Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cytoskeletal Elements in Bacteria
Cytoskeletal Elements in Bacteria
Cytoskeletal Elements in Bacteria
Peter L Graumann
It has become clear recently that bacteria contain all of the and thus are predominantly close to the cell poles,
cytoskeletal elements that are found in eukaryotic cells, whereas RNA polymerase is present on the nucleoids
demonstrating that the cytoskeleton has not been a eukaryotic themselves [4,5]. This general separation of transcription
invention, but evolved early in evolution. Several proteins and translation is a dynamic process that is dependent on
that are involved in cell division, cell structure and DNA active transcription [6]. Replication, however, occurs at a
partitioning have been found to form highly dynamic ring centrally located, stationary replication factory [7], such
structures or helical filaments underneath the cell membrane that the chromosome moves through the replisome dur-
or throughout the length of the cell. These exciting ing replication, and duplicated regions on the chromo-
findings indicate that several highly dynamic processes some are actively separated towards opposite cell poles by
occur within prokaryotic cells, during growth or an as yet unidentified motor [8]. The SMC (structural
differentiation, that are vital for a wide range of maintenance of chromosomes) chromosome condensa-
cellular tasks. tion complex localizes to one or two discrete foci on
the nucleoids, which is dependent on timing during
Addresses the cell cycle [9–11]. Several essential histidine kinases
Biochemie, Fachbereich Chemie, Hans-Meerwein-Straße, localize to the cell poles at different times during the cell
Philipps-Universität Marburg, 35032 Marburg, Germany cycle in Caulobacter crescentus [12] and the chemotactic
e-mail: graumann@staff.uni-marburg.de
machinery is present at one or both cell poles in several
bacteria [13]. In addition, although bacterial cells can be
Current Opinion in Microbiology 2004, 7:565–571 round, vibrio-shaped (crescents) or rod-shaped, all cells
divide in the middle to create two similar-sized daughter
This review comes from a themed issue on
Growth and development
cells, with the division machinery localizing to the middle
Edited by Mike Tyers and Mark Buttner of the cells [14] in the form of a constricting ring. How is
this subcellular organization achieved? At least in some
Available online 27th October 2004 cases, the clear answer is by way of cytoskeletal elements.
1369-5274/$ – see front matter
# 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. In this review, I highlight recent findings on cytoskeletal
elements and discuss their essential implications in cell
DOI 10.1016/j.mib.2004.10.010 structure, division and DNA segregation.
Figure 1
(a) (b)
FtsZ-CFP
FtsZ-CFP
(d)
(c)
(e)
Fluorescence microscopy of bacterial cells. (a) FtsZ (tubulin) forms a dynamic ring at the middle of growing cells to direct cell division.
B. subtilis cells expressing FtsZ-CFP (kind gift from P Lewis of Newcastle University, Australia) (b) After formation of a spiral intermediate
(indicated by an arrow), two FtsZ rings form at the onset of sporulation in B. subtilis cells, close to each cell pole. (c) MreB (actin) forms helical
filaments that move through the cell. These are growing B. subtilis cells expressing GFP-MreB. (d) MreB filaments are highly dynamic and
disintegrate within a few minutes after nutrient downshift (images (c) and (d) provided by H-J Defeu-Soufo of Marburg University).
(e) Crescentin forms a long filament at the concave side of the vibrio-shaped C. crescentus. Overlay of immunofluorescence-labelled
CreC (red) and DNA stain (blue; images courtesy of C Jacobs-Wagner of Yale University, USA). White lines indicate ends of cells,
which form long chains during exponential growth. White bar 2 mm.
exchanges with the non-polymerised pool within the cell) poles by MinD; their accumulation at the cell centre is
[18]. Turnover of the polymers was found to correlate prevented by the MinE protein. The Min system is
with GTPase activity, suggesting that the FtsZ ring highly dynamic in E. coli cells, with MinC and MinD
consists of many bundles of protofilaments that continu- oscillating from pole to pole within seconds [23]. Both
ously extend and shrink owing to the addition of GTP- proteins appear to form transient helical filaments [24],
FtsZ and release of GDP-FtsZ. However, it remains to be the nature of which is still unclear.
