UNIT 2.

FOUNDRY
SECTION B. FURNACES

1. Learn the vocabulary:

alternating current змінний струм
bay відстійна частина (печі); секція
blast furnace доменна піч, домна
bowl тигель; резервуар
burner пальник; форсунка
channel induction furnace індукційна піч канального типу
coil котушка
coreless induction furnace тигельна індукційна піч; індукційна
піч без осердя
crucible furnace тигельна піч
cupola furnace вагранка
delta трикутник
electric arc furnace дугова піч
electric resistance електричний опір
electricity resistance furnace піч опору
frustum зрізаний конус
gas-fired furnace газова піч, піч на газовому паливі
hearth подина
helical спіральний; гвинтовий,
гелікоїдальний
induced current індукований (наведений) струм
induction furnace індукційна піч
inductor індуктор
limestone вапняк
melting furnace топильна піч
melt shop плавильний цех
nozzle насадка, сопло, випускний отвір
oil-fired furnace піч на рідкому паливі; мазутна піч
open-hearth furnace мартенівська піч
opening отвір
reverberatory furnace відбивна піч
shaft-like шахтного типу
shell кожух
shielding захист
sidewall бічна стінка
spout випускний отвір
tap-to-tap time тривалість плавлення від випуску
до випуску
tuyere дуттьова фурма (доменної печі)
voltage напруга
2. Match the term with its definition and translate it.
1. crucible a) (of a material) able to withstand high temperatures
without fusion or decomposition
2. fuel b) a solid-fuel product containing about 80 per cent of
carbon produced by distillation of coal to drive off its
volatile constituents: used as a fuel and in metallurgy
as a reducing agent for converting metal oxides into
metals
3. batch c) the hearth at the bottom of a metallurgical furnace
in which the metal collects
4. smelting d) the amount of something that a factory, company,
machine etc can produce or deal with
5. coke e) an energy source for engines, power plants, or
reactors
6. trunnion f) a heated reservoir to hold molten metal preparatory
to casting
7. frequency g) heating of ore mixtures accompanied by a chemical
change resulting in liquid metal
8. capacity h) the number of cycles completed by a periodic
quantity in a unit time.
9. refractory i) a pin or pivot on which something can be rotated or
tilted
10. holding j) the quantity of material prepared or required for one
furnace operation

3. Read and translate the text into Ukrainian analyzing lexical transformations.
FURNACES
Furnaces are refractory lined vessels that contain the material to be melted and provide the energy
to melt it. Several specialised furnaces are used to melt the metal. Modern furnace types include electric
arc furnaces (EAF), induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberatory, blast and crucible furnaces. Furnace
choice is dependent on the alloy system and quantities produced. For ferrous materials, EAFs, cupolas,
and induction furnaces are commonly used. Reverberatory and crucible furnaces are common for
producing aluminium, bronze, and brass castings.
Furnace design is a complex process, and the design can be optimized based on multiple factors.
Furnaces in foundries can be any size, ranging from small ones used to melt precious metals to furnaces
weighing several tons, designed to melt hundreds of pounds of scrap at one time. They are designed
according to the type of metals that are to be melted. Furnaces must also be designed based on the fuel
being used to produce the desired temperature. For low temperature melting point alloys, such as zinc or
tin, melting furnaces may reach around 500° C. Electricity, propane, or natural gas are usually used to
achieve these temperatures. For high melting point alloys such as steel or nickel based alloys, the furnace
must be designed for temperatures over 1600° C. The fuel used to reach these high temperatures can be
electricity (as employed in electric arc furnaces) or coke.
The majority of foundries specialize in particular metals and have furnaces dedicated to these
metals. For example, an iron foundry (for cast iron) may use a cupola, induction furnace, or EAF, while a
steel foundry will use an EAF or induction furnace. Bronze or brass foundries use crucible furnaces or
induction furnaces. Most aluminium foundries use either electric resistance or gas heated crucible
furnaces or reverberatory furnaces.
Cupola furnace
The most popular melting furnace in the ferrous foundries is cupola furnace. It is shaft-like
vertical furnace consisting of a steel shell lined with refractory bricks, equipped with tuyeres (nozzles for
blowing air). The liquid iron is periodically (or continuously) removed through a spout. Iron, coke and
limestone flux are charged by means of an opening locating in the upper half of the steel shell.
Electric Arc furnace
 This furnace can be described as a furnace heating charged materials by the way of an electric arc.
These furnaces exist in all sizes, from the smallest one having a capacity of around 1 ton to the largest
one having a capacity of 400 tons. The former one is used in foundries to produce cast iron products,
whereas the latter one is used for secondary steel making. The ones used by dentists and in research
laboratories might be having capacity of a few grams only. The electric arc furnace can have temperatures
risen up to 1800 Celsius. The electric arc furnace is divided into 3 sections: the shell, consisting of lower
steel bowl and sidewalls, the hearth, consisting of refractory lining of the lower bowl, and the roof, that
can be water-cooled or refractory-lined, and can easily be shaped into a spherical section or conical
section (frustum). A refractory delta is also supported by the roof at its center, by the way of which
graphite electrodes make an entry. The process of operation starts with delivery of scrap metal to scrap
bay which is located adjoining melt shop. After that, the loading of scrap into huge buckets or baskets
takes place. The next step is to carry this basket to the melt shop. The charging takes place here. After the
completion of charging, let the electrodes be allowed to enter and placed onto scrap. This causes the arc
to be struck. Lower voltage is preferred for this part (of operation) to provide protection to the walls and
roof against arc damage and excessive heat. Once the electrodes have reached the heavy melt, shielding
of arcs by scrap takes place. This enables a rapid formation of molten pool, thereby decreasing tap-to-tap
times. Oxygen is also allowed to enter.

