ELECTRICITY
- is the set of physical phenomena associated
with the presence and flow of electric charge.
Including:
• Lightning and Static electricity
• Electromagnetic induction
• Current
• Electromagnetic radiation and radio waves
MATTER
- has weight and occupies space
- composed of atoms
- electrons (-), protons (+) and neutrons (no
charge) make up an atom
- electrons orbiting the nucleus are organized
into shells. The number of protons in an atom
determine what the element is.
COLOUMB’S LAW
- Like charges repel, unlike charges attract
FREE ELECTRONS - jump easily from one
atom to another
- The number of shells, and electrons in each
shell, determine how tightly they are bound to
the atom.
-In a good conductor the valence electrons can
be easily forced to move from one atom to the
next.
CONDUCTORS
- is a material that has a large number of free
electrons that continually jump to other atoms.
Examples: Gold, silver, platinum, copper,
aluminum
INSULATORS
- is a material that has only a few free electrons.
In insulators, the electrons are tightly bound by
the nucleus.
- prevents current from flowing
- used to isolate electrical components and
prevent current flow
Examples: Porcelain, rubber, dry wood, glass
CHARACTERISTICS:
Resistance - The ability of the insulator to resist
current leakage through and over the surface of
the insulator material.
Dielectric Strength - The ability to withstand a
maximum voltage without breakdown damage to
the insulator.
ELECTRICAL CURRENT (I)
- is the movement of charge through a
conductor. Electrons carry the charge.
- unit of measurement: Amperes (A)
- analogous to gallons or liter per second when
measuring the flow of water
TYPES OF CURRENT
DIRECT CURRENT (DC) - flows in only one
direction.
Uses: Batteries, LED lights, electronic circuits,
excitation system and rotor, DC transmission
lines
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) - continuously
changes in magnitude and direction.
- enables use of transformers to change voltage
from high to low and back
Uses: Lights, appliances, high voltage
transmission system
HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
- Electric Iron
Mica is an insulator that is placed between
the metal part and the coil in an iron.
- Electric Bulb
Electric bulb contains a thick metallic wire
made up of tungsten metal. The metal is kept in
an inert environment with a neutral gas or
vacuum.
VOLTAGE (V)
- force that causes the electrons to move.
- potential difference or Electromotive Force
(EMF)
- pounds per square inch when measuring water
pressure.
LEVELS OF VOLTAGE
ELV – Extra low Voltage (70 Volts and Below)
Example: Electronics instrument axillary supply,
12 V, 24 V Battery, Phone charger output,
medical equipment etc.
LV – Low Voltage (70 Volts to 600 Volts)
Example: Domestic household or home
appliances power supply, single-phase or two-
phase 230 Volts, 440 Volts, and 110 Volts
electrical motor, home generator etc
MV – Medium Voltage (600 volts to 33,000
volts)
Example: Rural power transmission lines,
Industrial power distribution, 690 Volts to 33kV
Circuit breakers.
HV – High Voltage (33,000 Volts to 220,000
volts)
Example: Heavy transmission towers
EHV – Extra High Voltage (220,000 volts to
760,000 volts)
Example: San Jose-Tayabas-Naga transmission
line ( 500,000 volts)
Used on most transmission lines in Luzon.
(230,000 volts)
Used on most transmission lines in Visayas and
Mindanao. (138,000 volts)
RESISTANCE (R)
- property of materials that opposes or resists
current by converting electrical energy to heat.
- unit of measurement: Ohms (Ω)
- RESISTORS provides resistance to the circuit
VARIABLES OF RESISTANCE
RESISTIVITY - conducting material has very low
resistivity, insulators have very high resistivity.
LENGTH - decreasing the materials length,
means a decrease on the resistance.
CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA - increasing the
material’s cross-sectional area means a
decrease on the resistance.
TEMPERATURE - the hotter the wire, the more
resistance it exhibits.
ELECTRICAL POWER (P = VI)
- rate at which work is being performed
Unit of measurement: watts (W)
- the electrical energy is being converted into
another form of energy (heat, light, or
mechanical energy)
OHM’S LAW (V = IR)
- states that the voltage across a conductor is
directly proportional to the current flowing
through it, provided all physical conditions and
temperatures remain constant.

TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON RESISTANCE

- Conductors have positive temperature
coefficient. In good conductors, temperature is
directly proportional to the resistance.
- In insulators, temperature is inversely ELECTRICAL ENEGY
proportional to the resistance. Thus, Watt is the power being used at any given
temperature coefficient is negative. instant of time.
Watt hour indicated how much power is being
FORMULA FOR RESISTANCE consumed over an hour.

