushed and plant extract juice was applied with paint brush on the required area.
Thereafter, the mortar mix was applied on top of the surface with care and precautions. The
thickness of the mud mortar layer was kept to about 1 to 1.5 cm. Figure 4 shows the experimental
area where mud mortar was applied for testing on basaltic stone surface as per ancient recipes. The
mortar is being observed since about 15 years for its behavior in the identical environment. The
shrinkage observed in the mortar after drying in the cube was negligible. For application of this
mortar mix during scientific consolidation, the edges of the old mortars were first secured with the
plant extract juice and the prepared mud mortar mix was filled in the gaps following all norms of
consolidation of painted mortar. Figure 5 depicts an area consolidated with mud mortar mix at
Ajanta. It was observed that mortar has properly adhered within the filled area of gap in the painting
where loss of earlier mud mortar was observed on the painted surface. Such filling not only ensures
continuity of the similar material but also show similar aging effect.

Results

The samples observed using electron microscope revealed a coarse substrate with clasts even larger
than 200mm. this is followed by a second layer of fine grained finishing layer. The EDX analysis of the
mud mortar sample is shown in figure 6. The elements present in greater quantity in the sample are
calcium, silicon, aluminum and iron. The calcium is located in the inner most layer, silicon and
aluminum in the layer immediately above and iron associated with silicon and aluminum in the
outermost layer. The elemental map with energy dispersive microprobe also indicates a layer of
calcium carbonate and a layer of kaolin due to presence of aluminum. However, a clear line of
demarcation between calcium containing layer and kaolin (silicon & aluminum) containing layer is
not evident. Particle size analysis of Ajanta mud mortar shows that the mortar is non- plastic with
average distribution of silt 70-75%, sand 9-14% and clay around 12-15%. The mud mortar shows
specific gravity around 2.75. From this it can be made that low clay mud has been used for the
preparation of Ajanta mud mortar that also contains high amount of silt. Since such kind of high silt
soil can be found on the bank of river Waghura at Ajanta, the question of its use during the
preparation of Ajanta mud mortar cannot be ruled out as silt found in this soil is more than 70%. This
is in consonance to the ancient text where it is recommended to collect soil from river bank for the
preparation of mud mortar. It appears that sand and aggregate in different grain sizes obtained from
basaltic rock were mixed in the collected soil of river bed for the final preparation of mud mortar.
Figure 7 shows the FTIR image of the mud mortar of Ajanta. The intense band of silicate around
1000cm-1 is present in the infra red spectrum as the mortar consists mainly of silicate materials. The
weak absorption band centered at 1400cm-1 would indicate presence of small quantity of calcium
carbonate. The absorption band of proteic material at 2900cm-1 and amide band at 1650, 1550 and
1450cm-1 signal the presence of small quantity of calcium oxalate. The presence calcium oxalate
tends to indicate the use of organic additives which functioned as a binder for the mud mortar.
Oxalate is the byproduct of the oxidative decomposition of organic materials. Thus, the FTIR
investigation has ensured uses of organic binder in the mortar mix of Ajanta during the course of its
preparation and application. The efflorescence noticed on the painted mortar of south-west wall
(cave no. 17, Ajanta) were chemically analyzed using XRF and main component found are sulphates,
nitrates, ammonium ion, calcium and magnesium. Although ancient Indian painting text were
written after Ajanta, it is worthwhile to explore where what is written in the text are in consonance
with the technique employed at Ajanta. Further, it is also interesting to explore whether the
technique of Ajanta painting remained same in all the caves or it differs. As the sampling is a
problem, only two samples extracted from cave 15 and cave no.1 were photographed with
stereomicroscope and recorded with video microscope. On observing the sample of cave no. 15
under stereomicroscope Figure 8, it appears to be made up of thin layer of yellow ochre color (IV)
with occasional red particles, below it is a thin white layer (III). A thicker pinkish yellow preparatory
layer (II) can be observed below white layer (III) with black granular impurities, the deeper layer of
grey color represent preparatory layer (I) within the granular mass. On observing the sample under
stereomicroscope after attack with 10% hydrochloric acid solution, effervescence develops and
pinkish yellow layer dissolves completely indicating a carbonic composition. It is also observed that
grey mud mortar (I) does not dissolve but loses aggregation due to the reaction of acid to the traces
of lime present in mortar. The layer IV and III do not react with the acid. On observing the sample of
cave no.1 through stereomicroscope Figure 9, a very hard and compact white layer (III) is observed
on top of which bright blue ultramarine pigment (IV) are present. Below the white layer, an irregular
layer of red orange pigment (II) is observed below which grey brown preparatory layer (I) is
detected. In the preparatory layer (I) yellowish brown color organic material is observed, probably
vegetal remains.