Induction furnace
Induction furnaces are widely used for melting non-ferrous and ferrous alloys. There are two types
of induction furnaces: coreless induction furnaces and channel induction furnaces:
 Coreless induction furnace
Coreless induction furnace consists of: a water cooled helical coil made of a copper tube, a crucible
installed within the coil and supporting shell equipped with trunnions on which the furnace may tilt.
Alternating current passing through the coil induces alternating currents in the metal charge loaded to the
crucible. These induced currents heat the charge. When the charge is molten, electromagnetic field
produced by the coil interacts with the electromagnetic field produced by the induced current. The
resulted force causes stirring effect helping homogenizing the melt composition and the temperature. The
frequency of the alternating current used in induction furnaces may vary from the line frequency (50Hz or
60Hz) to high frequency 10,000Hz
 Channel induction furnace
Channel type induction furnace consists of a steel shell lined with refractory materials and an
inductor attached to the shell. There is a channel connecting the main body with the inductor. The
inductor of the channel furnace works as a transformer. It has a ring-like iron core with a water- or air-
cooled coil as a primary coil and a loop of the melt, circulating in the channel, as a secondary coil. Melt
circulation has a stirring effect. Channel induction furnaces work at line frequency currents and are
commonly used as holding furnaces (furnace for maintaining a molten metal, poured from a melting
furnace, at a proper temperature). Channel furnaces are also used for melting low melting point alloys and
iron. For two- or three-shift operation channel furnaces are more economical than coreless furnaces.
Channel furnaces of ratings up to the 10’s of MW and up to capacities of thousands of tonnes have been
used for melting and superheating iron.
Crucible furnace
Crucible furnaces are used for melting and holding small batches of non-ferrous alloys. These
furnaces are the oldest type of melting furnaces. A refractory crucible filled with the metal is heated
through the crucible wall.
There are two main types of crucible furnace:
 electricity resistance furnaces,
 gas (oil) fired furnaces.
In the gas fired furnaces heat is provided by a burner directed to the crucible. In the resistance
furnaces electric heating elements are used as a source of heat.
Blast Furnace
It can be referred to as a kind of metallurgical furnace, through which the process of smelting takes
place. This produces metals, normally iron. These furnaces trace their origin to China (around 500 BC).
They were also found in Belgium and England later. They do not have any special mode of operation.
The metals get melted by heating only. Generally, iron is melted in these furnaces. The chemical reaction
can be explained as follows: Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2
4. Distinguish the terms.
1) alternating current vs. direct current
2) melting vs. smelting
3) to load vs. to charge
4) spout vs. opening
1) Alternating Current vs. Direct Current:
- Alternating Current (AC): This is an electric current that periodically reverses direction. It is
commonly used in household electrical outlets and is generated by power plants.
- Direct Current (DC): This is an electric current that flows in only one direction. It is commonly used
in batteries and low-voltage applications, as well as in some specialized industrial processes.

2) Melting vs. Smelting:

- Melting: Melting refers to the process of converting a solid substance into a liquid state due to the
application of heat. This can happen to various materials, such as metals, plastics, or ice.
- Smelting: Smelting is a specific type of melting process that involves extracting a metal from its ore
by heating and reducing it with a chemical agent. It's commonly used in the extraction of metals like iron,
copper, and lead from their ores.

3) To Load vs. To Charge:

- To Load: Loading generally refers to the process of putting something onto or into a vehicle,
container, or system for transport or use. For example, loading cargo onto a truck or loading software
onto a computer.
- To Charge: Charging typically refers to the process of replenishing energy in a battery or an electric
device. It involves supplying electrical power to a battery or capacitor to store energy for later use.

4) Spout vs. Opening:

- Spout: A spout is a small tube or lip through which a liquid or other substance can be poured or
discharged in a controlled manner. Spouts are commonly found on containers such as teapots, watering
cans, and oil cans.
- Opening: An opening refers to a passage or aperture through which something can enter or exit. It can
be a general term referring to any entrance or exit point, whether it's a door, window, hole, or gap.

5. Put the words in the right order to make multi-component terms. Translate the terms.
1) vertical / furnace / shaft-like
2) furnaces / channel / induction
3) cast / product / iron
4) alloy / point / temperature / low / melting
5) crucible / electric / furnace / resistance
6) frequency / current / line

1) vertical shaft-like furnace

Translation: Horno vertical en forma de pozo

2) induction channel furnaces

Translation: Hornos de canal de inducción

3) cast iron product

Translation: Producto de hierro fundido

4) low melting point alloy temperature

Translation: Temperatura de fusión baja de la aleación

5) electric resistance crucible furnace

Translation: Horno de crisol de resistencia eléctrica

6) current line frequency

 Translation: Frecuencia de corriente de línea
6. Match the words making up multi-component terms & translate them:
1. electromagnetic a) coil
2. induction b) element
3. helical c) time
4. limestone d) field
5. steel e) flux
6. tap-to-tap f) current
7. melt g) shop
8. scrap h) furnace
9. heating i) shell
10. induced j) bay

