PHYSICS

CAMPION COLLEGE
ATOMIC PHYSICS

History
In 1896 Antoine – Henri Becquerel discovered Radioactivity.
About 1900 J.J. Thomson suggested that an atom could be a blob of positively charged matter in which
electrons were stuck like raisins in a plum pudding. In 1911 after extensive testing Ernest Rutherford
concluded that the atom consists of a centrally dense and positive Nucleus, surrounded by negative
electrons. He also speculated about the existence of a neutral particle inside the nucleus.
In 1932 James Chadwick identified the Neutron as a neutral particle existing in the nucleus of an atom.
In 1913 Neils Bohr suggested that the Atom consist of Electrons orbiting the Nucleus similar to the way
the planets orbit the sun.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The electrons are negatively charged
The proton is positively charged. The number of protons is the atomic number of the element
The atom is neutral because the number of protons and electrons are equal.
The following relationship is used for Atomic mass (A), number of protons (Z), and number of neutrons,
(N).
Atomic mass = number of Protons + number of Neutrons
A=Z+N

RADIOACTIVE NUCLIDE
Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space and may be able to penetrate
various materials.
Radiation is emitted from the nucleus of the radioactive element (nuclide)
𝐴
The standard notation for the radioactive nuclide is 𝑍 𝑋. Where X is the symbol for the nuclide A is the
mass number and Z is the atomic number.
12
So, a radioactive Carbon Nuclide would be written as 6𝐶 .
ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element that has the same number of protons (atomic number) but
different number of neutrons, thus different mass number.
RADIOACTIVITY is the spontaneous emissions of particles of energy from an atomic nucleus as it
disintegrates. An element is radioactive because it has an unstable nucleus. Not all elements are
radioactive.

Page 1 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE

TYPES OF EMISSIONS
A nuclide disintegrates by emitting any or all of the following particles:
i. ALPHA particles(𝛼)
ii. BETA particles(𝛽)
iii. GAMMA rays(𝛾)

i. ALPHA (𝜶) particles are similar to a helium ion. They have a mass of 4, an atomic number of 2,
4
and carry a +2 charge. They are represented as follows 2 𝐻𝑒2+. Alpha particles are deflected
by magnetic and electric fields. They ionize a gas through which they pass. They form thick cloud
tracks when the gas is ionized. They can be stopped by thick paper.

ii. BETA (𝜷) particles are similar to fast moving electrons. They have no mass, but carry a negative
0
charge. They are represented as follow −1 𝑒.Beta particles are also deflected by electric and
magnetic fields. They ionize a gas through which they pass. They form short thin clouds when
the gas is ionized. Beta particles can be stopped by Aluminum foil.

iii. GAMMA rays (𝜸)are none particulate, that is, they have no mass and no charge. They are
bundles of energies called Photons.
Gamma rays are not affected by magnetic and electric fields. They do not have much effect on
gas when they pass through it. They are stopped only by thick lead.

Radioactivity can be detected by:

 Cloud chamber

Radioactivity can be detected by making use of the ionizing abilities of the radiation emitted
from the radioactive substance.

One detection device is the diffusion cloud chamber. This consists of a cylindrical chamber under
which dry ice is placed. The inside of the chamber is filled with alcohol vapour which is cooled to
about -65oC by dry ice.

When a radioactive source is put close to the base and the inside is well illuminated, white
vapour trails can be seen shooting out from the source.

The vapour trails formed show the paths taken by the radiation.

Page 2 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE
Diagrams showing typical trails in a cloud chamber

𝜶 - radiation 𝜷 - radiation 𝜸 - radiation

 Geiger Muller tube

The range (penetrating power) of alpha particle (from a suitable source example, Americium –
241, Am-241) in air is less than 10cm. This can be detected and shown using a Geiger- Muller
Tube (G.M. tube).It consists of atube with athin window, which allows for the detection of this
type of emission, connected to a rate meter.

 The thickness of the air is varied by gradually moving the G.M. tube away from the
source until there is a sudden drop in the reading of the rate meter.
 However, before any radioactive source is placed in front of the G.M. tube the tube
must be used to detect the background radiation. Such a reading is taken several times
and an average rate calculated. This background count is random and due to small
quantities of radioactive material in the surroundings as well as cosmic radiation coming
from outer space.
IT MUST BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT AS A CORRECTION TO BE APPLIED TO EVERY
READING.
 The G.M.tube is now placed about 3 cm from the alpha source and several readings
taken.
 Different thickness of paper and cardboard are placed between the tube and the source.
Even with the thinnest sheet of paper the count rate is greatly reduced. With thicker
sheets the count rate is the same as the background count showing that the alpha
particles have stopped.

