ROCKS WEATHERING

AND LANDFORMS
ROCKS
 A rock is a collection of mine
that are chemically bound tog
ROCKS
The mineral grains in a rock c
different in colors, shapes and
There are three main types of
sedimentary, igneous and
metamorphic
The rock cycle
TYPES OF ROCKS
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed by solidification and cooling of
magma or lava.
Igneous rocks are further classified into plutonic rocks and
volcanic rocks.
Plutonic, also known as intrusive rocks are formed when
magma cools and crystallizes within the Earth’s crust.
Granite is an example of plutonic rock.
Igneous rocks cont.
Volcanic or extrusive rocks are formed when the magma
reaches the Earth’s surface as lava, forming minerals like
pumice or basalt.
igneous rock is most abundant rock type found on Earth,
Igneous rocks are classified into two groups depending on
the way the magma cools and solidifies
Igneous rocks Cont.
Intrusive (plutonic) Igneous Rock and Extrusive ( volcanic)
Igneous Rock
The table below summarises the two types of
Igneous Rocks
Characteristics of igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are mainly hard rocks and impermeable
unless jointed.
Igneous rocks are granular or crystalline rocks
depending upon the rate and place of cooling of
magmas or lavas.
Igneous rocks do not have strata like sedi­mentary
rocks.
Igneous rocks do not contain fossils because they form
from very hot and molten materials which burns all
remains of plants or animals (fossils)
Cont.
The number of joints increases upward in any igneous
rock.
The joints are formed due to:
(i) Cooling and contraction,
(ii) Expansion and contraction during mechanical
weathering,
(iii) Pressure release
(iv)Earth movement caused by isotactic disturbances
Economic uses of granite rocks
Many types of igneous rocks are used as
building stone,

fencing stone building Dura walls,

decorative material as tiles or tombstone and tabletops,

cutting boards
Economic use cont
Pumice is used as an abrasive material in hand soaps,
emery boards, etc.
Gneiss, Schist and Gabbro are very hard and widely
used as crushed stone for concrete aggregate, road
surfaces and railroad ballast.
Igneous rocks may also contain many important ores
such tin or valuable minerals such as diamonds.
Sedimentary roks
Formation of sedimentary rocks
A river carries, or transports, pieces of broken rock as
it flows along.
When the river reaches a lake or the sea, its load of
transported rock fragments settles to the bottom ( are
deposited).
The deposited rocks build up in layers, called
sediments. This process is called sedimentation.
The weight of the sediments on top squashes the
sediments at the bottom. This is called compaction.
Formation cont.
The water is squeezed out from between the pieces of
rock and crystals of different salts form.
The crystals form a sort of glue that sticks or cements
the pieces of rock together. This process is called
cementation.
These are the different processes in order:
Examples are:
Chalk limestone
Sandstone shale
-Sedimentary rocks have layers (strata) The oldest layers
are at the bottom and the youngest layers are at the top.

-
Characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
Sedimentary rocks are formed of sediments derived
from the older rocks, plant and animal remains
Sedimentary rocks may be consolidated, poorly
consolidated or unconsolidated depending on
cementing elements
Have joints that are perpendicular to bending planes
Cont.
These rocks consist of a number of layers or strata
These rocks are characterized by marks left behind by
water currents and waves.
These rocks have fossils of plants and animals.
These rocks are generally porous and allow water to
percolate through them
Uses of sedimentary rocks
Limestone is used to make cement
Limestone is also used in blast furnace to separate
iron from iron ore
Limestone is also used for making agricultural lime
(fertilizer)
Coal is used for heating (thermal power) and
industrial uses
Chalk is used for writing
Sand stone is used as building material
Metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic rocks are formed when any other rock
types like sedimentary, igneous or metamorphic are
subjected to different temperature and pressure
conditions other than in which the original rock was
formed.
This process of transformation is called
metamorphism, which means changing in form.
Cont.
Depending on their structure, metamorphic rocks are
classified as foliated and non-foliated. The names of
rocks are determined by the minerals present in them.
Examples of metamorphic rocks are;
Slates, marble, soapstone , serpentine and gneiss
Examples of metamorphosis
Metamorphic rocks

Schist slate
Cont.