1. electromagnetic field (d) - електромагнітне поле

2. induction furnace (h) - піч індукційна

3. helical coil (a) - спіральна котушка

4. limestone flux (e) - вапняковий флюс

5. steel scrap (j) - чорний метал відходи

6. tap-to-tap time (c) - час "злив-на-злив"

7. melt shop (g) - цех плавлення

8. scrap bay (j) - збірна бухта відходів

9. heating element (b) - нагрівальний елемент

10. induced current (f) - індукований струм

7. Complete the text with prepositions if necessary. Translate it into Ukrainian analyzing lexical
transformations.
WHAT IS A FURNACE?
A furnace is a piece of equipment used to melt metals ……. (1) casting or to heat materials to
change their shape (e.g. rolling, forging) or properties (heat treatment).
Since flue gases from the fuel come …… (2) direct contact …… (3) the materials, the type of fuel
chosen is important. For example, some materials will not tolerate …… (4) sulphur ……. (5) the fuel.
Solid fuels generate particulate matter, which will interfere the materials placed …… (6) the furnace. For
this reason:
- Most furnaces use liquid fuel, gaseous fuel or electricity as energy input.
- Induction and arc furnaces use electricity to melt steel and cast iron.
- Melting furnaces …… (7) non-ferrous materials use fuel oil.
- Oil-fired furnaces mostly use furnace oil, especially ……(8) reheating and heat treatment of
materials.
- Light diesel oil (LDO) is used …… (9) furnaces where sulphur is undesirable.
Furnace ideally should heat as much material as possible ……(10) a uniform temperature ……
(11) the least possible fuel and labor. The key to efficient furnace operation lies ……. (12) complete
combustion of fuel …… (13) minimum excess air. Furnaces operate …… (14) relatively low efficiencies
(as low as 7 percent) compared …… (15) other combustion equipment such as the boiler (……. (16)
efficiencies higher than 90 percent). This is caused …… (17) the high operating temperatures …… (18)
the furnace. For example, a furnace heating materials …… (19) 1200 C will emit exhaust gases …… (20)
1200 C or more, which results …… (21) significant heat losses through the chimney.
 All furnaces have the following components:
- Refractory chamber constructed ……. (22) insulating materials to retain heat …… (23) high
operating temperatures.
- Hearth to support or carry the steel, which consists ……(24) refractory materials supported by a
steel structure, part of which is water-cooled.
- Burners that use liquid or gaseous fuels to raise and maintain the temperature …… (25) the
chamber. Coal or electricity can be used …… (26) reheating furnaces.
- Chimney to remove combustion exhaust gases …… (27) the chamber.
- Charging and discharging doors …… (28) which the chamber is loaded and unloaded. Loading
and unloading equipment include roller tables, conveyors, charging machines and furnace pushers.

бік

8. Read the text and find English equivalents to the following Ukrainian words and word-
combinations: умови експлуатації, застосування, витримувати, зберігати тепло, теплове
розширення, псувати, точка плавлення, об'ємна густина, межа міцності на стиснення,
пірометричний коефіцієнт вогнетривкості, повзучість, усадка, теплопровідність, частки,
технологічний шов, теплоємність, шлакова корозія, експлуатаційні властивості, зносостійкість,
спікання, луг, шамотний вогнетрив, вміст кремнезему, футерівка, ізоляційний матеріал, робоча
поверхня (футерівки), піч періодичної дії.
1. умови експлуатації - operating conditions
2. застосування - application
3. витримувати - withstand
4. зберігати тепло - conserve heat
5. теплове розширення - thermal expansion
6. псувати - deteriorate
7. точка плавлення - melting point
8. об'ємна густина - bulk density
9. межа міцності на стиснення - cold crushing strength
10. пірометричний коефіцієнт вогнетривкості - pyrometric
cones equivalent
11. повзучість - creep
12. усадка - shrinkage
13. теплопровідність - thermal conductivity
14. частки - particles
15. технологічний шов - construction joint
16. теплоємність - heat capacity
17. шлакова корозія - slag penetration
18. експлуатаційні властивості - operational properties
19. зносостійкість - abrasion resistance
20. спікання - sintering
21. луг - alkali
22. шамотний вогнетрив - fireclay refractory
 23. вміст кремнезему - silica content
24. футерівка - lining
25. ізоляційний матеріал - insulating material
26. робоча поверхня (футерівки) - working surface (lining)
27. піч періодичної дії - intermittent heating furnace
English equivalents to the Ukrainian words and word-combinations provided in the text are as follows:

1. умови експлуатації - operating conditions

2. застосування - application
3. витримувати - withstand
4. зберігати тепло - conserve heat
5. теплове розширення - thermal expansion
6. псувати - degrade
7. точка плавлення - melting point
8. об'ємна густина - bulk density
9. межа міцності на стиснення - cold crushing strength
10. пірометричний коефіцієнт вогнетривкості - pyrometric cones
11. повзучість - creep
12. усадка - shrinkage
13. теплопровідність - thermal conductivity
14. частки - particles
15. технологічний шов - construction joints
16. теплоємність - heat capacity
17. шлакова корозія - slag penetration
18. експлуатаційні властивості - operational properties
19. зносостійкість - abrasion resistance
20. спікання - sintering
21. луг - alkalies
22. шамотний вогнетрив - fireclay refractory
23. вміст кремнезему - silica content
24. футерівка - lining
25. ізоляційний матеріал - insulation material
26. робоча поверхня (футерівки) - hot face (lining)
27. піч періодичної дії - intermittent furnace

WHAT ARE REFRACTORIES?

