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Module 1 notes
Sensor
A sensor is a device that can detect or measure a physical input (stimulus) from the environment
by converting it into an electrical signal which can be read by an instrument.

Actuators
An actuator is a device that produces a motion by converting energy and signals going into the
system. The sensor generates electrical signals whereas the actuator generates heat or motion.
Transducer
A transducer is part of the sensor devices that convert one form of energy (an input signal) to
another (an output signal).

Working principle of conductometric sensor

Conductometric sensor
A conductivity sensor is a sensor used to measure the conductivity of various solutions or the
concentration of the overall ion in a sample. It is based on the measurement of the specific
conductance of an analyte.

Construction
 A conductometric sensor consists of two inert metal
electrodes.
 Those two electrodes are separated at a certain fixed
distance before applying AC voltage, which later
causes current flow.
 The sensor is immersed in the conductive liquid
which acts as the electrical conductor between the
sensor electrodes.

Working principle
The conductance depends on the mobility of ions as well as the number of ions migrating between
the electrodes. The basic principle of a conductometric sensor involves a reaction that changes the
ionic species concentration. This reaction leads to changes in ionic concentration as well as the
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conductance between the electrodes. That affects electrical conductivity or current flow. The
analyzer applies an alternating voltage to the drive coil, which induces a voltage in the liquid
surrounding the coil. The voltage causes an ionic current to flow proportional to the conductance
of the liquid.

Applications
 Monitoring the quality of human drinking water
 Monitoring the quality of industrial water
 Battery electrolyte density monitoring
 Making devices for producing electrolytic oxygen and hydrogen

Working principle of optical Sensor

Optical sensor
An optical sensor is a device that can detect light, typically at a specific range of electromagnetic
spectrum (ultraviolet, visible, and infrared). This sensor can detects various properties of light such
as intensity, wavelength, frequency or polarization of light and converts it into an electric signal.

Working principle optical sensor

 Transmitter (Light Source): Optical sensors have a light source that emits light. This
source can be an LED (Light-Emitting Diode) or laser diode.
 Interaction with Target: The emitted light interacts with the target or the environment.
This interaction involves reflection, absorption, transmission, scattering, or diffraction of
light by the target.
 Light Detection (Receiver): Optical sensors have a light detector, which can be a
photodiode. The detector can sense the change in the properties of the light.
 Conversion to Electrical Signal: The light detector converts the detected optical signals
into electrical signals. The amount of change in the electrical signal is related to the
properties of the light interacting with the target.
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Applications
 The following are the applications of optical sensors:
 It is used in remote sensing satellite
 Used in imaging
 Quality and Process Control applications
 Metrology
 Medical instruments

Working principle of thermometric sensor

Thermometric sensor
A temperature sensor is a device, typically, a thermocouple or resistance temperature detector, that
provides temperature measurement in a readable form through an electrical signal.
Working principle of thermometric sensors
The working principle of a thermometric sensor is based on the concept that the physical properties
of materials change with temperature. They are composed of two dissimilar metals that generate
an electrical voltage or resistance when a temperature change occurs by measuring the voltage
across the diode terminals.
 Thermocouples
In this case, when there is a temperature
gradient between the measuring junction
and reference junction, a voltage is
generated. The magnitude of this
voltage depends on the temperature
difference between the two junctions
and the types of metals used in the
thermocouple.

 Resistance temperature detector

(RTD)
Here, the electrical resistance of certain
metals (mainly used platinum, copper and
Nickel) changes with temperature. When
the temperature of the RTD changes, the
electrical resistance of the material
changes in a repeatable manner. This
change in resistance is then correlated to
the temperature using calibration curves.
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Applications
 Used for verifying design and construction.
 Used to measure the temperature rise during the process of curing concrete.
 They can measure rock temperatures near liquid gas storage tanks
 It can measure water temperatures in reservoirs and boreholes.
 They can also be used to study the temperature effect in the instruments.

Working principle of flame photometry

Flame photometry or atomic emission spectroscopy, is an analytical technique used to determine
the concentration of certain metal ions in a sample when placed into a flame.
The working principle of flame photometry can be summarized in the following steps:

 Sample preparation: The sample to be analyzed is typically dissolved in a suitable solvent.

 Mixing chamber: It converts the liquid sample into a fine aerosol by a pressurized gas
stream.
 Atomization: Then the prepared sample is aspirated into a high-temperature flame, the
flame's high temperature causes the solvent to evaporate and the sample to be atomized
(convert into their gaseous state).
 Excitation: Once the atoms are in the gaseous state, they are energetically excited by the
high temperature of the flame.
 Emission: As the excited atoms return to their lower energy states, they emit the excess
energy in the form of light (photons).