Quartzite gneiss
Characteristics of metamorphic rocks
Foliation- grains are in parallel layers eg in slate
Can also be non-foliated in which grains are arranged
randomly
Banding – bands of light coloured minerals alternate
with bands of dark coloured minerals
cont
Are usually made of two or more minerals
Contains no fossils
Has no layering
Can be fine grained, coarse grained or glassy
Rock weathering
What is weathering ?
Qsn.

The difference
between weathering and
erosion.
Weathering and erosion
video
Def of weathering
Weathering is the breaking down of
rocks in situ, or "with no movement",

It is different from erosion, which

involves the movement of rocks and
minerals by agents such as water,
ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity
cont
Denudation is a term that is used to
describe the forces that wear away the
land surface it includes the processes t
of weathering, erosion, transportation
and mass wasting (deposition)
classifications of weathering
processes exist

physical and
chemical weathering;
each sometimes involves a component of
biological weathering
However, chemical and physical weathering
often go hand in hand
question
#Distinguish between physical
and chemical weathering (5)
Chemical and physical weathering
Types of physical weathering
Freeze thaw/Frost Shattering
FREEZE THAW
Cont.
Frost shattering
It occurs in cold temperate regions and
mountain tops where temperatures
fluctuate above and below freezing point.
It occurs in rocks that have crevices and
joints and where there is limited
vegetation cover and temperatures
fluctuate around 0°c
Cont.
Explanation cont
Water fills the cracks or joints in the rock and freezes at
night or during winter.
Frozen water expand and increase in volume almost ten
times which causes it to exert pressure on rock cracks
hence increasing the crack
When temperatures rise the ice thaws and move deeper
into rock crack
With each freeze and thaw cycle the joints expand until
the rocks shatter and fall off the main rock as block
fields, scree and talus.
Cont.
Repeated freeze- thaw will eventually
shatter the rock along the cracks or joints
into angular pieces.
The broken materials collect at the foot of
the slope to form a scree slope/talus slope
The splitting of rocks along the joints into
blocks is called block disintegration
Cont.
With each freeze and thaw cycle the
joints expand until the rocks shatter
and fall off the main rock as block
fields, scree and talus.
Types of physical weathering
Insolation/ thermal weathering
thermal
video
cont
It occurs in places like hot deserts where
the day temperature is very high to and
night temperature is very low.
Heated rock expands, however due to
different minerals or colors, the rock
sections expand and contract at different
rates.
The dull coloured sections expand faster
than the light coloured sections
cont
Also the outer layers expand faster than
the inner layers
The repeated heating by day and cooling
by night cause the outer layers of the
rock to expand and contract alternately.
This differential colling and expansions
result in stress being created in the rock,
cont
The rock cracks along the lines of stress
and gradually, the outer layers of rock
peels off like layers of an onion
The process of peeling off is also called
exfoliation
This is the process that was thought to
result in the creation of exfoliation
domes like Domboshava
Pressure Release [exhumation]
It takes place when a rock
(batholiths) once buried under the
earth is expose/exhumed by erosion
as shown in diagram below
video
video
Cont.
Cont.
Erosion removes the overburden that
was exerting pressure on the rock
With the release of pressure, the rock
expands. causing stress within the rock.
Cracks are formed parallel to the rock
surface.
Cont.
Over a period of time, the outer layers
of the rock break away in sheets
(exfoliation).
Exfoliation due to pressure release is
also known as "sheeting".
Salt Crystallization
cont
Is weathering caused by growth of salt
crystals takes place in rock joints or
pores.
it is common in deserts where
evaporation draws salty ground water
containing dissolved salts upwards into
the pores of the rock by capillary action.
Cont.
It also occurs on rocks close to
oceans where saline water can be
splashed into rock cracks by
water waves
When the water evaporates, the
salts are left behind as crystals.
cont
As more water enter rock crack and
evaporate, the salt crystal grows in size
and exert pressure on rock crack walls
The force applied by the growing crystal,
creates stress in the rock,
The rock crack widen and deepen, the
rock weakens and break down into grains
Biological Weathering
roots growing into the cracks and
joints in rocks (root wedging)
earthworms and termites making
tunnels in the ground
man building roads and cultivating the
land , exposing and breaking rocks
images
Cont.
Bio cont.
NB. The above are examples of physical
biological weathering. It should be noted
that biological weathering can also be
chemical e.g. when animal urine or
humic acid from dead animals and plants
cause chemical decay of rocks
Summary
Physical weathering is
Is more effective in areas which have:
~ Little vegetation covers because rocks will
be exposed to the sun
~ Large diurnal range of temperature
~ Temperatures fluctuating around 0
degrees Celsius
Chemical weathering Processes
Define chemical weathering
Qsn. What is chemical weathering ?