seen how the Z ring constricts, and thus, how cell division
is powered. There are several tubulin interacting proteins When B. subtilis decides to differentiate into dormant
in bacteria, which modulate the activity of FtsZ: actin- spores, for example, after deprivation of nutrients, the
like FtsA protein, membrane protein ZipA (in Escherichia cells divide asymmetrically into a large mother cell and a
coli and close relatives) and ZapA all stabilize Z rings small compartment that develops into the mature spore
[19,20,21], while EzrA negatively controls FtsZ poly- [25]. At the onset of sporulation, the central Z-ring is
merisation in Bacillus subtilis [22]. All four proteins are switched from mid cell to two rings close to each cell pole
part of the division apparatus and localize as a ring to mid- (Figure 1b and Figure 3). Only one ring is chosen to form
cell, whereas the MinC protein inhibits FtsZ polymerisa- a septum via a stochastic mechanism [26]. Switching of
tion close to the cell poles. MinC is recruited to the cell the Z ring involves formation of spiral intermediates that
Figure 2
(a) α– β–tubulin
GTP GTP
+ – GDP GDP
(b) ATP
ATP ADP
ATP Strand 1
+ –
ATP ADP
Strand 2
(c)
Schematic drawing of the structure of microtubules, actin filaments and intermediate filaments. (a) Microtubules are formed by addition to the
plus end of a tubulin dimer, in which both subunits contain a bound GTP molecule. Upon binding, GTP in the b–subunit is hydrolysed.
Later hydrolysis of the GTP bound to the a-subunit destabilizes the polymer, leading to its dissociation, which can happen at both ends.
In eukaryotic cells, minus ends are usually stabilized by accessory proteins, such that plus ends perform growing or shrinking dynamics.
(b) Actin forms a double helix (both strands are identical in composition). ATP-bound actin adds to the plus end much more rapidly than
to the minus end, while minus ends can shrink as a result of polymer instability after ATP hydrolysis. Net growth at the plus end
and depolymerisation at the minus end could constitute a ‘treadmilling’ process, in which the filament appears to move.
(c) Intermediate filament-type proteins are rich in coiled coils and have an elongated structure. Formation of long polymers or
polymer sheets does not require any cofactor and is reversible, but upon covalent cross-linking of polymer subunits,
IFs become stable and can persist after cell death.
extend from mid-cell towards both cell poles (Figure 3), group found that MreB and Mbl form filamentous struc-
due, at least in part, to a three-to-fourfold higher synthesis tures in B. subtilis cells, as revealed by immunofluores-
of the FtsZ protein at the onset of sporulation, and also to cence and GFP (green fluorescent protein) tagging to
stabilization by the sporulation-specific SpoIIE phospha- visualize the proteins [31] (Figure 1c,d). Both filaments
tase that exclusively localizes to the sporulation septum formed helical structures underneath the cell membrane,
[27]. Thus, a morphological switch in the bacterial tubu- with Mbl filaments extending from pole to pole, while
lin ortholog induces an elaborate differentiation process. MreB filaments appeared to be generally absent from
the poles. Additionally, the axial advance during one
Actin-like filaments as dynamic structures complete revolution of the helix (the ‘pitch’ of the helix)
that affect cell shape, chromosome was measured to be much longer for Mbl filaments than
segregation and plasmids partitioning for the MreB structures. These data suggest that MreB
By the late 1980s, it was already known that mutation of filaments control the width of the cell, whereas Mbl
the mreB gene leads to loss of rod-shape and to the filaments control the longitudinal axis of the cell [31].