 Monochromator: As each element emits a unique set of wavelengths, leading to a

characteristic emission spectrum, a monochromator is used to isolate a specific wavelength
of light from the emitted spectrum.
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 Detection: The isolated wavelength of light can be detected and measured the intensity of
the emitted light. The detector converts the light signals into electrical signals as flame
photometry readings.

To measure the concentration of metal ions in an unknown sample, a series of standard solutions
of the metal ion of interest have to be prepared. After calibrating the instrument with the higher
concentration, the emission light intensity of each sample including the unknown is measured.

The calibration curve is generated by measuring the emission intensity of these standards, and it
serves as a reference to determine the concentration of the metal ions in the unknown samples.

Construction and working of electrochemical sensor

Electrochemical sensor
An Electrochemical sensor is a chemical sensor that measures the concentration of a specific
substance or analyte in a sample by an electrochemical reaction.

Construction
The components of an electrochemical sensor are:

 Working electrode (sensing electrode): It has direct contact with the sample. An
electrochemical reaction occurs on the surface of the sensing electrode.
 Counter electrode: It completes the electrical circuit and helps to measure the current flow
through the system during the electrochemical reaction.
 Reference electrode: Provide a stable potential against which the working electrode’s
potential is measured.
 Breathable membrane: Hydrophobic membrane is used to cover the sensing electrode, it
controls the molecular weight of the analyte reaching the electrode surface.
 Filter: to filter out the unwanted analyte

Working principle of electrochemical sensors

 The principle of an electrochemical sensor is based on the measurement of electrical signals
generated as a result of electrochemical reactions occurring on the sensor electrode surface.
 The electrical signal will be proportional to the analyte concentration.
 All electrodes act as a transducer to convert the chemical reaction into a measurable
electrical signal.
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Applications:
 Widely used in agriculture, food, and oil industries
 Environmental and biomedical applications
 Detection of toxic gases with high selectivity and sensitivity
 Used in water analysis and environmental monitoring

Electrochemical gas sensor for NOx and SOx

Construction
The components of an electrochemical gas sensor are:

 Working electrode (sensing electrode): An electrochemical reaction occurs on the surface

of the sensing electrode. (Gold)
 Counter electrode: helps to measure the current flow through the system during the
electrochemical reaction. (Platinum)
 Reference electrode: Provide a stable potential to the working electrode (Ag/AgCl)
 Electrolyte: ionically conducting materials (3-7M H2SO4)
 Membrane: A gas-permeable membrane is used to control the gas flow reaching the
electrode surface.
 Filter: to filter out the unwanted gas

Working
 The electrodes are separated and immersed in an aqueous medium (electrolyte).
 The gas molecules diffuse through a porous membrane that is placed in contact with the
working electrode.
 In this electrode surface, gas molecules lose electrons after the oxidation process.
 A reduction of oxygen occurs at the counter electrode in electrochemical sensors.
 Electrons move through wires connected to the electrodes and an external circuit.
 Flow of electrons generates an electrical signal proportional to the concentration of toxic
gas
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 The medium provides hydrogen ions (H+) that move through the aqueous solution

Electrochemical reactions for the SO2 and NO gas sensors are:

Working electrode (Anode): SO2 + H2O SO3 + 2 H+ + 2 e-

Counter electrode (Cathode): (1/2) O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e- H2O

Working electrode (Anode): NO + H2O NO2 + 2 H+ + 2 e-

Counter electrode (Cathode): (1/2) O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e- H2O

Electrochemical dissolved oxygen (DO) sensor

Construction and working
Electrochemical sensors designed for measuring dissolved oxygen typically use a Clark
electrode, which consists of a cathode and an anode separated by an electrolyte. The anode serves
as a reference electrode, providing a stable potential for the cathode.

 Anode: Lead or Zinc

 Cathode: Gold or platinum,
 Electrolyte: NaOH
 Separator: a thin layer of
hydrophobic material, such as
Teflon.

When the Clark electrode is immersed in a

liquid sample, oxygen molecules diffuse
through the hydrophobic layer and react
with the cathode surface, producing a
current that is proportional to the amount
of oxygen present in the water.

Anode (Pb): 2Pb ￫ 2Pb2+ + 4e-

Cathode (Ag): O2 + 4e- + 2H2O ￫ 4OH-
Overall reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 2Pb ￫ 2Pb(OH)2

The white solid, Pb(OH)2, that is produced by these reactions is precipitated out into the electrolyte
solution. It neither coats the anode nor consumes the electrolyte, and thus does not affect the
sensor’s performance until the quantity becomes excessive.
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Applications
They are widely used in industrial and environmental applications, such as monitoring the oxygen
levels in wastewater treatment plants, fish farms, and drinking water supplies.