To check other sources such as Beta, replace the alpha source with a beta source, for example
strontium 90 (Sr 90). Beta particles remain detectable for a distance of up to 50-60 cm from the
source which is the approximate range in air of these particles. Aluminium sheets can greatly
reduce the radiation.
When a gamma –ray source, for example Cobalt – 60 (Co – 60), is used in the experiment
gamma rays have a great range in air and are only stopped by thick sheets of lead.

 Scintillations Counter

Page 3 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE

Complete the following table to show properties of radioactive emissions.

SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS

RADIATION CHARGE MASS SPEED PENETRATING

ABILITY
Approx. 1/20 Stopped by thin
Alpha particle +2e 4 units speed of light paper

Ranges from Stopped by an

Beta particle -e 1/1840 unit 3% - 99% of speed aluminum plate
of light

Gamma ray 0 (No charge) zero mass Speed of light Stopped by thick
lead

DEFLECTION OF RADIOACTIVE EMISSIONS, BY MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC FIELDS.

Diagram showing the effect of Magnetic Field on Radioactive emissions

Page 4 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE
Some radioactive emissions are deflected by both magnetic and electric fields.
A magnetic field strong enough to deflect alpha particles would cause beta particles to go round in tiny
circles.
 The 𝛾 - rays are not deflected – the magnetic field has no effect on them as they are not
charged.
 Theα – particles show a slight deviation towardsthe left as indicated by the diagram. Flemming’s
left hand rule says that a deviation to the left indicates that the α – particles are positively
charged.
 The β – particles are deviated to the right, showing that they are negatively charged.
 The small deviation of the α – particles show that they are massive particles compared to the β –
particles which are deviated considerably.
The effect of an electric field is easier to predict:
 The 𝛾 – rays are not deviated and positive charges will deflect somewhat in the
direction of the field whilst the positively charged β – particles will be oppositely
deflected.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Reaction Equations
Whenever the nucleus of a Radioactive element emits either an alpha, 𝛼 or beta, 𝛽 particle, it changes
into a new element. When writing equations to show these changes two basic principles are applied:

1. The total (net) electric charge remains constant

2. The total number of nucleons remains constant

For example: 226 4

88𝑅𝑎 → 𝑋 + 2𝐻𝑒 : the proton number of X must be 86 so that condition (1) is satisfied
and then we find from the periodic table that element is radon (Rn). The nucleon number of X must be
222 so that there is a total of 226 nucleons on both sides of the equation.

Hence 226
88𝑅𝑎 →
222
86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝐻𝑒

Half Life (t1/2)

The half- life of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for one half the number of atoms of the nuclide to
decay. Each element has a different half- life which always remains constant. i.e the time taken for a
N
sample of nuclide N to disintegrate to 2 for a particular nuclide is always the same.

PROBLEMS ON HALF LIFE

Example 1
Iodine – 131 is radioactive, has a half- life of 8 days and is used in amedical treatment. A patient is given
a dose of 10mg of iodine – 131. After 24 days, how much of the isotope will remain in her body
assuming that none is expelled.
Solution
1
Equation…….. 𝑁 = 𝑁0 × 𝑛
2

Page 5 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE
Where: N = amount remaining
N0 = original amount
[𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒]
n = number of half- life that has passed = [ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓−𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒]
24
n= 8
=3
1
therefore: 𝑁 = 𝑁0 × 2𝑛
1
N = 10 mg × 23
1
N = 10 mg × 8
N = 1.25 mg

Example 2
1
If 32 of a sample of a radioactive isotope remains after 64 minutes, what is the half – life of the isotope?

NUCLEAR ENERGY

E = mc2

This is the equation for Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. It governs processes such as the release of
energy from the Atomic bomb and the production of nuclear energy.

E is the nuclear energy produced

m is the mass of the substance used

C is the speed of light

Example:

If the sun loses mass at a rate of 2 × 109 kg per second. Calculate the power output of the sun (energy
produced per second).

C = 3 ×108 ms-1

Page 6 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE
Most nuclear reactions are not radioactive decay including Fusion and Fission.

Fusion

Fusion is a nuclear process in which two light nuclei combine to form a single heavier nucleus. A loss of
mass occurs and the loss of mass in this experiment is accompanied by a release of energy. An example
of a fusion reaction important in thermonuclear weapons and in future nuclear reactors is the reaction
between two different hydrogen isotopes to form an isotope of helium:

2H + 3H → 4He + n

Demonstration: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0TzIJz4_kYI

This reaction liberates an amount of energy more than a million times greater than one gets from a
typical chemical reaction. Such a large amount of energy is released in fusion reactions because when
two light nuclei fuse, the sum of the masses of the product nuclei is less than the sum of the masses of
the initial fusing nuclei.