formation of round E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium or Like MreB and Mbl, MreBH also forms helical filaments
B. subtilis cells [28]. Although the loss of the mreB gene (with properties that seem to lie midway between those of
in E. coli causes only a drastic reduction in viability, mreB MreB and Mbl filaments), which also influence straight
is absolutely essential for viability in B. subtilis, Strepto- growth of cells [34]. Again, it was Jan Löwe’s group who
myces coelicolor and in C. crescentus [29,30,31]. B. subtilis revealed the nature of the helical elements, by showing
contains two other MreB-like proteins, Mbl and MreBH, that MreB is an actin ortholog [35]. MreB forms actin-like
the depletion of which leads to bent and distorted or double filaments — that is, two MreB strands running
banana-shaped cells, respectively [31–33]. So clearly, in parallel, with the same orientation. These double
these proteins are important for the maintenance of pro- filaments are rather straight in the case of MreB, but
per cell shape and for viability. Strikingly, the Errington are helical in the case of actin (Figure 2b). ATP-actin
Figure 4
(a)
(b)
Three-dimensional view of actin filaments in B. subtilis cells (a) Three-dimensional image construction of GFP-MreB spirals, generated from
Z-sections taken through live cells. A single cell is rotated 908 around its axis, as indicated by the gray arrow, showing that MreB spirals
run along the inner side of the cell membrane, making full or half turns (indicated by a white or grey arrowhead, respectively).
The rotational view also shows that individual helices exist in the cells, which is illustrated in (b) as a cartoon.
of eukaryotic proteins that form intermediate filaments chromosome segregation rather than for cell division,
(IFs) — 8–10 nm thick cytoskeletal elements that provide while the opposite is true for the prokaryotic version,
internal mechanical support for the cell and position and as actin drives cell division in many eukaryotic cells
different organelles (Figure 2c). CreS localizes in a fila- but appears to play a major role in chromosome segrega-
mentous form at the concave side of C. crescentus cells tion in bacteria, it is clear that similar cytoskeletal com-
(Figure 1e), and also forms a filament in stationary cells ponents show a remarkable evolutional plasticity. The
that are highly elongated and helical [49]. CreS was also presence of cytoskeletal elements in prokaryotes opens
found along the inner cell curvature along the whole up a whole new frontier that is amenable to powerful
length of these helical cells. Thus, CreS filaments induce genetics of microbial systems.
bending of the cell, creating asymmetry along the cell
length. Similar to eukaryotic proteins forming IFs (such as Several proteins move within bacterial cells — usually
keratin, which provides mechanical strength in skin cells, along helical tracks, — an intriguing recurring theme that
or vimentin in endothelial cells), CreS assembles into is possibly driven through a treadmilling process. These
10 nm-thick filaments and sheets, without any need for movements somehow orient other processes and polarize
co-factors or energy [49]. IF-type proteins are charac- cells. Future challenges in this field of moving structural
terized by a high degree of coiled coils and a highly elements include the urgent need to find molecules that
elongated structure, and they reversibly assemble into interact with actin filaments and with IFs, both on the
filaments that are covalently cross-linked to form mesh- cytosolic and the membrane side. Even the central divi-
works, which persist even after the cell dies. Their sion ring comprises highly dynamic filaments, which can
sequence conservation is low, so it is difficult to locate form helical filaments during an intermediate step in the
them solely through sequence comparison. However, IF- cell cycle, thus, it will be interesting to elucidate the
type proteins are also present in Helicobacter pylori (a wide- individual mechanisms of filament formation, movement
spread inhabitant of human stomach) and in many other and orientation. It is anticipated that further research into
bacterial species [49]. With the identification of CreS, it bacterial cytology will reveal many fundamental aspects
has now been established that none of the three cyto- that are relevant for all types of cells, for example, the
skeletal elements within eukaryotic cells was a eukaryal mechanisms by which proteins find their defined sub-
invention, and it will be interesting to investigate the role cellular address. The possibility of gaining a full under-
and function of IF-type proteins in bacteria other than standing of such aspects underlines the future potential of
Caulobacter. this field of research.
Conclusions
Bacteria possess a dynamic cytoskeleton that achieves a Update
variety of essential tasks, and that appears to have been It has been shown recently that FtsZ moves along helical
present in the ancestor of all cells. As tubulin is used for tracks in a subset of growing E. coli cells [50]. This is a
novel example of directed movement of a cytoskeletal 17. Scheffers D-J, Driessen AJM: Immediate GTP hydrolysis upon
FtsZ polymerization. Mol Microbiol 2002, 43:1517-1521.
element in bacteria.