Any material can be described as a ‘refractory,’ if it can withstand the action of abrasive or
corrosive solids, liquids or gases at high temperatures. The various combinations of operating conditions,
in which refractories are used, make it necessary to manufacture a range of refractory materials with
different properties. Refractory materials are made in varying combinations and shapes depending on
their applications. General requirements of a refractory material are:
- Withstand high temperatures
- Withstand sudden changes of temperatures
- Withstand action of molten metal slag, glass, hot gases, etc.
- Withstand load at service conditions
- Withstand load and abrasive forces
- Conserve heat
- Have low coefficient of thermal expansion
- Should not contaminate the material with which it comes into contact.
Depending on the area of application such as boilers, furnaces, kilns, ovens etc, temperatures and
atmospheres encountered different types of refractories are used.
Some of the important properties of refractories are: 1) melting point; 2) size; 3) bulk density; 4)
porosity; 5) cold crushing strength; 6) pyrometric cones and pyrometric cones equivalent; 7) creep at high
temperature; 8) volume stability, expansion, and shrinkage at high temperatures; 9) reversible thermal
expansion; 10) thermal conductivity.
Melting point: Pure substances melt instantly at a specific temperature. Most refractory materials
consist of particles bonded together that have high melting temperatures. At high temperatures, these
particles melt and form slag. The melting point of the refractory is the temperature at which a test
pyramid (cone) fails to support its own weight.
Size: The size and shape of the refractories are important for the design of the furnace, since they
affects the stability of the furnace structure. Accurate size is extremely important to properly fit the
refractory shape inside the furnace and to minimize space between construction joints.
Bulk density: The bulk density is useful property of refractories, which is the amount of
refractory material within a volume (kg/m3). An increase in bulk density of a given refractory increases
its volume stability, heat capacity and resistance to slag penetration.
Porosity: The apparent porosity is the volume of the open pores, into which a liquid can penetrate,
as a percentage of the total volume of the refractory. This property is important when the refractory is in
contact with molten charge and slag. The low apparent porosity prevents molten material from
penetrating into the refractory. A large number of small pores is generally preferred to a small number of
large pores.
Cold crushing strength: The cold crushing strength is the resistance of the refractory to crushing,
which mostly happens during transport. It only has an indirect relevance to refractory performance, and is
used as one of the indicators of abrasion resistance. Other indicators used are bulk density and porosity.
Pyrometric cones and Pyrometric cones equivalent (PCE): The ‘refractoriness’ of (refractory)
bricks is the temperature at which the refractory bends because it can no longer support its own weight.
Pyrometric cones are used in ceramic industries to test the refractoriness of the (refractory) bricks. They
consist of a mixture of oxides that are known to melt at a specific narrow temperature range.
Creep at high temperature: Creep is a time dependent property, which determines the
deformation in a given time and at a given temperature by a refractory material under stress.
Volume stability, expansion, and shrinkage at high temperatures: The contraction or
expansion of refractories can take place during service life. Such permanent changes in dimensions may
be due to:
- The changes in the allotropic forms, which cause a change in specific gravity
- A chemical reaction, which produces a new material of altered specific gravity
- The formation of liquid phase
- Sintering reactions
- Fusion dust and slag or by the action of alkalies on fireclay refractories, to form alkali-alumina
silicates. This is generally observed in blast furnaces.
Reversible thermal expansion: Any material expands when heated, and contracts when cooled.
The reversible thermal expansion is a reflection on the phase transformations that occur during heating
and cooling.
Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity depends on the chemical and mineralogical
composition and silica content of the refractory and on the application temperature. The conductivity
usually changes with rising temperature. High thermal conductivity of a refractory is desirable when heat
transfer though brickwork is required, for example in recuperators, regenerators, muffles, etc. Low
thermal conductivity is desirable for conservation of heat, as the refractory acts as an insulator. Additional
insulation conserves heat but at the same time increases the hot face temperature and hence a better
quality refractory is required. Because of this, the outside roofs of open-hearth furnaces are normally not
insulated, as this could cause the roof to collapse. Lightweight refractories of low thermal conductivity
find wider applications in low temperature heat treatment furnaces, for example in batch type furnaces
where the low heat capacity of the refractory structure minimizes the heat stored during the intermittent
heating and cooling cycles. Insulating refractories have very low thermal conductivity. This is usually
achieved by trapping a higher proportion of air into the structure. Some examples are:
- Naturally occurring materials like asbestos are good insulators but are not particularly good
refractories
- Mineral wools are available which combine good insulating properties with good resistance to
heat but these are not rigid
- Porous bricks are rigid at high temperatures and have a reasonably low thermal conductivity.
9. Complete the text making appropriate derivatives of the words in brackets. Translate the text
into Ukrainian.
PHYSICAL MODEL OF ARC FURNACE
Electric arc furnaces (EAFs) are widely used in steelmaking and in (1)…………(smelt) of
nonferrous metals. The EAF is (2)…………(essence) for so-called mini-mills which (3)…………
(production) steel mainly from scrap. Typical EAFs (4)…………(operative) at power levels from
10MW to 100MW. The power level is directly (5)………..(relation) to production throughput, so it is
important to control the EAF at the highest possible average (6)…………(powerful) with a low (7)
…………(variety) to avoid breaker trips under current surge conditions. For (8)…………(efficiency)
power control, good dynamic models of EAFs are (9)…………(requirement).
As a rule, in EAF models there are three electrodes that are moved (10)…………(vertical) up and
down with hydraulic (11)………..(actuate). Each of these electrodes has a diameter of (12)…………
(rough) 1.5m, weighs (13)…………(approximate) 40 tons and is 1 to 2 stories tall. In theory, the ore is
(14)…………(melting) with a huge power surge from the electrodes. The actual product is (15)…………
(density) than the scrap and thus falls to the bottom of the furnace creating the matte. Above the matte
lies the slag where the electrode tips are dipped. The tremendous heat created by these electrodes causes
the ore to (16)…………(liquid) and separate. Thereupon more raw (17)…………(materialize) are
placed in the furnace and the process repeats itself.
(18)…………(arc) is a phenomenon that occurs when the electrodes are moved above the slag. As
the electrode approaches the slag, current begins to jump from the electrode to the slag, creating (19)
…………(electrify) arcs. Depending on the (20)…………(magnify) of the input voltages of the
electrodes, the (21)…………(arc) distance can (22)…………(variety). Usually, (23)…………(arc)
occurs in a region within centimeters of the slag (24)…………(approximate) 10-15cm). Therefore, the
EAF model must take into (25)…………(accounting) the instances when x1, x2, x3 are negative (i.e. the
electrodes are suspended above the slag).