The fibrous material of green-brown color were removed with needle and observed with an optical
microscope. Observation indicated cellular structure Figure 10, indicating vegetal remains from
agricultural waste commonly mixed in mud mortar. The cellular elements are compatible with the
remains of cereals cultivated in geographical area probably the rice husk. On dilute hydrochloric acid
attack; effervescence did not develop like earlier sample, however blue color varnished immediately.
The complete decomposition of pigment layer indicates the presence of feldspathoid blue (lazurite)
in Ajanta. Preparatory grey layer lost aggregation probably due to reaction of traces of lime present
in it.

Discussion

From the thin section analysis of mud mortar, four layers can be identified. A grey preparatory layer
(I) that contains coarse black ferruginous silicate material along with green celandonite and white
silicon or aluminum inclusion. All those materials are bound with some kind of proteic adhesive as
evidence of appearance of calcium oxalate peaks are seen under FTIR images. Above this layer, a
pinkish white layer (II) with dark small size inclusion of irregular thickness is present. The primary
function of this layer is to level the coarse surface of preparatory layer (I) before application of
pigment layer. The preparatory layer (II) consists mainly of calcium carbonate & silicate materials.
Above the preparatory layer (II), a thin coat of kaolin based white color (III) layer is present to
receive the color. The outer most external layer (IV) is the pigment layer where inorganic mineral
color such as red ochre, yellow ochre, green earth as gluconite, lime white & black carbon have been
identified at different points. Proteic material has also been identified in the paint layer as peaks of
calcium oxalate are seen under FTIR images of the layer. SEM-EDS analysis revealed that in the paint
layer iron based pigment is always associated with silicon & aluminum. This leads us to think that the
pigment is always linked to kaolin, which was probably used as binder for paint layer along with
animal glue as peaks of proteic material is also observed. The SEM-EDS analysis also confirms the
succession of layers in Ajanta paintings and throws lights about paintings technique. From the
analysis of sample of cave no. 1, a very minute variation in preparation of surface application of color
was noticed. The preparatory layer in contact with the basaltic support rock was made with mud
mortar (I) containing ferruginous silicate material as well as vegetal fibers and probably organic
binders such as glue. A sufficient quantity of these organic substances has not remained in its
original state enabling it to be characterized by FTIR as they have now been transformed into
calcium oxalate. The preparatory design was probably carried out directly on the preparatory layer
(I) with red ochre, traces seen under FTIR. A thick and compact layer of kaolin mixed with probably
proteic organic binder was applied on the preparatory design. The layer of lapis lazuli was applied on
kaolin layer using some organic binder which has now transformed into calcium oxalate. Form the
careful observation of pigment layer of cave no.1 under microscope; it is also observed that at least
2-3 layers of pigments have been applied in succession at some points probably to get depth and
impression in the very important painting. Figure 11 shows one such view where inner pigment layer
are seen due to the loss of fraction of outer pigment layer. Perhaps, the reasons for application of
succession of pigment layers is to get very good depth to the paintings. From the analysis of mud
mortar layers of various caves it is observed that low clay soil containing silt as major part was
universally chosen for Ajanta mud mortar. The soil was mixed with celendonite, quartz, mica etc. as
aggregate and the mud mortar prepared. The proportions remained almost identical in all the caves
denoting the use of similar technology and similar raw materials. The new mud mortar applied
during consolidation at Ajanta about 15 years back stood the test of time and perfectly integrated
with the original mud mortar.