18. Stricker J, Maddox P, Salmon ED, Erickson HP: Rapid assembly
dynamics of the Escherichia coli FtsZ-ring demonstrated by
Acknowledgements fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. Proc Natl Acad
Many more interesting publications on the bacterial cytoskeleton exist Sci USA 2002, 99:3171-3175.
but could not be cited, owing to length constraints. My thanks to This report reveals that the FtsZ ring is a highly dynamic structure in which
Peter Lewis, Christine Jacobs-Wagner and Hervé Joël Defeu Soufo for microtubules constantly polymerise and depolymerise, in a manner that is
providing stains and images, and to the editors for valuable comments. dependent on GTP hydrolysis.
Work in my laboratory is supported by the Deutsche 19. Gueiros-Filho FJ, Losick R: A widely conserved bacterial cell
Forschungsgemeinschaft and the Fonds der Chemischen Industrie. division protein that promotes assembly of the tubulin-like
protein FtsZ. Genes Dev 2002, 16:2544-2556.
References and recommended reading Identification of a widely conserved bacterial protein that stabilizes FtsZ
rings during cell division.
Papers of particular interest, published within the annual period of
review, have been highlighted as: 20. Pichoff S, Lutkenhaus J: Unique and overlapping roles for ZipA
and FtsA in septal ring assembly in Escherichia coli. EMBO J
of special interest 2002, 21:685-693.
of outstanding interest
21. Hale CA, Rhee AC, de Boer PA: ZipA-induced bundling of
FtsZ polymers mediated by an interaction between C-terminal
1. Teleman AA, Graumann PL, Lin DCH, Grossman AD, domains. J Bacteriol 2000, 182:5153-5166.
Losick R: Chromosome arrangement within a bacterium.
Curr Biol 1998, 8:1102-1109. 22. Haeusser DP, Schwartz RL, Smith AM, Oates ME, Levin PA: EzrA
prevents aberrant cell division by modulating assembly of the
2. Niki H, Yamaichi Y, Hiraga S: Dynamic organization of cytoskeletal protein FtsZ. Mol Microbiol 2004, 52:801-814.
chromosomal DNA in Escherichia coli. Genes Dev 2000,
14:212-223. 23. Hale CA, Meinhardt H, de Boer PA: Dynamic localization cycle
of the cell division regulator MinE in Escherichia coli.
3. Viollier PH, Thanbichler M, McGrath PT, West L, Meewan M, EMBO J 2001, 20:1563-1572.
McAdams HH, Shapiro L: Rapid and sequential movement of
individual chromosomal loci to specific subcellular locations 24. Shih YL, Le T, Rothfield L: Division site selection in Escherichia
during bacterial DNA replication. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004, coli involves dynamic redistribution of Min proteins within
101:9257-9262. coiled structures that extend between the two cell poles.
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100:7865-7870.
4. Lewis PJ, Thaker SD, Errington J: Compartmentalization of
This work shows that Min proteins, which oscillate from pole to pole in
transcription and translation in Bacillus subtilis. EMBO J 2000,
E. coli cells, also form helical filaments.
19:710-718.
25. Rudner DZ, Losick R: Morphological coupling in development:
5. Azam TA, Hiraga S, Ishihama A: Two types of localization of the
lessons from prokaryotes. Dev Cell 2001, 1:733-742.
DNA-binding proteins within the Escherichia coli nucleoid.
Genes Cells 2000, 5:613-626. 26. Eichenberger P, Fawcett P, Losick R: A three-protein inhibitor of
polar septation during sporulation in Bacillus subtilis.
6. Mascarenhas J, Weber MHW, Graumann PL: Polar localization
Mol Microbiol 2001, 42:1147-1162.
of ribosomes in Bacillus subtilis depends on active
transcription. EMBO Rep 2001, 2:685-689. 27. Ben-Yehuda S, Losick R: Asymmetric cell division in B. subtilis
involves a spiral-like intermediate of the cytokinetic protein
7. Lemon KP, Grossman AD: Localization of bacterial DNA
FtsZ. Cell 2002, 109:257-266.
polymerase: evidence for a factory model of replication.