Physical Model of Arc Furnace

Electric arc furnaces (EAFs) are widely used in steelmaking and in smelting of nonferrous metals.
The EAF is essential for so-called mini-mills which produce steel mainly from scrap. Typical EAFs
operate at power levels from 10MW to 100MW. The power level is directly related to production
throughput, so it is important to control the EAF at the highest possible average power with a low
variability to avoid breaker trips under current surge conditions. For efficient power control, good
dynamic models of EAFs are required. As a rule, in EAF models there are three electrodes that are
moved vertically up and down with hydraulic actuators. Each of these electrodes has a diameter of
roughly 1.5m, weighs approximately 40 tons and is 1 to 2 stories tall. In theory, the ore is melted
with a huge power surge from the electrodes. The actual product is denser than the scrap and thus
falls to the bottom of the furnace creating the matte. Above the matte lies the slag where the
electrode tips are dipped. The tremendous heat created by these electrodes causes the ore to liquefy
and separate. Thereupon more raw materials are placed in the furnace and the process repeats
itself.

Arc is a phenomenon that occurs when the electrodes are moved above the slag. As the electrode
approaches the slag, current begins to jump from the electrode to the slag, creating electrifying
arcs. Depending on the magnification of the input voltages of the electrodes, the arc distance can
vary. Usually, arcing occurs in a region within centimeters of the slag (approximately 10-15cm).
Therefore, the EAF model must take into account the instances when x1, x2, x3 are negative (i.e. the
electrodes are suspended above the slag).
10. Translate into English
TEXT A
Вагранкою називають шахтну плавильну піч на твердому паливі (вагранковому коксі), яка
призначена для вторинного переплавлення металевої шихти з метою отримання рідкого чавуну
для виливків. Основна частина вагранки – шахта, яка утворена циліндричним кожухом, звареним з
гнутої листової сталі. Висота шахти здебільшого у 4...6 разів більша її діаметру.
Власне шахтою називається тільки її верхня частина, розташована вище осі нижнього ряду
фурм до нижнього рівня колошникового вікна завантажувальної площадки. Нижня частина шахти
від вісі нижнього ряду фурм до подини, де проміж шматками коксу накопичується рідкий чавун і
більш легкий шлак, має назву горн. З горну чавун та шлак періодично випускається відповідно у
розливальний ківш та шлакову мульду.
Більш рівномірний хід плавки досягається під час постійного перетікання чавуну зі шлаком
з горна через перехідну льотку в стаціонарний накопичувач. Це футерований сталевий циліндр
такого ж діаметру, що і вагранка, із кришкою, який розташовують на фундаментній плиті перед
вагранкою і з’єднують з нею перехідною льоткою. З фасаду накопичувач має дверцята для його
футерування із слюдяним віконцем навпроти перехідної льотки, а дверцята – нахильний
футерований жолоб з чавунною льоткою. Іноді для внутрішнього футерування накопичувача
замість дверцят використовують його знімну кришку. З боку накопичувач має шлакову льотку з
жолобом.
Принцип дії вагранки полягає у безперервному зустрічному переміщенні і теплообміні у її
шахті двох потоків матеріалів: твердого металу, коксу і флюсу, а також повітря та продуктів його
горіння.
Перед початком плавлення у шахту через завантажувальне вікно засипається 0,35...0,50% від
розрахункового обсягу так званої холостої коксової колоші. Масу та обсяг холостої коксової
колоші розраховують таким чином, щоб її верхній рівень у шахті протягом всієї плавки
підтримувався на 750...1500 мм вище нижнього ряду фурм.
При відкритих льотках і оглядових фланцях фурм через поки ще не замурований отвір у
робочому вікні приступають до розпалювання холостої колоші газовим пальником. При
відсутності природного газу її розпалюють дровами. Потім пальник по черзі переносять у відкриті
фурми для рівномірного розпалювання колоші по всьому перерізу шахти і через завантажувальне
вікно довантажують залишок розрахункового обсягу холостої колоші. Розпалювання завершують
короткочасним використанням дуття для продування шахти від вугільного пилу, замуровуванням і
закриттям робочого вікна, закриттям фланців фурм і замуровуванням чавунної та шлакової льоток
глиняними конусами.
Після розпалювання роблять повне завантаження шахти до нижнього рівня
завантажувального вікна робочими колошами. Кожна з робочих колош складається з шару
металевої шихти, шару коксу та шару вапняку. Маса металевої частини робочої колоші складає
1…10% від головного показника плавки – продуктивності вагранки (т/г). Маса робочої коксової
колоші складає 12...14% від металевої колоші. Коксова колоша висотою 150...200 мм повинна
надійно ізолювати два суміжних шари металу від взаємного сплавлення. Маса вапняку, залежно
від ступеню забруднення шихти окислами та силікатами, коливається в межах 3...6 % від маси
металевої колоші.
Після завантаження шахти включають повітряне дуття. Середня витрата повітря складає
