Vocabulary and English for Specific

Purposes Research

Vocabulary and English for Specific Purposes Research provides an impor-

tant contribution to the study of vocabulary and its relationship to ESP
research and teaching.
Presenting Coxhead’s original research plus a comprehensive review of
research in this field, this volume advances understanding of the theoretical
and methodological research in this area, and relates the findings to ESP
teaching. Key features include the following:

• an outline of the nature and role of vocabulary in ESP from both quan-
titative and qualitative approaches;
• analysis of context in vocabulary research in four key areas; and
• a review of the application of vocabulary research to professional and
pedagogical practice.

Written by a leading researcher, Vocabulary and ESP Research provides key

reading for those working in this area.

Averil Coxhead is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Linguistics and Applied

Language Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.
Routledge Research in English for Specific Purposes
Series editors: Brian Paltridge and Sue Starfield

Routledge Research in English for Specific Purposes is a series of mono-

graph studies showcasing cutting-edge research in the field of English for
Specific Purposes. Books in this series provide theoretically innovative and
empirically rigorous examples of research that advance understanding of
topics within ESP, each providing a comprehensive background, a survey of
modern research and avenues for future exploration in the area.

Brian Paltridge is Professor of TESOL at the University of Sydney. He has

taught English as a second language in Australia, New Zealand and Italy
and has published extensively in the areas of academic writing, discourse
analysis and research methods. He is editor emeritus for the journal English
for Specific Purposes and co-edited the Handbook of English for Specific
Purposes (Wiley, 2013).

Sue Starfield is a Professor in the School of Education and Director of The

Learning Centre at the University of New South Wales. Her research and
publications include tertiary academic literacies, doctoral writing, writing for
publication, identity in academic writing and ethnographic research methods.
She is a former editor of the journal English for Specific Purposes and co-
editor of the Handbook of English for Specific Purposes (Wiley, 2013).

www.routledge.com/Routledge-Research-in-English-for-Specific-Purposes/
book-series/RRESP

Titles in this series

Aviation English
Dominique Estival, Candace Farris and Brett Molesworth

Vocabulary and English for Specific Purposes Research

Quantitative and Qualitative Perspectives
Averil Coxhead
Vocabulary and English for
Specific Purposes Research

Quantitative and Qualitative

Perspectives

Averil Coxhead
First published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Averil Coxhead
The right of Averil Coxhead to be identified as author of this
work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the publishers.
Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data
A catalog record for this title has been requested
ISBN: 978- 1- 138- 96313- 9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978- 1- 315- 14647- 8 (ebk)

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Contents

List of figures vi
List of tables viii
Acknowledgements x

1 Introduction 1

2 Approaches to identifying specialised vocabulary for ESP 6

3 The role and value of word list research for ESP 21

4 Multi-word units and metaphor in ESP 45

5 Specialised vocabulary in secondary school/Middle School 63

6 Pre-university, undergraduate and postgraduate vocabulary 87

7 Specialised vocabulary research and the professions 106

8 Vocabulary in the trades 122

9 Vocabulary research and ESP: curriculum, classroom

tasks and materials design and testing 147

10 Future directions and conclusion 162

Appendix 1 175
Appendix 2 176
References 179
Index 197
Figures

3.1 Examples of the target word stress in an Electrical

Engineering corpus and the BNC spoken corpus using
Lex Tutor 33
3.2 An example of a shell noun mechanism 43
4.1 Examples from an academic corpus of the consequences
of as a frame 57
4.2 Three patterns of use for on the basis of 61
5.1 An example of grammar integrated into a Literature class in
an international school 71
5.2 Example from an EAL lesson in an international school 72
5.3 A section of teacher talk in the German International
School grade 6 Mathematics corpus 75
5.4 Mini solar system text from Hook (2005) with marked
GSL, AWL, Science list and words not found in any list 78
5.5 Two extracts on distillation from an international school
Science class, year 6 79
5.6 Example of a text on taxation from a social enquiry
unit at level 5 on tax education and citizenship 81
5.7 The top ten words in the Middle School Social Studies and
History Vocabulary List 82
6.1 A sample of the Applied Linguistics text showing the
various kinds of words 104
8.1 Connor, a Carpentry tutor, on specialised vocabulary in
the trades 124
8.2 A section from Unit Standard 13036, carry out safe
working practices on construction sites 128
8.3 A sample of text on diesel from a textbook in
Automotive Engineering 128
8.4 Example from a building site interaction in the Carpentry
corpus 131
8.5 Example of specialised trades vocabulary in context:
professional writing in Carpentry 133
 Figures vii