Electrochemical sensor for pharmaceuticals (Diclofenac)

Diclofenac is a drug compound which is used for the treatment of several diseases. An overdose
of diclofenac can cause adverse effects in the human body.
It is necessary to detect and control the amount of diclofenac drug present in a blood sample using
an electrochemical sensor.

Construction

 Working electrode: Carbon coated with MWCNT

 Counter Electrode: Platinum mesh (Pt)
 Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
 Electrolyte : Aqueous solution of LiCl salt

Working
 When electrochemical sensor is immersed into the sample containing diclofenac drug
compound (pH 7.2), an electrochemical oxidation of diclofenac occurs on the surface of
the working electrode to which a potential is applied with respect to the reference electrode
while the corresponding current is measured.
 The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of diclofenac.

Electrochemical sensor for hydrocarbon (1-hydroxypyrene)

Construction

 Working electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/ERGO

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(Polyamidoamine /Cr-based metal organic framework /electrochemically reduced graphene oxide)
 Counter Electrode: 0.5 mm Platinum (Pt) wire
 Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl

Working
When electrochemical sensor is immersed into the sample containing 1-Hydroxypyrene,
electrochemical oxidation of 1-Hydroxypyrene occurs on the surface of the sensing (working)
electrode. The change in potential of the reaction gives the concentration of 1-Hydroxypyrene. The
oxidation mechanism for 1-hydropyrene as follow:

Detection of ascorbic acid (biomolecule) using disposable sensor

Disposable sensor
The disposable sensors are a type of paper over which receptor and electrodes are printed. Such
type of sensor designed to be used once and then disposed of.

Disposable sensors are low-cost and easy-to-use sensing devices intended for short-term or
rapid single-point measurements.
Construction
 Working Electrode: Active materials like CNT/GO printed
on the electrode.
 Counter electrode: Platinum mesh (Pt)
 Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl

Working:
 When the disposable sensor is immersed in the analyte, the
analyte diffuses and adsorbed on the sensing electrode.
 The sensing electrode oxidizes ascorbic acid into
dehydroascorbic acid and produces electric current and it
is proportional to the concentration of the ascorbic acid.
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Detection of glyphosate (pesticides) using disposable sensor

Construction
The sensor is a silicon-based chip comprising of three-electrode system.
 Working Electrode: A gold electrode of 4 mm diameter coated with 200nm thickness gold
nanoparticles.
 Counter electrode: Platinum mesh (Pt)
 Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl

Working
 The electrochemical detection is based on the oxidation of Glyphosate on gold working
electrode.
 A potential of 0.78V is applied on working electrode, there is an interaction between
analyte and electrode surface.
 Glyphosate oxidizes on the working electrode brings a change in current in the electrolyte
medium.
 The change in the current is a measure of concentration of Glyphosate

Advantages and disadvantages of disposable sensor

Advantages
 Cost-effective: no need for expensive cleaning, recalibration, or maintenance procedures.
 Disposable sensors are biodegradable and sustainable
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 Easy to use and fast response times.

 Convenient and time-saving:
 Prevents the contamination of samples
 Reduced the risk of sensor damage

Disadvantages
 Disposable sensors cannot be used multiple times,
 As designed for single-use, their disposal can contribute to environmental pollution
 Not accurate: high precision and accuracy are required
 They have lower sensitivity or detection limits

Battery
Battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy via
electrochemical oxidation and reduction reaction.

Different components of battery

1. Anode (oxidation process occurs)
2. Cathode (Reduction process occurs)
3. An electrolyte (which is ironically conducting)
4. A Separator (which separates the anodic and cathodic compartments from each other )

Different types of battery

A. Primary battery
The batteries in which the cell reaction is irreversible are called primary batteries. They are not
rechargeable and once discharged have no further electrical use.
Examples: Zn-MnO2 battery and Li-MnO2 battery

B. Secondary battery
The batteries in which the cell reaction is reversible are referred to as secondary batteries.
Secondary batteries after discharge can be recharged electrically to their original condition by
passing electric current through them in the direction opposite to that of discharge current.
Example: Li-ion and Na-ion battery.

C. Reserve Battery
High energy battery in which active materials are separated/isolated from the main battery due
to their high reactivity. They are brought into contact whenever high energy is required for the
application
Example: Zn-Silver battery, Mn batteries activated by water.
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Li-ion battery
A lithium-ion battery (Li-ion battery) is a type of rechargeable battery that uses lithium
ions as the primary carrier of electric charge. The movement of lithium-ion takes place through
the electrolyte from one electrode to another electrode.