An increase in synthesis of FtsZ and interaction with a membrane
Science 1998, 282:1516-1519.
phosphatase appears to mediate switching of FtsZ rings from mid-cell
8. Lemon KP, Grossman AD: Movement of Replicating DNA to positions close to the cell poles, initiating the sporulation differentiation
through a Stationary Replisome. Mol Cell 2000, 6:1321-1330. process in B. subtilis.
9. Mascarenhas J, Soppa J, Strunnikov A, Grauman PL: Cell cycle 28. Graumann PL, Defeu-Soufo H-J: An intracellular actin motor in
dependent localization of two novel prokaryotic chromosome bacteria? Bioessays 2004, in press.
segregation and condensation proteins in Bacillus subtilis that
29. Figge RM, Divakaruni AV, Gober JW: MreB, the cell
interact with SMC protein. EMBO J 2002, 21:3108-3118.
shape-determining bacterial actin homologue, co-ordinates
10. Lindow JC, Kuwano M, Moriya S, Grossman AD: Subcellular cell wall morphogenesis in Caulobacter crescentus.
localization of the Bacillus subtilis structural maintenance of Mol Microbiol 2004, 51:1321-1332.
chromosomes (SMC) protein. Mol Microbiol 2002, 46:997-1009. An intriguing link is discussed between cell wall-synthesizing enzymes
and the MreB actin-like protein in C. crescentus.
11. Ohsumi K, Yamazoe M, Hiraga S: Different localization of
SeqA-bound nascent DNA clusters and MukF-MukE-MukB 30. Burger A, Sichler K, Kelemen G, Buttner M, Wohlleben W:
complex in Escherichia coli cells. Mol Microbiol 2001, Identification and characterization of the mre gene region
40:835-845. of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2). Mol Gen Genet 2000,
263:1053-1060.
12. Jacobs C, Domian IJ, Maddock JR, Shapiro L: Cell cycle-
dependent polar localization of an essential bacterial histidine 31. Jones LJ, Carballido-Lopez R, Errington J: Control of cell shape
kinase that controls DNA replication and cell division. in bacteria: helical, actin-like filaments in Bacillus subtilis.
Cell 1999, 97:111-120. Cell 2001, 104:913-922.
13. Shapiro L, Losick R: Dynamic spatial regulation in the bacterial 32. Abhayawardhane Y, Stewart GC: Bacillus subtilis possesses
cell. Cell 2000, 100:89-98. a second determinant with extensive sequence similarity to
the Escherichia coli mreB morphogene. J Bacteriol 1995,
14. Lutkenhaus J: Dynamic proteins in bacteria. Curr Opin Microbiol 177:765-773.
2002, 5:548-552.
33. Soufo HJ, Graumann PL: Actin-like proteins MreB and Mbl from
15. Amos LA, van den Ent F, Lowe J: Structural/functional Bacillus subtilis are required for bipolar positioning of
homology between the bacterial and eukaryotic replication origins. Curr Biol 2003, 13:1916-1920.
cytoskeletons. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2004, 16:24-31.
34. Defeu-Soufo H-J, Graumann PL: Dynamic movement of
16. Lowe J, Amos LA: Crystal structure of the bacterial cell-division actin-like proteins within bacterial cells. EMBO Rep 2004,
protein FtsZ. Nature 1998, 391:203-206. 5:789-794.
35. van den Ent F, Amos LA, Lowe J: Prokaryotic origin of the actin A simple but highly elegant mitotic-like apparatus segregates R1 plasmid
cytoskeleton. Nature 2001, 413:39-44. in E. coli cells. Polymerization of ParM, and actin ortholog, pushes
plasmids apart into opposite cell halves, a process that is dependent
36. Mogilner A, Oster G: Polymer motors: pushing out the front and on the parC partitioning site and the parC-binding ParR protein.
pulling up the back. Curr Biol 2003, 13:R721-R733.