Conclusions
Analysis of mud mortars and its composition reveals that there are no changes either in composition
or technology of preparation of mud mortar and execution technique of murals at Ajanta supporting
the short chronology. The investigation showed that the organic binder has invariably been used in
the preparation of mud mortar of Ajanta in accordance with ancient text which might have now
transformed into calcium oxalate, observed through FTIR images. The mortar is also found mixed
with organic additives such as rice husk, plant fibers and seeds for re-enforcement. With minor
variations, almost similar technology was used for the preparation of mud mortar and pigment
layers were also found mixed with organic binder and sometimes with kaolin as per ancient text.
With minor modification, the technique of painting at Ajanta remained almost identical and the
pigments used are always natural mineral colors. All the pigments are of local origin except lapis
lazuli which was probably imported from Persian countries through trade on silk route. The studies
are of great importance in planning future conservation measures of Ajanta murals and
understanding of execution technique.

Introduction

The murals in the Buddhist monasteries of Ajanta (2nd B.C. to 4 A.D.) are of same significance for
the history of Ancient Indian culture as the fresco of Pompeii for Greco-Roman antiquity since
development of art at Ajanta (WHS) influenced the art and culture of Asia. India had a great cultural
evolution called The Golden Age [1]. The conventional view is that the Golden Age is specifically
associated with great Gupta dynasty [2,3] and that it gradually lost its luster with the Gupta’s decline
in the late 5th and 6 th century A.D. [4]. But now the arguments have lead to quite different
conclusion [5]: that it was the Vakataka emperor Harisena who brought the Golden Age during his
brief but dynamic reign over central India [6]. The great empire which Harisena created in central
India, extending from the eastern to the western sea, broke back into component parts when
Harisena’s many Vakataka feudatories rose up against his weak successor and shattered the empire
[7]. The key to this conception can only be found at Ajanta [8], as it is Ajanta evolution that unlocks
and reveals the connections to epigraphy and literary evidence [9]. Ajanta with its related sites Bagh
caves and Aurangabad Caves [10] gives us hundreds of architectural, sculptural, painted,
technological and epigraphic features, which can be used as spectrum of bench marks. Many
Buddhist cave created by the Vakatakas in a remote ravine near the ancient town of Ajanta that
form a devotional complex which ranks one of the world’s most startling achievements. These caves
are for more elaborate than earlier 2nd B.C. caves (9,10,12,13 &15A) at Ajanta complex. More than
20 caves were excavated by Vakataka dynasty who were allied and related to the Gupta thanks to
the marriage of princes from the reigning house at the beginning of the fifth century [11]. All these
later monuments are the result of dramatic burst of pious activity early in the reign of Vakataka
emperor, Harisena. Harisena, with his power centered in ancient Vidharbha (eastern Maharastra)
was the greatest king in India. His reign extended over the whole of central India from western to
eastern sea, as we know from the conquests recorded in an inscription of his chief minister in Cave
No. 16, Ajanta [12]. Like the ancient province of Asmaka just to the north, the Anupa to the south,
ancient Risika in which Ajanta was included, were parts of the extensive domains that Harisena
inherited when he came to power, he did not have to conquer it. That is the reason that after a year
or two of Harisena’s accession, it was possible for the ambitious undertaking of Ajanta to begin [13].
The high powered courtly patrons who initiated Ajanta’s renaissance were surely energized by
interests political as well as pious. They included the imperial Chief Minister, Varahdeva, donor of
cave 16 as well as Ghatotkacha Vihar, around 12 miles away from Ajanta; the local Risika king,
Upendragupta, responsible for the adjacent complex of Cave No. 17,18,19,20 and short lived 29; as
well as connected monk Buddhabhadra who drawing authority from his friendship with the great
minister of Asmaka; “who was attached to him (the monk) in friendship through many successive
birth” [14], sponsored the huge chaitya cave 26 and various related caves, and one Mathuradasa,
both rich and influential, who donated the largest of all caves at Ajanta, the doom ridden cave 4. A
number of other donors also participated in this inaugural activity but their inscriptions have either
been lost or (more probably) were never written, as many of the Ajanta caves were still very
incomplete.