any of the various weathering processes that cause

exposed rock to under
go chemical decomposition, changing the chemical
and mineralogical composition of the rock:
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis takes place when acid rain reacts with rock-
forming minerals such as feldspar to produce clay and
salts that are removed in solution. The only common
rock-forming mineral that is not affected is quartz, which
is a chemically resistant mineral. This is why quartz and
clay are the two of the most common minerals in
sedimentary rocks.
Church carving showing effects of hydrolysis.
Solution weathering
Occurs when soluble substances in rocks are removed by
dissolving in water .
the rock no longer remains solid and form holes, rills or rough
surface and ultimately falls into pieces or decomposes.
The action is considerably increased when the water is acidified
by the dissolution of organic and inorganic acids.
(e.g) halites, NaCl
Salt rock + water-> solution (rock dissolved in water)NaCl +
H2O -> Na+, Cl- , H2O (dissolved ions with water
Cont.
As rain falls, it dissolves small amounts of carbon dioxide
from the air, forming a weak acid that is able to dissolve
limestone. It dissolves even more carbon dioxide as it seeps
through the soil.-The acidic water, seeping into joints (cracks)
in the rock gradually widens them and may produce
“limestone pavements” like this one. As it sinks further, the
water may begin to flow through the rock along larger joints
and bedding planes, eventually widening them out to form
cave systems.-This type of limestone scenery is often called
“Karst” after a famous chemically weathered limestone area in
Slovenia, southern Europe.
In Zimbabwe we have Chinhoyi caves
Solovenia (Europe)
CHINHOYI CAVES
Carbonation
Carbon dioxide when dissolved in water it forms carbonic acid.
2H2O + CO2 -> H2CO3
This carbonic acid attacks many rocks and minerals and brings
them into solution.
The carbonated water has an etching effect up on some rocks,
especially lime stone. The removal of cement that holds sand
particles together leads to their disintegration.
cont
Calcium carbonate rock + carbonic acid -> calcium
bicarbonate (readily soluble)
CaCO3 + H2CO3 -> Ca(HCO3)2
pic
Oxidation
The process of addition and combination of oxygen to minerals.
The absorption is usually from O2 dissolved in soil water and
that present in atmosphere. The oxidation is more active in the
presence of moisture and results in hydrated oxides.(e.g)
minerals containing Fe and Mg.
Iron rock + oxygen -> iron oxide (rust)4FeO (Ferrous oxide) +
O2 -> 2Fe2O3 (Ferric oxide
Oxidation
cont
Reduction
The process of removal of oxygen and is the reverse of
oxidation and is equally important in changing soil colour to
grey, blue or green as ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron
compounds. Under the conditions of excess water or water
logged condition (less or no oxygen), reduction takes place.
2Fe2O3 (Hematite) - O2 -> 4FeO( Ferrous oxide) -
Points to note
Chemical weathering
results in the alteration of the chemical composition of the
weathered material due to a reaction which alters:
a. the composition of rock mineralsb. the volume of the
rockc. the strength and coherence of the rock
cont
It tends to be concentrated at the rock surface or along
joints and bedding planes. Block weathering and granular
disintegration can also be the result of chemical
weathering..
Block and Granular disintegration
It tends to be concentrated at the rock surface or along
joints and bedding planes.
cont
Block weathering and granular
disintegration can be the result of
chemical weathering or. physical
weathering
Block or Granular disintegration results
in blocks of the parent material falling
from the cliff and often increases the
surface area susceptible to attack
Block disintegration
It occurs in well-jointed rock such as granite.
It is particularly effective in areas with great diurnal range of
temperature (10ºC to 15ºC or more) and barren rocks without a
protective vegetation cover, e.g. in desert regions.
Rocks are split along the joints into large rectangular-shaped
blocks.
Granular disintegration
It is process of physical or mechanical weathering due to
repeated heating and cooling as a result of temperature
changes.
Rocks usually compose of different types of minerals. The dark
coloured minerals e.g mica in granite, absorb more heat and
so heated up faster.
cont
Light coloured minerals e.g. quartz, feldspar, can
reflect light and heated up slower.
As a result of alternate expansion and contraction of
minerals in rocks causes the rock to break down into
small pieces
What are Factors affecting the nature and rate
of rock weathering
The rate( the speed) and nature (prevailing
type) of weathering at any given place is
affected by:
Climate
Relief
Vegetation
Rock type( lithological factors)
Animals/ men
Climate
Qsn .How climate affects the rate of weathering ?
Temperature and rainfall have the greatest effect on
weathering.
•In cold areas especially regions where temperatures
fluctuate around 0°C physical weathering in the form of
frost shatter (freeze-thaw) is dominant.
•In hot areas such as deserts where there are large
diurnal temperature ranges exfoliation insolation
weathering (heating and cooling) is dominant.
cont
In hot and wet areas like the savannah and rainforest chemical