Once again, Einstein's equation, E=mc2, explains that the mass that is lost is converted into energy
carried away by the fusion products.

Even though fusion is an energetically favorable reaction for light nuclei, it does not occur under
standard conditions here on Earth because of the large energy investment that is required. Because the
reacting nuclei are both positively charged, there is a large electrostatic repulsion between them as they
come together. Only when they are squeezed very close to one another do they feel the strong nuclear
force, which can overcome the electrostatic repulsion and cause them to fuse.

Fusion reactions have been going on for billions of years in our universe. In fact, nuclear fusion
reactions are responsible for the energy output of most stars, including our own Sun. Scientists on Earth
have been able to produce fusion reactions for only about the last sixty years. At first, there were small
scale studies in which only a few fusion reactions actually occurred. However, these first experiments
later lead to the development of thermonuclear fusion weapons (hydrogen bombs).
Fusion is the process that takes place in stars like our Sun. Whenever we feel the warmth of the Sun
and see by its light, we are observing the products of fusion. We know that all life on Earth exists
because the light generated by the Sun produces food and warms our planet. Therefore, we can say that
fusion is the basis for our life.

Fission

Fission is a nuclear process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei. An example of a
fission reaction that was used in the first atomic bomb and is still used in nuclear reactors is

235U + n → 144Ba + 90Kr + 2n

Page 7 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE
Demonstration:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQa4LONy9XM

The products shown in the above equation are only one set of many possible product nuclei. Fission
reactions can produce any combination of lighter nuclei so long as the number of protons and neutrons
in the products sum up to those in the initial fissioning nucleus. As with fusion, a great amount of energy
can be released in fission because for heavy nuclei, the summed mass of the lighter product nuclei is less
than the mass of the fissioning nucleus.
Fission occurs because of the electrostatic repulsion created by the large number of positively
charged protons contained in a heavy nucleus. Two smaller nuclei have less internal electrostatic
repulsion than one larger nucleus. So, once the larger nucleus can overcome the strong nuclear force
which holds it together, it results in fission. Fission can be seen as a "tug-of-war" between the strong
attractive nuclear force and the repulsive electrostatic force. In fission reactions, electrostatic repulsion
wins.
Fission is a process that has been occurring in the universe for billions of years. As mentioned above,
we have not only used fission to produce energy for nuclear bombs, but we also use fission peacefully
everyday to produce energy in nuclear power plants.

UTILIZATION OF NUCLEAR ENERGY

The utilization of nuclear energy may have both advantages and disadvantages.

 Nuclear power stations use relatively small amounts of fuel and generate electricity in large
quantities.
 The reserves of nuclear fuel are relatively large.
 Radioactive emissions are ionizing radiations and can cause damage to living cells. In particular
the radiation may damage cells in such a way that the person gets cancer or has a child or birth
defects.
 Heavy doses of radiation can kill living things or cause bad burns.
 Accidents can occur in power stations that may cause the release of radioactive material.
 The sun is essentially a natural thermo-nuclear reactor.

Page 8 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE

Ques. 1

An investor is interested in a nuclear power station project> He has the option of using natural or
artificial radioactive decay process to obtain energy. In helping him to decide, he consults an engineer
who compares the energy obtained from the following TWO nuclear reactions:
212 208 4
NATURAL: 83 𝐵𝑖 → 81 𝑇𝑙 + 2 𝐻𝑒 + Energy

1 235 𝐴 90
ARTIFICIAL: 0 𝑛 + 92 𝑈 → 54 𝑋𝑒 + 38 𝑆𝑟+ 3 ( 10 𝑛 ) + Energy

Table 1 below gives the data for these nuclides where u = 1.66 × 10-27 kg.

Nuclide Atomic mass / u

235 235.04393
92 𝑈

212
83 𝐵𝑖 211.99127

208 207.98201
81 𝑇𝑙

𝐴 142.93489
54 𝑋𝑒

90 89.90730
38 𝑆𝑟

4
2 𝐻𝑒 4.00260

1
0𝑛 1.00867

Table 1: Showing nuclide and atomic mass

i. Calculate the number of neutrons in Bismuth ( Bi ).

ii. Determine the atomic mass number of Xenon ( Xe).

Page 9 of 10
PHYSICS
CAMPION COLLEGE
iii. Calculate the energy released in EACH nuclear reaction and the ratio of the larger to the smaller.
Deduce the recommendation that the engineer will give to the investor.

Page 10 of 10