Construction
Anode: Lithium intercalated graphite layer (LixC6)
Anode current collector: Copper foil
Cathode: Partially lithiated transition metal oxide (LiCoO2)
Cathode current collector: Aluminum foil
Electrolyte: Lithium salts like LiCl, LiBr dissolved in propylene carbonate
Separator: Polyolefin polymer
Working

Anode reaction: LixC6 xLi+ + xe- + 6C

Cathode reaction: Li1-xCoO2 + xLi+ + xe- LiCoO2
Overall reaction: Li1-xCoO2 + LixC6 LiCoO2 + 6C
During discharge, Li+ ions are dissociated from the anode and then migrate from the anode to
cathode through the electrolyte. Electrons travel through an external circuit. This process creates
an electric current that can power a device or system.
During Charging: Li+ ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.

Application of Lithium-ion battery

 They are commonly used in smart phones, tablets, laptops

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 They are used in medical devices

 They are used in spacecraft and satellites
 They are used in electric cars.

Na-ion battery
A sodium-ion battery (Na-ion battery) is a type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium
ions as the primary carrier of electric charge. The movement of sodium-ion takes place through
the electrolyte from one electrode to another electrode.

Construction
Anode: Sodium intercalated hard carbon
Cathode: Sodium cobalt oxide layer (NaCoO2)
Current collector: Aluminum used in both anode and cathode
Electrolyte: NaPF6 dissolved a mixture of carbonate solvents
Separator: Polypropylene polymer
Working

Anode reaction: NaxC6 xNa+ + xe- + 6C

Cathode reaction: Na1-xCoO2 + xNa+ + xe- NaCoO2
Overall reaction: Na1-xCoO2 + NaxC6 NaCoO2 + 6C
During discharge, Na+ ions are dissociated from the anode and migrate from the anode to cathode
through the electrolyte. Electrons travel through an external circuit. This process creates an electric
current that can power a device or system.
During Charging: Na+ ions move from the cathode to the anode through the electrolyte.
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Application of Sodium-ion battery

 They are commonly used boats and ships

 They are used in medical devices
 They are used in military and defense
 They are used in electric cars.

Quantum dot solar cell (QDSC)

A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a type of solar cell that utilizes quantum dots as a light-
absorbing material to convert sunlight into electricity. Quantum dots are nanometer-sized
semiconductor particles with unique optical and electronic properties.

Working Principle
 When sunlight strikes the QDs, the absorbed photons excite electrons in the QDs to higher
energy levels, creating electron-hole pairs.
Excitation process: QDs + hv → QDs*
Exciton dissociation: QDs* → e- + h+* (free energy)
 The electrons and holes then separate due to the built-in electric field of the QDSC, and
the electrons move towards the electron acceptor while the holes move towards the
electrode.
Injection process: QDs* + TiO2 → TiO2e-* + QDs+
 The electrons flowing through the electron acceptor are collected by the electrode and
routed to an external circuit, generating a flow of electric current.
Energy generation: TiO2e-* + C.E → TiO2 + e* (CE)
 The holes, on the other hand, combine with the electrolyte or the hole acceptor material to
complete the circuit.
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Properties:
 Light absorption: QDs have a narrow and well-defined absorption spectrum, which allows
for efficient light absorption over a wide range of wavelengths, including the near-infrared
region.
 Charge separation: It can efficiently separate charges generated by absorbed light,
increasing the overall efficiency of the solar cell.
 Long carrier lifetime: The long carrier lifetime of quantum dots allows for efficient
collection of charges generated by absorbed light, increasing the overall efficiency of the
solar cell.
 High surface area: Quantum dots have a high surface area, which allows for efficient
loading of photosensitizers, increasing the overall efficiency of the solar cell.
Advantages of QDSC:
 They have a favorable power to weight ratio with high efficiency.
 Their power consumption is low.

Disadvantages of QDSC:
 Cadmium selenide-based quantum dot solar cells are highly toxic in nature and require a
very stable polymer shell.

Quantum dots solar cell applications

 Solar energy conversion: QDSSCs make them suitable for use in solar energy conversion
systems, such as photovoltaic panels and solar-powered devices.
 Portable electronics: QDSSCs are lightweight and flexible, making them suitable for use
in portable electronic devices, such as smartphones, laptops, and wearable devices.
 Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV): QDSSCs can be integrated into building
materials, such as windows, roofs, and walls, allowing for the conversion of light into
electrical energy within a building.
 Stand-alone power systems: QDSSCs can be used in stand-alone power systems, such as
remote solar-powered systems, to provide electrical power without the need for a grid
connection.
 Automotive applications: QDSSCs can be integrated into automotive systems, such as
electric vehicles, to provide a source of electrical power for the vehicle.