8.6 An example of a Builders’ Diary by a student 134

8.7 ‘Screw’ as a technical and non-technical vocabulary item in
a student’s Builders’ Diaries 134
8.8 Interview conversation about vocabulary and the Builders’
Diaries 135
8.9 A sample of text on diesel from a textbook in
Automotive Engineering 142
9.1 An example of a vocabulary-related episode from
Basturkmen and Shackelford 148
10.1 Examples of teacher talk from university lectures 170
Tables

2.1 Quero’s (2015) top ten medical words in a Medical and a

general English corpus 9
2.2 Meanings and distribution of consist, credit and abstract
across Science, Engineering and Social Sciences 13
2.3 Steps in the Chung and Nation scale for Anatomy vocabulary 14
2.4 Levels, methods and examples from Chujo and Utiyama 19
3.1 The top 20 lemmas in the AVL 24
3.2 Fourteen subject areas of the written Science corpus 26
3.3 Some examples of potential specialised vocabulary from
a written Carpentry corpus 30
3.4 Initial analysis of coverage of Nation’s BNC/COCA
frequency lists over a Carpentry corpus 31
3.5 The most frequent proper nouns in TED Talks six-by-six
corpus 36
3.6 Commonly used specialised items selected by
a Carpentry tutor 37
3.7 Acronyms, abbreviations and Latinate forms from
the written academic corpus used for the AWL 39
3.8 Coverage of the GSL/AWL/Science-specific lists over the
four secondary Science textbooks 41
4.1 Top 20 key academic collocations and their mean
frequencies from Durrant 50
4.2 Collocations to the left and right of analysis 50
5.1 The first 12 most frequent items in the first three
BNC/COCA lists from Delta Mathematics 73
5.2 Examples of mathematical collocations and multi-word
units in Barton and Cox 74
5.3 The ten most frequent word families in the Middle School
Vocabulary List 74
5.4 Categorisations and examples of Science-specific vocabulary
from Ardasheva and Tretter adapted from Miller 76
 Tables ix

6.1 Coverage of the AWL over a range of academic corpora by

frequency 91
6.2 Examples of the distribution of meanings of consist, credit
and abstract across three disciplines (%) 93
6.3 Most frequent academic word families in the sections of
the AgroCorpus 97
6.4 Examples of general, semi-technical and technical
vocabulary in Computer Science from Lam 98
6.5 Most frequent technical items and meanings in Computer
Science from West’s second 1,000 words of the GSL 99
6.6 Examples from Watson-Todd’s opacity-ranked Engineering
word list 103
7.1 Examples of specialised vocabulary from Breeze 111
7.2 Ten examples from Nelson’s keyword categorisations of
Business nouns 113
7.3 Top 20 Business Service list words 114
7.4 Examples from Wette and Hawken of a written formal
and informal medical terminology test 119
8.1 The written corpus of the LATTE project 127
8.2 Examples of high frequency specialised vocabulary in
Plumbing, Fabrication and Carpentry 129
8.3 Questionnaire responses on specialised vocabulary of
Carpentry 132
8.4 Examples of frequent Carpentry words in the Builders’
Diaries up to 6,000 of Nation’s BNC lists and beyond 136
8.5 Warm-up items for the tutor task 139
8.6 The first 26 words of the Automotive Engineering (AE) list
and all of sublist 13 141
8.7 Thirty common abbreviations in Fabrication and their
meanings 143
8.8 First 25 Fabrication words by frequency and by alphabet 144
Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my colleagues and postgraduate students in the

School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of
Wellington, for their advice and feedback on ideas and drafts. Thank you
also to all the teacher and student participants and research assistants who
have taken part in research that forms a significant portion of this book.
Chapter 1