44. Kruse T, Moller-Jensen J, Lobner-Olesen A, Gerdes K:
37. Upadhyaya A, van Oudenaarden A: Biomimetic systems Dysfunctional MreB inhibits chromosome segregation in
for studying actin-based motility. Curr Biol 2003, Escherichia coli. EMBO J 2003, 22:5283-5292.
13:R734-R744. This work shows a link between actin like proteins and chromosome
segregation.
38. Carballido-Lopez R, Errington J: The bacterial cytoskeleton:
in vivo dynamics of the actin-like protein Mbl of 45. Kadoya R, Hassan AK, Kasahara Y, Ogasawara N, Moriya S:
Bacillus subtilis. Dev Cell 2003, 4:19-28. Two separate DNA sequences within oriC participate in
FRAP experiments provide evidence that Mbl filaments are not static, but accurate chromosome segregation in Bacillus subtilis.
appear to rotate within the cells, showing that the actin cytoskeleton is a Mol Microbiol 2002, 45:73-87.
dynamic structure.
46. Yamaichi Y, Niki H: migS, a cis-acting site that affects bipolar
39. Daniel RA, Errington J: Control of cell morphogenesis in positioning of oriC on the Escherichia coli chromosome.
bacteria: two distinct ways to make a rod-shaped cell. EMBO J 2004, 23:221-233.
Cell 2003, 113:767-776.
A clever method of labeling nascent cell-wall synthesis reveals that this 47. Espeli O, Nurse P, Levine C, Lee C, Marians KJ: SetB: an integral
occurs in a helical pattern in B. subtilis cells, and is defective in Mbl- membrane protein that affects chromosome segregation in
deficient cells. However, not all rod-shaped bacteria appear to use a Escherichia coli. Mol Microbiol 2003, 50:495-509.
helical insertion mechanism, but instead employ growth at polar zones The membrane protein SetB is shown to affect chromosome segregation
that is derived from the division machinery. and to interact with the MreB, providing a link between cell membrane,
actin-like proteins and chromosome dynamics.
40. Scheffers DJ, Jones LJ, Errington J: Several distinct localization
patterns for penicillin-binding proteins in Bacillus subtilis. 48. Gitai Z, Dye N, Shapiro L: An actin-like gene can determine
Mol Microbiol 2004, 51:749-764. cell polarity in bacteria. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004,
101:8643-8648.
41. van den Ent F, Moller-Jensen J, Amos LA, Gerdes K, Lowe J: Depletion of MreB leads to a loss of localization of histidine kinases to the
F-actin-like filaments formed by plasmid segregation protein proper cell pole.
ParM. EMBO J 2002, 21:6935-6943.
Plasmid partitioning protein ParM has an actin-like structure and forms 49. Ausmees N, Kuhn JR, Jacobs-Wagner C: The bacterial
right-handed helical filaments that are highly similar to actin. cytoskeleton: an intermediate filament-like function in cell
shape. Cell 2003, 115:705-713.
42. Moller-Jensen J, Jensen RB, Lowe J, Gerdes K: Prokaryotic DNA This report shows that IF-type proteins exist in bacteria. C. crescentus
segregation by an actin-like filament. EMBO J 2002, CreS forms a filamentous structure along the inner curvature of the
21:3119-3127. vibrio-shaped cells, and is required for maintenance of the curved cell
In vivo, ParM forms long filaments throughout E. coli cells containing R1 shape.
plasmids, which are dynamic and essential for plasmid segregation.
50. Thamedar S, Margolin W: FtsZ exhibits rapid movement and
43. Moller-Jensen J, Borch J, Dam M, Jensen RB, Roepstorff P, oscillation waves in helix-like patterns in Escherichia coli.
Gerdes K: Bacterial mitosis: ParM of plasmid R1 Curr Biol 2004, 14:1167-1173.
moves plasmid DNA by an actin-like insertional In a subset of E. coli growing cells, filaments of FtsZ move along helical
polymerization mechanism. Mol Cell 2003, tracks, another striking example of movement of cytoskeletal elements in
12:1477-1487. prokaryotes.