weathering takes place in aided by the easily available
moisture and high temperatures which favour chemical
reactions.
•In rain forests the decomposition of humus creates humic acid
leading to organic weathering.
•Mechanical weathering processes.
•Thus chemical weathering occurs is dominant in hot and
humid climate areas ie. For every 10 degrees Celsius rise
temperature the rate of chemical weathering doubles
Cont.
•Climate also indirectly affect weathering by affecting the
amount of vegetation and presence of organisms that can
lead to chemical weathering
dictates the type of weathering processes that operate,
largely by determining the amount of water available and
the temperature at which the processes occur.
Chemical reactions are faster at higher temperatures, while
frost wedging occurs in colder climates.
Peltian diagrams illustrates this well, explain it briefly
Relief
Mountain regions have steep slopes which means that
in the event of rain they drain quickly leaving the dry.
•As a result physical weathering is dominant at
mountain tops especially when considering how some
peaks tend to have temperatures that fluctuate around
the freezing point even if temperatures are quite higher
at the start of the slopes.
Cont.
Moisture tends to accumulate at the base of
mountains aiding chemical weathering
processes.
Granite regions sometimes lead to the
development of vleis which are water logged
since granite is impermeable thus favouring
chemical weathering in the moist conditions.
Vegetation
Tree roots penetrate into rocks, widening cracks,
release carbon dioxide during respiration resulting in
biological weathering. These processes are naturally
dominant in areas where there are more trees.
When tree roots decay humic acids are produced
causing biological weathering a process which more
readily occurs in areas with dense vegetation cover
and moisture such as in rainforests and in the tropics.
Cont.
Lichen and moss grow on rock
plateaus and domes aided by
moisture from rain and at the base
of slopes forming acids that eat into
rocks.
Rock type
HOW ROCK TYPE AFFECT WEATHERING
Limestone is very soft and porous (being porous is not
the same thing as being impervious/impermeable) and
therefore more easily affected by processes such as
carbonation, more so given the chemical composition of
the rock.
Granite rock is hard and non-porous and thus less
susceptible to chemical weathering processes which
require a certain amount of moisture in order to occur.
Cont.
Different rock types are composed or
different chemicals that stand on
different places of the reactivity series.
Chemicals found in limestone readily
react with weak acids while granite rocks
are more resistant
How humans influences weathering
Human activities such as industrialization and
driving of cars produce emissions such as sulphur
dioxide, nitric oxide and carbon dioxide leading to
increased incidences of acid rain which in turn
accelerates chemical weathering processes such as
carbonation.
These industries sometimes dump acidic chemicals
into drains and rivers leading to chemical
weathering.
Cont.
Deforestation increases runoff and reduces the moisture
retention of certain areas leading to a decrease in biological
and chemical weathering and an increase in mechanical
weathering.
Humans are also indirectly affecting weathering through the
process of global warming. The effects depend on the ensuing
climatic conditions in each given area.
Plating of trees can lead to increased root wedging and
chemical weathering by decomposing litter
Cont.
Blasting and mining operations can lead to seismic
movements that can create fractures that can be exploited
by weathering processes such as freeze and thaw and
crystallization thus aiding weathering.
Topography.
the slope angle determines the energy of the weathering system
by controlling the rate at which water infiltrates the rock mass.
Generally, flat areas allow water to stagnate and so favour deep
chemical weathering while steep slopes does not allow scree of
water to collect and so favour physical weathering
Cont.
The type, rate and extent of weathering depend
also on rock characteristic(lithological factors)
Benefits and problems of weathering to people
Benefits
Creates tourist attractions for example the balancing
granite rocks in Epworth and the limestone caves in
chinhoyi
It produces soil which is essential for agricultural activities,
biodiversity and development of vegetation
It enables the rock cycle to take place producing different
types of rocks need by men
Problems
can destroy monuments and rock landforms
can cause buildings to fall
corrodes and destroy statue
Weathering Products
Weathering generally produces finer and less
dense rock materials (saprolite, regolith/
scree), and weaker, more porous and
permeable rock masses.
In the tropics and subtropics, intense
weathering in the hot and humid conditions
produces thick weathered profiles, which may
be up to 100 meters, or more, thick.( the deep
weathered layers)
Cont.
Weathering preferentially attacks the
corners and edges of the joint
blocks, causing them to become
rounded (spheroidal weathering).
Landforms resulting from weathering
and erosion of granite rock
Explain fully how weathering and erosion work
together to produces landforms
Cont.