Introduction

Introduction
This book is about vocabulary research in English for Specific Purposes
(ESP) – that is, technical or specialised vocabulary. The book is meant for
established and new researchers, and interested teachers in ESP and vocabu-
lary studies. The aim of the book is to broadly pull together vocabulary
research into ESP in one volume, drawing on the strengths of research in
vocabulary studies over recent years. ESP is an umbrella term for many
areas of specialisation, including English for Academic Purposes (EAP),
Professional and Occupational English and English in the Trades. The vol-
ume aims to use these discussions as a way to help build our understandings
of vocabulary through the lens of ESP. That said, this is not a book about
vocabulary acquisition, per se.
ESP vocabulary research includes a broad base of quantitative research,
mostly drawing on large-scale, corpus-based analyses of written and some
spoken texts in ESP, and a less well-established, but no less important, focus
on qualitative research. Qualitative studies can shed light on specialised
vocabulary in ways which corpora alone cannot. As Durrant (2014, p. 354)
writes, corpus-based studies cannot tell us ‘How students interact with the
texts or what they need to be able to know about or do with words to com-
plete their tasks successfully’.
Technical vocabulary is known by a large number of different terms in
the field (see Nation, 2013), including semi-technical and specialised vocab-
ulary. A well-known distinction is Beck, McKeown and Kucan’s (2013)
three-tier model: basic vocabulary (Tier One), high frequency/utility words
that are cross-curricular (Tier Two) and low frequency, domain- /area-
specific lexis (Tier Three). This book is concerned mostly with Tier Two and
Tier Three vocabulary. I use the term specialised vocabulary.
This volume approaches vocabulary research for ESP by looking first at
ways to identify this lexis, word list research in the field and multi-word
units. The next section focuses on ESP vocabulary in four contexts: second-
ary school, university, professional and occupational contexts and trades-
based education. The final section is on ESP vocabulary research in language
2 Introduction

curricula, materials design and testing. The book also aims to identify gaps
in these fields and suggest possible research to help fill them.

Why is vocabulary important in ESP?

There are many reasons why vocabulary is important in ESP, and each
chapter in this book begins with reasons for investigating this field. Overall,
there are several main reasons common to all these areas. The first rea-
son is closely related to a feature of specialised vocabulary in ESP, which is
its limited range of use (Nation, 2013). Defining this lexis can be difficult
because we need to decide whether only words which are closely related
to the subject are specialised or only those that are unique to the subject
area are specialised. If we take the first approach, then the definition is
much wider and inclusive. If we take the second approach, then the defini-
tion is much narrower and exclusive. For this reason, estimating the size of
a technical vocabulary is difficult, because a great deal depends on which
approach is taken. Estimates of how much technical vocabulary might be
in a text can range from 20% to 30% of a text (Chung & Nation, 2003).
If up to one word in three in a line of discipline-specific text could be tech-
nical in nature, then the sheer amount and frequency of discipline-specific
lexical items in specialised texts is a powerful reason why this vocabulary
is important.
Nation (2013) points out that Medicine and Botany are fields with large
technical vocabularies. Second and foreign language learners need a large
vocabulary to cope with their studies in academic or professional environ-
ments. Evans and Morrison (2011, p. 203), in a paper on the first-year
experience in English-medium higher education in Hong Kong, found
a lack of technical vocabulary to be a major source of difficulty for stu-
dents. In research into vocabulary in trades education, students report the
same problem (Coxhead, Demecheleer & McLaughlin, 2016). Vocabulary
research in EAP can help identify the single words and multi-word units
these learners need. It can also find out more about the vocabulary these
learners use in their writing – for example, Hyland and Tse (2007) and
Durrant (2014, p. 353) found that vocabulary use differs across disciplines.
To use Durant’s examples, philosophy students use specialised adjectives
such as ontological, engineers use specialised nouns and Science students
use specialised verbs.
Another reason why specialised vocabulary is important is that knowl-
edge of the vocabulary of a field is tightly related to content knowledge of
the discipline (Woodward-Kron, 2008). In a longitudinal study of under-
graduate students’ academic writing in Education, she writes,

The specialist language of a discipline is intrinsic to students’ learning of

disciplinary knowledge; students need to show their understanding of
 Introduction 3

concepts, phenomena, relations between phenomena etc. by incorporat-

ing the specialist language and terminology of their discipline into their
writing accurately. They also need to adopt the specialist language in
order to make meaning and engage with disciplinary knowledge.
(Woodward-Kron, 2008, p. 246)

This engagement with disciplinary knowledge and vocabulary is important

also because it signals belonging to a community which shares the same
concepts and understandings of a field (Ivanič, 1998; Wray, 2002).
Technical vocabulary in a field may or may not be shared with other
technical areas, and learners do not tend to meet this specialised or techni-
cal vocabulary outside the discipline of their studies. Medical vocabulary,
for example, is typically not included in everyday conversations in English.
Plumbing vocabulary tends not to be well known outside the field but can
become particularly important in the event of a burst pipe or worse. That
said, we all need, at some point, to communicate with plumbers and medi-
cal professionals, and it is important that these specialists also know how to
help non-specialists understand what they are saying. Vocabulary research
can help these endeavours also.

Why am I interested in specialised vocabulary?