приблизно 2 м3/с (120 м3/хв.) на кожен 1 м2 корисного поперечного перерізу шахти вагранки.
Горіння коксу в області фурм і потік розпечених газів створюють на верхньому рівні
холостої колоші високотемпературну зону, у якій розплавляється перша металева робоча колоша.
Частина коксу при цьому згоряє і замінюється коксом першої робочої колоші. Вапняк дисоціює до
обпаленого вапна і пов’язує золу коксу, оплавлену футерівку, пригар формувальної суміші та іржу
металу у рідкий легкоплавкий шлак. Краплини розплавленого металу стікають по поверхні
шматків розпеченого коксу, донизу, перегріваються, насичуються вуглецем і сіркою коксу і
накопичуються у горні між шматками нижньої частини холостої колоші. З горну чавун з
температурою 1320...1400оC (а у вагранках з підігрівом дуття – 1450...1530 оС) періодично
випускають у розливальний ківш механічним руйнуванням вогнетривкої пробки льотки. Таким же
чином через шлакову льотку випускають і шлак. За іншим варіантом чавун із шлаком постійно
перетікає з горну в стаціонарний чи індукційний накопичувач через перехідну льотку із сифонною
перегородкою для відокремлення шлаку на грануляцію струменем води.
Синхронно з випусканням чавуну, шлаку і згорянням коксу холостої колоші, через
завантажувальне вікно вагранки подають нові чергові робочі колоші. Залежно від режиму роботи
ливарного цеху, процес плавлення може продовжуватися безперервно протягом робочої зміни,
робочого тижня, а іноді й у три зміни до критичного оплавлення футерівки і зупинення вагранки
на капітальний ремонт. Після закінчення плавильної кампанії завалення робочих колош
припиняють і виключають дуття.
Між колонами закочують вагонетку, відкидають двостулкові дверцята днища. Залишки
холостої коксової колоші плавки провалюється вниз у вагонетку. Після цього приступають до
поточного чи капітальному ремонту футерівки і набиванню поду вагранки.
 TEXT B
Індукційні печі відрізняються від дугових способом підведення енергії до розплавленого
металу. Індукційна піч приблизно працює, як звичайний трансформатор: мається первинна
котушка, навколо якої при пропущенні змінного струму створюється змінне магнітне поле.
Магнітний потік наводить у вторинній котушці змінний струм, під впливом якого нагрівається і
розплавляється метал. Індукційні печі мають ємність від 50 кг до 100 т і більше.
У немагнітному каркасі знаходиться індуктор. Індуктор печі виконаний у вигляді котушки з
певною кількістю витків мідної трубки, усередині якої циркулює охолодна вода. Метал
завантажують у тигель, який є вторинною обмоткою. Змінний струм виробляється в машинних чи
лампових генераторах. Підведення струму від генератора до індуктора здійснюється за допомогою
гнучкого кабелю чи мідних шин. Потужність і частота струму визначаються ємністю плавильного
тигля і складу шихти. Звичайно в індукційних печах використовується струм частотою 500-2500
Гц. Великі печі працюють на менших частотах. Потужність генератора обирають з розрахунку 1,0-
1,4 кВт на 1 кг шихти. Тиглі плавильних печей виготовляють з кислих чи основних вогнетривких
матеріалів.
В індукційних печах сталь виплавляють методом переплаву шихти. Шлак наводять
завантаженням шлакоутворюючих компонентів на поверхню розплавленого металу. Температура
шлаку у всіх випадках менше температури металу, оскільки шлак не має магнітної проникності і
струм у ньому не індуцюється. Для випуску сталі з печі тигель нахиляють убік зливального носка.
В індукційних печах немає вуглецю, тому метал не насичується вуглецем. Під дією
електромагнітних сил метал циркулює, що прискорює хімічні реакції і сприяє одержанню
однорідного металу.
Індукційні печі застосовують для виплавки високолегованих сталей і сплавів особливого
призначення, що мають низький зміст вуглецю і кремнію.
TEXT C
Доменна піч є шахтною піччю. Вона має: колошник, шахту, розпар, заплечики та лещадь.
Через колошниковий затвор у доменну піч завантажують шихту. Шахта має конусоподібну форму,
що дозволяє шихті вільно опускатися. На рівні розпару та заплечиків утворюється губчасте залізо,
яке потім навуглецьовується, плавиться і стікає в горно. Заплечики звужуються до горна і
утримують тверду шихту в розпарі та шахті.
У горні на лещаді накопичується рідкий чавун. Його густина 6900 кг/м 3, а густина шлаку
приблизно 2500 кг/м3, тому шар шлаку знаходиться над чавуном. Накопичені шлак та чавун
випускаються в чавуновозні та шлакові ковші, через льотки, розташовані в нижній частині горна.
Температура чавуну під час випуску – 1300-1450 °С, а шлаку – на 40-80 °С вище.
Окислювальне повітря (дуття) для горіння палива подається крізь фурми під тиском до 500
кПа, попередньо воно підігрівається в регенеративних печах-повітронагрівачах. На колошнику
знаходиться засипний апарат та газовідвід для доменного газу.
З технічного погляду продуктивність доменних печей оцінюють коефіцієнтом використання
корисного об’єму (КВКО), що показує відношення корисного об’єму печі до середньої виплавки
чавуну за добу. Чим менше значення коефіцієнта, тим продуктивніше працює піч.

