CHAPTER 6

INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF

SIGNATURES

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Distinguish characteristics of genuine signature from that of forgery;

2. Discuss why signature is a specialized branch of handwriting identification;

3. Enumerate the characteristics of genuine and a forged signature;

4. Define forgery and discuss how it is produced;

5. Enumerate the steps and procedures in the examination of forgery;

6. Identify and illustrate the characteristics that serves as the basis of signature
identification.

I. SIGNATURE
Is the name of the person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
A name or a mark that a person puts at the of the document to attest that he is its author or that he
ratifies its contents.

Many persons who have done a lot of writing transform their name. Letters become
simplified or condensed, complex movement appears. This is now a signature. It is mark
but this mark is now personal. It is personal combination of strokes in which it is possible
to recognize the writer.

Signature should be considered not just from the point of view whether there is any
difference whatever. The problem is to form a judgment first about the normal range of
variation in the standard and then consider whether the questioned signature has
significant similarity and whether any difference you observe is written the range of
normal variation established by the standards or whether variations shown by several
signatures.

II. PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED CONCERNING SIGNATURE

1. A signature contested by its author which in reality is genuine and corresponds perfectly to the
ordinary and habitual signature of the person.
2. A signature contested by its author which in reality was written by him but in a way by which
was different from ordinary manner and which is more or less different from the common
genuine signatures of that person.

3. A signature contested by its author which in reality written by a third person and which is a
forgery written in an attempted imitation of a model.

4. Spurious signature written by somebody who did not attempt to imitate the signature of a
person but uses fictitious name in order to give his work the appearance of a genuine signature.
5. An uncontested signature in fact, genuine but written by an unknown person whose name must
be deciphered by the document examiner.

III. THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED

BRANCH OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFACTION, FOR THE FOLLOWING REASON:
A signature is world most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
A signature is a means to identify person and a great personal significance.
A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details
A signature is a world written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its production
and is written automatically.
A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with condfidence.

IV. Preliminary examination of Questioned Signature – most writers have at least three
types of signatures.
FORMAL (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL or COPY BOOK FORM) - complete correct signature
for an important document such as will.
INFORMAL (CURSORY) – usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
CARELESS (SCRIBBLE) – for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.

The events immediately preceding the execution of a signature may have a material
bearing on its execution of otherwise as when writers are affected by illness, old age,
emotion, unusual writing position, intoxication and deception. The writing variations that
appear as a result of these different conditions might mislead the document examiner.

The circumstances which attended the singing of any questioned document should be
carefully weighed by the examiner and apply them in his study of the questioned
signature. A questioned signature is not simply a signature but it is signature but it is
signed at a particular time, place and condition which the persona who affixed it was at a
particular age, in a particular reason and purpose for recording his name. These
circumstances are as integral as part of it as the letters which comprise it.

V. FORGERY – Forgery is strictly speaking, legal term which involves not only a non-genuine
document but also with intent to fraud. However, it is used synonymously with fraudulent
signature or spurious document.

1. FOUR CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES

(CATEGORIES OF FORGERY OF SIGNATURES):
 SIMULATED OR FREEHAND IMITATION FORGERY

A fraudulent signature which was executed purely by simulation rather than by tracing
the outline of a genuine can be referred as freehand imitation or simulated forgery.

The free-hand drawing in imitation of model signature.

SIMULATED WITH THE MODEL BEFORE THE FORGER – the forger makes an
effort to obtain a reproduction of the model signature. He works slowly, stroke after
stroke.

Techniques:

1. DIRECT TECHNIQUE – forger works directly with ink.

2. INDIRECT TECHNIQUE – forger works first with pencil and afterwards cover the
pencil strokes with ink.

SIMULATED FREE HAND FORGERY (TECHNIQUE) – used by forgers who have

certain skill in writing after some practice, the forger tries to write a copy of the model
quickly.

As genuine signature, especially done; by good writer exhibits fluency and smoothness of
the stroke. While simulated or traced forgeries, the motion of the pen is slow and careful.
The beginning and ending lines are usually blunt or club-shaped appearance.
There are however, simulated forgeries written by experts forgers which are passed a
genuine, safely because the untrained eyes are only suitable to judge the signature by the
general appearance or pictorial effects, but none of the minutes.