My interest in this field developed firstly through teaching in language
schools in various countries, such as Romania, Hungary and Estonia. The
students in these schools were predominantly adult learners, and many
had quite low levels of proficiency in English. Many of these students were
professionals, for example, heart surgeons, agricultural scientists, teach-
ers and business people, and their language needs did not seem to be well
served by the general English textbooks which made up the curricula in the
schools. These textbooks and materials had other important functions for
the students, such as helpful ways to meet and talk about general topics,
and support for language skills development. At a teacher’s conference in
Estonia, Larry Selinker, professor emeritus of linguistics at the University
of Michigan, gave a talk where he emphasised the importance of empiri-
cal research to support learning and teaching. This talk served as a turning
point as I began to wonder what sort of empirical research I needed to know
about for my teaching, and what assumptions I was making as a teacher.
During my postgraduate studies back in Aotearoa/New Zealand, I
began to teach EAP. It was during this time that I became more aware of
research in vocabulary studies and how it could inform and, in some cases,
transform the learning and teaching objectives of a class. I consulted Jim
Dickie at Victoria University, a wise lecturer in my postgraduate studies
about doing a thesis as part of my master’s study. Jim said, ‘You know what
works, but you don’t know why.’ This was another turning point. And
4 Introduction

then John Read, also then at Victoria University, mentioned that Xue and
Nation’s (1984) University Word List needed updating. So I went to talk to
Paul Nation. This is how the Academic Word List (AWL) (Coxhead, 2000)
research began. I have been lucky enough to be able to have opportunities
to talk about research with these and other great colleagues in Aotearoa/
New Zealand and in far-flung places many times over the last 20 years.

How is this book organised?

The book is organised into three main parts. The first part contains the
first three chapters, and they focus on different aspects of research into
vocabulary in ESP. Chapter 2 looks at approaches to identifying vocab-
ulary in ESP, from corpus-based approaches with quantitative measures
through to qualitative approaches, including, for example, using a scale,
consulting experts and consulting a corpus for evidence of language in use.
Chapter 2 looks into specialised word lists, which is a fast-moving and
fairly large area of research. There seem to be more word lists for ESP than
ever before. This chapter looks first of all into developing and validating
word lists and then moves into showing how word lists have been used to
find out more about the nature of specialised texts, particularly in EAP
and for finding out about how many words learners need to deal with the
vocabulary of these texts (Nation, 2006). Chapter 4 focuses on multi-word
units and metaphor, particularly in EAP, because this is where much of the
research is to be found. The multi-word unit section of the chapter draws
on research into general and specific collocations for EAP, lexical bundles
and academic formulas, and on disciplinary perspectives (for example,
work by Hyland, 2008; Biber, 2006; Simpson-Vlach & Ellis, 2010; Liu,
2012, to name a few).
Part Two is about vocabulary in a range of contexts, beginning with sec-
ondary and Middle School lexis (Greene & Coxhead, 2015) in Chapter 4.
Four main subject areas form the main part of this chapter: English
Literature, Mathematics, Science and Social Sciences, with examples from
written and spoken corpora. Chapter 6 focuses on pre-university, uni-
versity and postgraduate vocabulary research, which are areas of major
activity in EAP. Case studies from a range of subject areas are included,
such as Sciences, Agriculture, Engineering, Medicine and Computer
Science. Chapter 7 is based on vocabulary in English for Professional and
Occupational Purposes, drawing on research into a variety of areas such as
Aviation, Legal English and Business and Finance, and occupational vocab-
ulary in Medical Communication and Nursing. The final chapter in this
group is on vocabulary in the trades, based on a major research project
between Victoria University of Wellington and the Wellington Institute of
Technology. The project investigates discourse and lexical elements of four
trades: Carpentry, Plumbing, Automotive Engineering and Fabrication. The
 Introduction 5

vocabulary part of the research into each of these trades is discussed in turn
and used to illustrate key aspects of vocabulary for specific purposes.
The last part of the book contains two chapters. Chapter 9 is about
vocabulary in ESP in relation to teaching, learning and testing. The chapter
begins with two overarching frameworks in vocabulary studies: Nation’s
(2007) Four Strands and Laufer and Hulstijn’s (2001) Involvement Load
Hypothesis, and their relationship to specialised vocabulary in learning and
teaching. The chapter also includes a section on using word list research in
course design and materials. The final part of the chapter looks at testing in
ESP vocabulary research.
Chapters 2 to 9 end with a section on limitations of research in these areas.
These limitations are picked up in Chapter 10, where five main areas of needed
research are discussed: more qualitative research, testing English vocabulary
for specialised purposes, theorising in vocabulary studies (Schmitt, 2010),
evaluations of specialised vocabulary research when it is incorporated into
courses of study and materials design and the need for replication and, finally,
widening the areas of research to include more analysis of spoken language,
different contexts of research and multi-word units.
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