The excavation of these caves represented an extraordinary renaissance in rock architecture in the
Western Deccan after a century of abandonment and decline in this important artistic form. The
main reason for this artistic following at Ajanta is due to the fact that Harisena succeeded in creating
a period of relative stability in the territories he governed. The site benefited from its position along
an important caravan route, connecting the ports of Western India with the cities of the interiors
and therefore become a stopping place for itinerant pilgrims, monks and merchants as testified by
numerous pictures and sculptures of the Bodhisatva Avalokiteswara, in the guise of protector of
travelers. Apart from the Brahmanical caves at Udayagiri near Vidisha in neighboring Madya
Pradesh, consisting of single quadrangular room, cut a little more than fifty years earlier, no other
sites have been excavated in the whole of the Western Deccan for about three hundred years.
Architects and workmen employed on the site therefore had to recover a technique that had been
partly lost to living memory. As a consequence, the artists were totally unfamiliar with the
procedures needed to both laying out and for cutting the caves and had little awareness to the
problems presented by flawed basaltic scarp [15]. Thus, during the first few years of work, the
excavators used many of the features for the simple earlier (Hinayana) caves at Ajanta itself for
models copying the typical early octagonal pillar, the plain windows, the non-trabeated doorways
and pillarless and shrineless vihara interiors. It is to be mentioned that the most ancient caves of the
Vakataka phase appears to have a rather irregular structure as a result of poor planning and
numerous second thoughts, and furthermore has very simple architectonic elements. However, year
by year they incorporated more complex and up to date forms. Now they were adding peristyles to
their vihara and new vihara was planned with the shrine at rear and those that had already been
started without such shrines being revised to include them. Moreover, due to rivalry among the
artists as well as among the proud donors, the sculptured decoration of the caves approached the
lavish norms clearly contemporary to wooden palace structures so often represented in Ajanta
murals themselves. A fine example of uncertainty during excavation in initial year (462 A.D) can be
noted in cave no.11, Ajanta [8]. The cave was planned as vihara of a similar nature as Cave no. 12
excavated before the Christian era. The cave was cut between the ancient Chaitya 10 and vihara 12
but the architects did not calculate that Chaitya 10 lay on a diagonal axis inside the hill, a detail that
is not apparent to the eye and having already started the excavation, they had to modify the
traditional vihara plan. The cave should have contained cells on all three sides, but they were forced
to abandon the excavation of the living quarters for the monks on the right, the side directly
connected with the vault of Chaitya 10. Instead of cells, a seat was cut in that portion. Immediately,
after the first phase of experimentation, the architects devised more ambitious plans with the
excavation of cave 16 and 17, a typical of vihara of Ajanta. In only a few years since the excavation of
the first area, the work force had already gained considerable experience and began to develop
increasing confidence in handling of the hard volcanic rock of Ajanta. The addition of shrine
completely transformed the concept of vihara that from a simple place of residence for the monks,
become the metaphor—the paradise in which Buddha preaches to Boddhisatvas. In this microcosmic
reproduction of Buddhist paradise, the monks who live in vihara symbolize a short of incarnation to
the Boddhisatvas themselves. In the inscription, vihara 16 is linked to the palaces of Indra in the
heaven of 33 Gods (verses 27) he emperor Harisena, obviously approving the vast project,
apparently did not get directly involved himself until work at the site had already been underway for
four or five years. As a consequence, his ‘regal’ cave 1 had to be cut in less than ideal location at the
eastern extremity of the site, since the central area of the scrap had already been taken during the
first few years of excavation. However, in compensation, Harisena’s splendid cave benefited greatly
from the experiences that the excavators have already gained by this time. Therefore, compared to
relatively clumsy cave 16 started by the Chief Minister, the highly elaborate and dignified cave 1 is
truly a monument “fit for a King”.