FORMULA FOR TEMPERATURE EFFECT

FORMULA FOR TEMPERATURE

COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE

FORMULA FOR CONDUCTANCE (S)

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
LINEAR ELEMENTS - shows linear
characteristics of voltage vs current (the
parameters of linear elements remain constant
even when voltage and current applied to that
element)
NON – LINEAR ELEMENTS – when the current
passing through it does not change linearly with
the linear change in applied voltage across it, at
a particular temperature and frequency.
- parameters change with applied voltage and
current changes. Semiconductor devices like
diodes, transistors, thyristors, etc.
ACTIVE ELEMENTS - has the capability of
enhancing the energy level of an electric signal
passing through it.
Examples: battery, a transformer, semiconductor
devices, etc.
PASSIVE ELEMENTS - simply allows the
passage of the signal through it without
enhancement.
- do not have any intrinsic property of boosting
an electric signal.
Examples: resistors, inductors, thermistors and
capacitors
UNILATERAL ELEMENTS - The magnitude of
the current passing through an element is
affected if there is a change in polarity of the
applied voltage. Examples (diodes, transistors,
etc.)
BILATERAL ELEMENTS - The current
magnitude remains the same even if the polarity
of the applied voltage is reversed. (resistor,
inductor and a capacitor)
SYSTEM - number of network elements
interconnected.
NETWORK - interconnected elements
performing specific or assigned functions.
- Circuit is a closed network.
ELECTRICAL NETWORK - combination of
electrical elements
NODE - junction in a circuit where network
elements are connected.
BRANCH - lies between two junctions.
LOOP - closed path in a circuit which no
element or node is encountered more than once.
MESH - loop containing no other loop.
SERIES CIRCUIT - the same amount of current
flows through all the components placed in it.
- total resistance is the sum of the individual
resistances.
- total voltage drop is the sum of the individual
voltage drops.
PARALLEL CIRCUIT - components are
connected across each other with exactly two
electrically common nodes with the same
voltage across each component.
- voltage is equal across each parallel
component.
- total parallel circuit current equals the sum of
the individual branch currents.
- total resistance of a parallel circuit is less than
any of the individual brand resistances.
NETWORK REDUCTION
DELTA-STAR AND STAR-DELTA PROCESS
1) When starting with a network, draw a Y
network, vise versa.
2) Identify the three corresponding terminals on
each network as 1, 2 and 3.
3) Identify the resistors on the network as
follows:
Resistors between terminals 1 and 2 as (R12)
Resistors between terminals 1 and 3 as (R13)
Resistors between terminals 2 and 3 as (R23)
4) Identify the resistors on the Y network as
follows:
Resistors connected to terminal 1 (R1)
Resistors connected to terminal 2 (R2)
Resistors connected to terminal 3 (R3)
D’ARSONVAL METER
MOVEMENT - basic
moving coil system
- sometimes called as
permanent Magnet Coil
(PMMC) meter
movement.
CURRENT – sensitive
device capable of directly
measuring only very small currents. Its
usefulness as a measuring device is greatly
increased with proper external circuitry.
DC METERS
TYPES OF TORQUES
DEFLECTING TORQUE
causes the moving system to move from
zero position when the instrument is connected
to the circuit to measure the given electrical
quantity.
CONTROLLING TORQUE
controls the deflection and tries to stop the
pointer at its final position.
DAMPING TORQUE
is provided to avoid this oscillation and bring
the pointer quickly to its final position.
 DC VOLTMETER - a basic d’arsonval
movement can be converted into a dc
voltmeter by adding a series resistor
(multiplier).
MULTI-RANGE AMMETER (INDIVIDUAL
SHUNT)
- The range of the dc ammeter is extended X by
a number of shunts, selected by a range switch.
- The resistors are placed in parallel to give
different current ranges.
- Switch S (multi-position switch) protects the
meter movement from being damage during
range changing.

AYRTON SHUNT
MULTI-RANGE VOLTMETER - A DC voltmeter
can be converted into a multi-range voltmeter by
connecting a number of resistors (multipliers) in
series with the meter movement.

 OHMMETER
- purpose is to measure the resistance placed
between its leads. This resistance reading is
indicated through a mechanical meter
movement which operates on electric current.

SERIES OHMMETER
VOLTMETER - is used to measure the voltage
across a circuit component.

LOADING EFFECTS IN DC VOLTMETER

VOLTMETER LOADING - the voltmeter circuit
is in parallel with the circuit component. Total
resistance will decrease, so the voltage across
component will also decrease.
- can be reduced by using a high sensitivity
voltmeter.
LOADING ERROR - resulting error of voltmeter
loading.

 DC AMMETER - the basic movement is

consists of PMMC galvanometer. SHUNT RESISTOR IN A SERIES TYPE
- PMMC can use to build an ammeter with OHMMETER
connected the shunt resistor and meter in
parallel.
- Shunt Resistor (low value resistor) is used
in DC ammeter to measure large current.
PARALLEL (SHUNT) OHMMETER

OPERATION OF SHUNT OHMMETER

FUNCTIONS
CURRENT LIMITING RESISTANCE - A
resistor inserted in an electrical circuit to limit the
flow of current to some predetermined value. It
is used chiefly to protect tubes and other
components during warm-up.
ZERO ADJUSTS RESISTANCE - A resistor
inserted in an electrical circuit to adjusts the
value of resistance to zero.
METER RESISTANCE - A resistance of the
meter's armature coil.
UNKNOWN RESISTANCE - A resistance that
unknown value in a circuit.