11. Watch the videos, subtitle them (if they are not) and translate into Ukrainian:
a) V.2B.1. Cupola Furnace;
b) V.2B.2. Blast Furnace.

12. Look at the pictures and describe the principles of the furnaces operation:
a) Cupola Furnace
b) Crucible Gas Fired Furnace

c) Coreless Induction Furnace

d) Electric Arc Furnace

13. Supplementary Reading. Read and translate.

TEXT A
FURNACE CHARGING
The first step in the production of any heat is to select the grade of steel to be made. Usually a
schedule is developed prior to each production shift. Thus the melter will know in advance the schedule
for his shift. The scrap yard operator will prepare buckets of scrap according to the needs of the melter.
Preparation of the charge bucket is an important operation, not only to ensure proper melt-in chemistry
but also to ensure good melting conditions. The scrap must be layered in the bucket according to size and
density to promote the rapid formation of a liquid pool of steel in the hearth while providing protection
for the sidewalls and roof from electric arc radiation. Other considerations include minimization of scrap
cave-ins which can break electrodes and ensuring that large heavy pieces of scrap do not lie directly in
front of burner ports which would result in blow-back of the flame onto the water cooled panels. The
charge can include lime and carbon or these can be injected into the furnace during the heat. Many
operations add some lime and carbon in the scrap bucket and supplement this with injection.
The first step in any tap-to-tap cycle is "charging" into the scrap. The roof and electrodes are raised
and are swung to the side of the furnace to allow the scrap charging crane to move a full bucket of scrap
into place over the furnace. The bucket bottom is usually a clam shell design - i.e. the bucket opens up by
retracting two segments on the bottom of the bucket. The scrap falls into the furnace and the scrap crane
removes the scrap bucket. The roof and electrodes swing back into place over the furnace. The roof is
lowered and then the electrodes are lowered to strike an arc on the scrap. This commences the melting
portion of the cycle. The number of charge buckets of scrap required to produce a heat of steel is
dependent primarily on the volume of the furnace and the scrap density. Most modern furnaces are
designed to operate with a minimum of back-charges. This is advantageous because charging is a dead-
time where the furnace does not have power on and therefore is not melting. Minimizing these dead-times
helps to maximize the productivity of the furnace. In addition, energy is lost every time the furnace roof is
opened. This can amount to 10 - 20 kWh/ton for each occurrence. Most operations aim for 2 to 3 buckets
of scrap per heat and will attempt to blend their scrap to meet this requirement. Some operations achieve
a single bucket charge. Continuous charging operations such as CONSTEEL and the Fuchs Shaft Furnace
eliminate the charging cycle.
TEXT B
CHARGING SYSTEMS FOR HUNGRY FURNACES
Automated charging systems for induction furnaces are an important – and expanding – material-
handling tool for modern foundries. As these furnaces become more powerful and melting times become
shorter, only automated-charging systems are able to keep up the pace. A more important reason for the
growth in automated charging with induction furnaces is operator safety. Splashes caused by dropping
large pieces of scrap, and by water/metal explosions caused by wet or damp scrap, are a constant danger.
But, these dangers can be reduced by using charge drying and preheating to eliminate moisture and
remote-controlled charging to keep the furnace operator away from the molten metal during charging.
Charging systems options. Furnace-charging systems are available in various configurations and
modes of motion. You can do everything from rattling the charge into the furnace with a giant vibrator to
dumping it in from a giant bucket. In general, charge transportation systems can be divided into four
categories: electromagnet cranes, belt conveyors, buckets, and vibrating conveyors, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages:
Cranes with electromagnetic lifting devices pick up charge materials from holding areas and move
them to a weighing hopper or other charge makeup equipment. Used in this way they are ideal. But, they
are not ideal when used to charge induction furnaces directly since the diameter of the magnet must not
be larger than the diameter of the furnace opening. This limits the carrying capacity of the crane and may
prevent charging from keeping pace with melting. Also, electromagnets may be more sensitive to furnace
heat than other charging systems.
Belt conveyors provide an effective way to move charge materials from a lower level to a higher
level, such as from a scrap storage area to a holding hopper on the melt deck. They are fast and quiet and
generate a minimum of dust. A disadvantage is the barrier that conveyors sometimes create to movement
from one side of the melt deck to the other.
Bucket-charging systems are useful where there is adequate overhead space to accommodate the
height of the bucket and its carrying mechanism, generally a monorail crane. This required overhead
space is usually substantial, given the need to bring the bucket over the charge hopper. The key to a
successful bucket-charging operation is an effective system for filling, moving, emptying, and returning
the buckets. Buckets must be used in conjunction with charge drying or preheating systems for safety.
Like belt conveyors, buckets are quiet and clean.
Vibrating conveyors are the most versatile and rugged of all furnace-charging devices. They may
be in fixed positions for holding, consolidating, weighing, and transferring charge materials, or they may
be extremely mobile. In fact, vibrating conveyors have been built to traverse, pivot, and index, all in the
same unit. This mobility enables a vibrating conveyor to be built to service any number of furnaces.
Largely unaffected by heat, vibrating conveyors are ideal for feeding charge materials directly into an
induction furnace that frequently will be running at full power during the charging process.
Charging system configurations. Ultimately, whether you use belts or buckets or vibrators or
cranes, the final configuration of any charging system depends largely on the physical layout of your
melting facility. Ceiling height will determine if your facility can handle buckets. Floor space and
elevations will largely dictate the types of conveyors required to do the job. Key considerations remain
safety and the ability to keep pace with the melting furnaces' need for charge materials.
Sizing your charging system. Clearly, determining the size of a charging system is vital to its
ultimate success. It must be large enough to promptly replace the metal poured from the furnaces and it
must be appropriate to your method of operation, either tap and backcharge melting, or batch melting.
In tap and backcharge melting, the rule of thumb is that the device emptying the charge into the
furnace should hold the amount of metal taken in the largest tap expected. This amount needs to be
translated into charge density to give the physical size of the charging equipment. On average, gray-iron
charge materials equal 75 lb/ft3. This might be composed of 50% pig and 50% returns. A charge made up
of turnings might be much less dense and one of blocks might be much denser. This compares to molten
iron with a density of 418 lb/ft 3. In other words, the charge material may take up more than five times the
space of the molten metal it replaces. It's important to remember in tap and backcharge melting that the
cold charge materials are being put directly into the molten bath. Therefore, drying systems are required
for safety to reduce the chance of a metal/water explosion.
In batch melting, the charge device emptying the charge into the furnace ideally should hold a full
furnace load. This allows additional charge materials to be added continually as melting drops the level of
cold charge in the furnace. This takes maximum advantage of the higher efficiency of cold-charge
melting, prevents wasteful delays in charge delivery during the melting process, and enhances safety by
introducing cold-charge materials on top of solid material already in the furnace rather than directly into
the molten bath. Determining charge density plays an important role in determining the actual size of
your charging equipment. With this, on average, being five and one-half times greater in volume than the
furnace, it's easy to see that batch-melting charging systems may need to be very large. Therefore, in the
cases of the largest systems, it may only be practical to hold half of a full furnace charge in the device
feeding the furnace.