Looking at the mural paintings, on the other hand, we see no such struggle. This is because painters
could decorate the walls of the caves in essentially the same way that they had always decorated the
walls of structural palaces, temples, etc. [16]. The great variety of styles seen in the Vakataka period
murals were done by many different artists from many different regions, Of course, judging from the
analysis of “hands” it is clear that there were at least few dozen of different painters working at the
site during the course of Vakataka patronage. The Asmakas, who are mentioned in the inscription of
cave 17, were supposedly responsible for another cave complex situated at the western end of rock
face, whose fulcrum is represented by Chaitya 26 and dedicated to the monk Buddabhadra.
Probably, due to conflict between the Asmaka and local Risika, the excavation of this complex was
interrupted for a number of years. As a result of conflict, the activity of the site came to complete
halt between 472 to 474 A.D. This was why the Upendragupta ambitious project of excavation was
never resumed and Upendragupta cave 19 had never been used for cult worship and was
abandoned because of its association with that sovereign. After the conquest of territory of Ajanta
by Asmakas, the excavation was instead resumed in the complex that developed around Chaita 26,
an undertaking that lasted almost until the final phase of the site

It appears that great number of artists, along with allied workers spent the troubled years working
on a new excavation at Bagh, in peaceful Anupa [17]. As we know from the historical evidence, the
Bagh caves were under the vicegerency of one of Harisena’s son during this period. Indeed, the
excavation of Bagh was probably inaugurated at just this time, due to sudden availability of so many
out of work and highly skilled craftsmen. Many of Bagh’s features—stylistic, iconographic and
technological—suggest such an immediate influence from the already started Vakataka cave at
Ajanta while in a significant turnabout; we can see a profound influence of forms at Bagh upon post
excavation at Ajanta. During the period of disruption when the administrative control so suddenly
collapsed, dozens of anxious devotees, who had never been able to make offering before, took
advantages of the anarchic state and added their own votive images whenever they wished at
Ajanta. It is indeed remarkable that deep in the ravine beneath, the unique record of India’s material
and spiritual culture still exists.

Discussion

Architecture and Painting Art Ajanta is the sole monumental record of classical Buddhist culture that
is preserved in a land that gave birth to this religion, and also influenced the culture of other Asian
countries. The thirty odd caves cut into horse shoe shaped scrap of a steep cliff overlooking the
Waghura river are the best creations of the time which inspired Buddhist in central Asia, China and
south-east Asia. Ajanta painters were guided by a highly developed sense of blending of colors with
a view to produce total impression with three dimensional effects giving true perspective to line and
plane. Besides, the technique of giving three dimensional effects to the painting was first introduced
in India in the cave paintings of Ajanta in 3-4 century A.D. Figure 2 shows some of the paintings of
Ajanta showing three dimensional effects. This technique was later copied by the other artist in the
Asian region. The first of Ajanta caves were started in about the first century B.C. (Figure 3) that
included the impressive chaitya hall, cave 10 and simple associated vihara cave 12 all done by true
community effort [18]. The repainting in old Hinayana cave no 9 &10 was made in 3-4 A.D but the
plan was never realized except by painting some more areas of the cave The dramatic idea of
creating rock cut monasteries at both Ajanta and Bagh was developed by their respective patrons in
Vakataka period 3-4 A.D. Undertaking Ajanta excavation some 400 to 500 years after the Hinayana
phase must have involved advance planning as well as supporting patrons, monks, workers, who
must have come from number of different parts of the Vakataka empire [21]. It seems clear that
when such a major cave was started, the delegation of architects (now the excavators) and members
of Buddhist sangha must have surveyed the site, deciding upon the best and appropriate location. In
the case of vast cave 26 complexes, patronized by Asmaka, they were careful to choose the location
into which the projected monument would fit and monks may reside in vihara at right in cave 21-25
and left in cave 27, 28. Cave 26 drew upon the precedent of the Hinayana chaitya cave 10; though
again with the intention of adding appropriate modern features (Figure 4). When the four wings
were planned for this ambitious cave complex, all were essentially based on the layout of ancient
cave no 12. Similarly, the plan of cave 19 drew the precedent of Hinayana cave 9. The two
impressive caitya hall of cave 19&26 conceived as intended ceremonial centers for the site. The
former (cave 19) is referred as “Vakataka” area including the entire excavation upto cave 20. The
other (cave 26) is described as “Asmaka” area starting with cave 21 to 28. The Asmaka were in fact
feudatories of the Vakataka emperor.