Weathering took place along Joints and

bedding plane to produce deep weather
layers as shown below
Cont.
This diagram shows that chemical
weathering agents penetrated into the rock
through joints and bedding planes to
produce weathered rock
The top layer consists of highly weathered
fine rock material called saprolite
Followed by a mixture of saprolite and
regolith
Cont.
The third layer is made up of large core stones
just weathered on edges
At the lower part of the third layer there is a
boundary of weathering or weathering front or
basal surface of weathering, it marks the end of
deep chemical weathering
This weathering front is deep in areas that has
more joints and is higher on areas that has fewer
joints that’s giving rise to embryonic landforms
inside the earth
Cont.
Regolith is large partial weather rocks
When erosion occur, it removes the
saprolite, regolith and some core stones to
expose the weathering front
The weathering front is exposed first as a
low laying rock exposure called ruware
Further erosion continues to expose the
weathering front giving tall rock outcrops
such as domes and bornhardts
Cont.
Some of the large core stones which
could not be moved by erosion are left
resting on the exposed weathering
front.
If the core stones rest on top of each
other, a tor is formed
Ruware/ whale back
Tor.
Tors are residual rock masses that
display as isolated piles of boulders.
Are believed to be formed in two step.
The first involves deep chemical
weathering along joints and bedding
planes, which produces saprolite,
regolith and un-weathered core stones
Cont.
Erosion removes the saprolite and
regolith leaving behind the rounded
core stone
The core stones may rest on top of
each other when regolith and
saprolite are eroded thus forming a
tor
Tor.
Bornhart
Bornharts are distinct steep-sided, dome-
shaped hills. Eg Guruguru
Unlike tors they are composed of relatively
unjointed rock, except for large curved
surface joints.
These large rounded rock landforms are
believed to be formed by erosion of
overburden (saprolite and regolith) to expose
massive rock outcrop
Tor and bornhart

What is the difference between a

tor and a bornhart ?
What are the similarities ?
Castle kopjes
Exfoliation domes