TEXT C
BASIC OPEN HEARTH FURNACE:
PROCESS AND FACILITY DESCRIPTION
Particulate emissions from basic open hearth furnaces (BOHF) have been under investigation for a
number of years in this country. The first study was performed in 1949 at United Steels, when fume
formation was so severe as to cause blockage in the checkers and flues. Since that time a number of
investigators have performed studies on a pilot laboratory basis, or have studied individual portions of the
heat to determine emission characteristics.
The basic open hearth process depends on a basic slag for oxidation of impurities such as carbon,
phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur from the molten bath. The process time for one "heat" or cycle is
approximately 8-10 hr and consists of a specific sequence of events which produce varying amounts of
particulate emissions. The events within a "heat" are described as follows. In the charging and melting
period, scrap, limestone, and possibly some ore are charged to and melted in the open hearth furnace.
Near the end of the meltdown period hot metal (up to 75% of the total metallic charge) is added. Since the
hot metal is high in carbon, a violent exothermic reaction occurs as carbon is oxidized by the slag and CO
is released. The heat release calcines the limestone according to the reaction CaCO3 CaO + CO2 and
results in chunks of limestone floating up to the slag while releasing CO2. This period is called the "lime
boil." During the refining period, impurities are oxidized and dissolved in the slag. Oxygen is
occasionally "blown" into the bath during this period, via a jet called a "lance." The purpose of blowing
oxygen is rapid oxidation of carbon, and raising the bath temperature to a level suitable for "tapping."
When the bath has been sufficiently refined, and the temperature is high enough, the metal is tapped from
the open hearth furnace.
Throughout the heat, flame comes alternately from two sides of the furnace, from two oil and/or
oxy-gas burners, and constantly from a single burner in the center of the roof. When one end burner shuts
off, the other turns on, and the draft changes direction 180°. The purpose of this periodic "draft reversal"
is to keep the checker regenerators on either side of the furnace at a temperature suitable for preheating
incoming air and for cooling exit gases before they enter the control equipment. The draft reversal cycle
is determined by a timer manually set by an operator. There were 7 open hearth furnaces in the shop
studied, all of which were served by the same electrostatic precipitator.
Exit gases from all 7 open hearth furnaces passed through a single mixing chamber before entering
10 precipitator chambers. The gases then proceeded through induced draft fans and were discharged via a
22 ft diameter stack at an elevation of 141 ft above grade.