In course of time when two chaitya hall caves 19 and 26 were still being roughed up, the controlling
officials have decided that the two caitya halls should be oriented to the solstice’s, cave 19 to winter
solstices and cave 26 to summer. The sun rays should coincide with the axis of cave. Such a
significant astrological alignment must have meaning and importance to the planners. This was all
very well had the excavation of two caves not already been started at a quite different angle. In fact,
the cutting of both the caves had proceeded to the point that new required adjustment could not be
effected. To implement the order in cave 26, the excavators were able to locate the stupa by
adjusting forward almost two feet from its normal position (Figure 5). In fact, this is the only caitya
hall in India where the space around the stupa is not equidistant at left, rear and right. Then, at the
same time by adjusting the frame of the great inner arch under the outer vault rightward in relation
to outer facade arch, the planners were able to achieve the desired solstice alignment through the
“sun-window” to the stupa.

Cave no.19 presented much greater difficulties (Figure 6). Fortunately, the interior pillars and stupa
had already been roughed up by the time the order came and hence cannot be re-positioned.
However, the carvers did what they could do to surge the stupa to the left, its upper elements were
shifted leftward and even Buddha image stands slightly to the left, while the whole stupa base is
wrenched into a leftward asymmetry. The pillars towards the cave left rear were squeezed a few
inches left ward and pillar 1 and 7 just to the left of stupa were slightly reduced in size. The exterior
of the cave 19 was also angled in the solstitial direction to a significant degree, through it does not
reach the proper solstitial alignment, as it has already been roughed up and could not be twisted
more than at present. Some alignments were also made due to flaws or faults in the rock being cut.
One fine example is cave 26: R.H.S Buddha on upper portion of wall wherein one Buddha has been
positioned differently due to flaw in the stone. Geological factors were yet another feature that
imposed restraints, although at first the planners seemed less concerned or less aware than was the
case later when excavators more and more adjusted the positioning of their cave in accordance with
the problematic flaws in the rock. The positioning of early cave 8 is the case in point. Planners
thought this location, lower than any of the adjacent caves and easy to access from the old river
path, were quite ideal but it surely reflects inexperience of early Vakataka undertaking. There is a
thick horizontal deposit of red bole, a very weak clayey rock running through the basalt at a
descriptive height and presenting problem that would have warned to abandon any excavation. As
we see, work went on with dire consequences The same lack of awareness or thought resulted in an
equally embarrassing situation in cave 11 and the mistake was particularly costly in terms of time,
money and desired results. One of the initial patron opted to put small vihara planned with three
cells on each side in the unusual space between the old Hinayana cave 10 and 12. The space may
have been seemed quite auspicious and patron thought ample space towards the rear of the cave
than towards the front. However, this is not the case here. The old Hinayana cave 10, it turns out,
does not follow the expected pattern. It is angled subtly but sharply to the left, probably to adjust for
a troubling vertical flaw in its façade area and this had dire consequences to the excavators. As
noted, cave 11 by error was located too close to ancient cave 10 and as consequence the three cells
on the right side could not be cut to make up the loss; the planners “relocated” the missing cells
with considerable difficulties in the porch of cave 11. Indeed, they even added one more to
compensate for the loss of hall rear central cell. It seems reasonable to assume that this innovation
of the planner in cave 11 sparked a new trend of putting cells in the porch affecting caves 4, 15,
16,17,20,26, 26 LW and 27. Indeed, in few cases the planners now dissatisfied with old fashioned
single cells, converted them to more complex forms by cutting new pillared fronts out of their front
wall. Figure 9 shows both the simple and complex outer cells at Ajanta. Cave 11 and cave lower 6
were supplied with interior pillars for purely expedient reasons: Cave 11 out of concern that ceiling
might collapse due to serious flaw in the rock just above, and cave lower 6 out of concern that
ceiling might collapse because of the earlier unanticipated presence of its added story. Further
development of great importance was the beginning of work of cave 1 by the emperor Harisena
himself. At Bagh, the friable nature of sandstone so much weaker than Ajanta basalt apparently
made it impossible to excavate the expected chaitya hall at the side. Probably, for this reason, cave 2
Bagh was converted into chaitya hall by addition of a chamber with stupa. The slightly later cave at
Bagh was intended to be shrine from the start. These development at Bagh revolutionized Ajanta as
well This is because the great cave 1 was probably the very first vihara at Ajanta to have been
planned from the start with a shrine, and although cave 1’s shrine today contains a fine Buddha
image, it is almost certainly originally intended to house a stupa. Although stupa rapidly yielded to
the Buddha image, an abandoned stupa in cave 11 backs the completed image, while the image in
cave lower 6 may have been cut from a block originally shaped to hold stupa. Cave 11’s stupa was
clearly its original focus. In fact, it was abandoned in favors of an image carved from the same
matrix. This seems to represent the moment of transition from stupa to image One important
feature needs special attention in cave 4, 16 and 17: they splay outward as we approach the rear of
the cave. That is the rear side is considerably longer from its left to its right end than in case of front
aisle. Due to understandable inexperience of the excavators, they were not able to control their
cutting as they proceeded from front to back with the effect the wall surface angled outwards. By
the time the rear of the cave was reached, the misalignment could amount to as much as few feet,
making the cave unexpectedly trapezoid. This has happened in early caves but discipline later
prevented this problem. In cave 4, the excavators accumulating error resulted in cave 4 ceiling rising
nearly five feet from the front of the hall to the rear of the shrine. Of course, the floor level has
shown similar rise having been made parallel to the ceiling by consistent measurement with
something like bamboo pole. Later on, the excavators corrected these early errors by leveling the
ceiling and the floor at the shrine by about five feet. Of course, these corrective measures to level
the cave was able to house the tallest Buddha at the site in cave 4. However, the situation was
different in case of ceiling of cave 17. It was also exposed quite early and was subjected to similar
error. However, is seems that the excavators kept correcting their errors as work proceeded. Thus,
when ceiling level angled upward, they soon brought it down when it angled upwards again they
brought it down again. The result of these continuous corrections was waviness of surface, which is
now explained as attempt to create the effect of flying carpet or shamiana Some unfinished caves
like 5 and 24, gives an idea about cutting the rock with long chisel and hammer, without any need of
scaffolding (Figure13). Probably, the excavators used intermittent left over part of the rock to climb
and finish the work before its actual removal from cave interiors. As we can also see from still
incomplete interiors of cave 24, a considerable amount of matrix was left enclosing the projected
pillars. Thus, later adjustment was possible for the pillars, which could be slightly repositioned to
achieve a more balanced spacing. The late work of Ajanta was under deep influence of
developments at the far most stable Buddhist site at Bagh in peaceful Anupa [17]. The Bagh, also a
Vakataka site started at about the same time that of Vakataka phase at Ajanta. However, unlike
Ajanta the Bagh regions was not troubled and it provided a safe haven for Ajanta workers during the
fight of feudatories. Surprisingly, by when the displaced workers were able to return to Ajanta, they
brought back many things that they learned at Bagh. Important iconic innovation, being the concept
of Buddha with attendant, elaborated doorways, decoration of pillars and pilaster etc. are some
examples. 2.2. Structural Conservation at Ajanta Caves. Ajanta Caves are monotonously covered
with massive basaltic hill called Deccan trap. The basalt is of dark grey to black hard compact rock
having very fine to medium grain texture. The caves were excavated by scooping into the vertical
surface of the rocky hill. The Deccan trap is defined by cleavages, fault and cracks in the body of the
basaltic rock for the rain water to seep through inside the caves. The monument stone is also
vulnerable to damage by environmental condition. Major structural conservation measures, in the
form of construction of drains for run off of rain water, were executed in the year 1920-21. Five
drains to cope up with a run off of 4 inches per hour of rain water with a slop to develop a velocity of
4 to 6 feet per second were made on the top of the cave. A zinc drain was also inserted in the
important painting of Padmapani and Vajrapani at Ajanta. Based on Geotechnical studies carried out
by the Geological Survey of India for Ajanta caves, some structural conservation measures in the
form of strengthening the existing drainage system on the top of the caves were also executed very
recently [22]. Ever since the Ajanta Caves were abandoned by the Buddhist monks in around 6th
century A.D., the facade of almost all the caves have fallen, the pillars, support and walls in many
caves also fell and in some caves the rain water along with mud, supposed to flow in the ravine of
Waghura River, entered inside the caves with deposition of slit up to a height of 3-5 feet. Structural
conservation measures in the form of removing the filth from the cave interior and making new
support pillars as per conservation needs were extensively carried out. The finest example is 2nd
B.C. cave 10 at Ajanta and figure 14 shows view of before and after structural conservation measures
for the cave. Ajanta is also known for its beautiful sculptures of Buddha hewed out of basaltic rock.
However, due to environmental impact and flaw in the original basaltic stone, many of the
sculptures were in bad condition showing loss of parts, exfoliation and weathering to different
extent. Extensive consolidation and mending works of all outside sculptures were carried from 2003
onwards at Ajanta with Ethyl silicate introduced through saline technique into the cracks, crevices of
weathered sculptures. Subsequently, as per archaeological norms and condition the lost part of the
sculptures were mended with basaltic stone powder and ethyl silicate as per requirement. Most of
the sculptures of Ajanta have now been consolidated by this process and figure 15 shows ethyl
silicate mending of the sculptures of Ajanta. The work was executed after creating proper
atmospheric condition for execution of mending work. Ajanta is a monument to paintings of
Buddhist faith. Many of the paintings have been executed on mud plaster, which contains clayey
matter of high to low swelling nature admixed with organic additives such as rice husk, plant seeds
and leaves, etc. Due to variation of 40-50% in relative humidity inside the cave [23], the nature of
support has an important bearing on the overall condition of Ajanta paintings. The clayey fraction
and its plasticity is a major factor of interaction of earthen support with other structural elements,
with the painted surface and with environmental changes. With the discovery of the caves in 1819,
many of the paintings in most ancient caves 9 and 10 were copied in the 19th century when they
were in much better state of preservation than today [24]. In 1920, the Italian conservators applied
thick coat of unbleached shellac varnish to the already varnished surface without removing the old
varnishes. Meanwhile the thick shellac oxidized and changed color to reddish brown in Indian
climatic condition. Besides, contraction and expansion due to environmental factor also created
pattern of cracks in the body of original paintings. Around two third of Ajanta paintings are also
found covered with dirt, dust, altered shellac, natural resins and at few places polyvinyl acetate.
Deposition of soot is also noticed in those caves that were under worship at Ajanta. The presence of
a large quantity of superimposed materials does not always allow a clear vision of the original
pigment layer and also renders the cleaning operation difficult. Besides altering visual appearance of
pigment layer, the superimposed materials also restrict the breathability of underlying surface,
thereby causing ridges, gaps, lacuna and sometimes the fall of pigment layer. Pigments of Ajanta
have now been clearly identified with non-destructive/destructive analysis of micro samples [25]. As
the Ajanta paintings have been executed by tempera technique with animal glue as binding media,
use of any water based solvent mixture for cleaning is totally ruled out. Many of the painted surfaces
of Ajanta were cleaned by first consolidating the fragile surface with the help of a lime and caseins
mixture and allowing it to dry properly. After complete drying, the varnishes layers along with soot
and grime were removed using mixture of organic solvents such as morpholine, butyl lactate, n-butyl
amine, butyl lactate, butanol, ethanol, and dimethyl formanide in various ratios with dexterity and
patience [26]. No attempt was made to remove last traces of accretions as precautionary measures.
The main intention of chemical cleaning measures was to make the surface to breathe. Figure 16
shows before/after treatment photograph of recently executed chemical cleaning of painted surface
of Ajanta. Around 10–15 % of the surface accretions were left as such daring cleaning operation as
safety layer.

Conclusion

The excavation of Ajanta represents extraordinary rock architecture in western Deccan after about
three hundred years of abandonment in rock art. It seems technicians avoided a massive basalt trap
full of flaws as much as they could in choosing cave site. As mercantile and royal endowments grew,
cave interiors became more elaborate, with interior walls decorated with murals and intricate
carvings. The technique of mural paintings was copied from Ajanta and taken to to south-east Asia
were many Buddhist countries represented India’s great material culture. Application of varnishes
for copying and general conservation pose problems for mural paintings.