TRACED FOREGERY (TRACED SIGANTURE)

Any fraudulent signature which was executed by actually following the outline of a
genuine signature with a writing instrument.
 DIRECT TRACING – tracing is made by transmitted light.
INDIRECT TRACING – forger uses a carbon and place document on which he will
trace to forged signature under the document bearing the model signature with a carbon
paper between the two.
TYPES OF TRACED SIGNATURE

CARBON PROCESS – the forger places the document to be forged on the bottom
interleaves a piece of carbon and places on top a document containing the genuine
signature. The forger then traces over the genuine signature with a pencil, pen stylus or
other sharp pointed instrument. The pressure if this over-tracing against the carbon paper
imprints the signature outline in carbon on the bottom of the documents. This type could
be easily detected by the smattering of carbon remnants on the forged document.

INDENTION PROCESS – The document containing the model signature is placed on

top of the forged document. The forger traces with considerable pressure over the
genuine signature using either pencil, pen, stylus or similar sharp pointed instruments and
created and indented signature outline on the document being forged. Later this
impression outline is over written using pencil, or directly with a fountain pen or any
other similar writing instruments.

TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS – the document to be forges is placed on top of

the document containing the genuine signature. The two documents are superimposed
over a light source on a transparent flat surface. The forger traces the signature outline.
With either pencil or fountain pen following the design (outline) of the genius signature
set in bold relief by the light on back of it.

The obvious fault of this kind of forgery is the presence of tremor, retouching and poor
line of quality. This is not handwriting in the real, since but a drawing.

SPURIOUS SIGNATURES (SIMPLE FORGERY)

A fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent attempt of simulation or imitation.

Forger does not try to copy a model but writes something resembling what we ordinarily
call a signature. For this he uses false (spurious) name and makes a rapid stroke,
disturbing his usual writing by adopting a camouflage called disguise.
 This kind of forgery is easily detected as fraudulent in view of the fact that it is widely
different from the other genuine signature even in general appearance alone. The only
question is to tackle the determination of the probably writer of the forgery. Seldom are
these fraudulent signature disguised.

Further, in this type of forgery, the forger having a writing habit of his own can be
identified through handwriting comparison.

FOREGERY BY MEANS OF A STAMPED FACIMILE OF A GENUINE OR

MODEL
Some individual very often-use a stamped facsimile of their signature.

2. INDICATIONS OF FORGED SIGNATURES:

Generally, the indications of forgery are the presence of tremors, retouching and poor line
quality, when this are not present, but instead the obvious feature are the one absent, and
provided that the minute details are presents or correctly reproduced.

ANACHRONISM
This something wrong in time and in place
This means that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing materials to the
exact date, it was supposed to have been written.

GUIDED SIGNATURES
a signature which is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied in any way is
classified as a guide or assisted signature. Under the law of most jurisdictions such as a
signature authenticates a legal document, provided it is shown that the writer requested
the assistance.
Guided Signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness or on a death bed.
VI. SUGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGANTURE:

Signature in documents must be examined exhaustively and scrutinized in every detail to

avoid error in judgment.

The difference between the layman observation and those with special training in question
documents examination lies on the gross features in the signatures, while the latter makes an
exhaustive study of the minute de3tails.

STEP 1 – place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta-position or side-by-
side for simultaneous various elements and characteristics

STEP 2 – The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of
execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc) the fundamental existing between a genuine signature
and an almost perfect is in the manner of execution.

STEP 3 – Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence of tremors,
smooth, fluent or hesitation. Defect in the quality is only appreciated when simultaneous
viewing is made.

STEP 4 – Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine
whether the appearance is blunt, clubshaped, tapered or vanishing.

STEP 5 – Design and structure of the letters – Determine as to roundness, smoothness,

angularity and direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.

STEP 6 – Look for the presence of retouching or patching.

STEP 7 – Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.

 STEP 8 – Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for these
are the often changed according to the whim of the writer.

VII. Characteristics principles can be stated that supply most cases:

Pen pressure – the most unusual habit is the pulsation or pressure in the longer looped from
such as in the “g” and “y”. In this lower extension, there is first an application of pressure
but before the pen reaches the bottom of the loop this pressure gradually diminishes and is
applied again on the rising stroke.
Movement
Proportion
Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
Inconspicuous characteristics
Repeated characteristics
Characteristics written with speed

Indication of Genuineness:

Carelessness
Spontaneity
Alternation of thick and thin strokes
Speed
Simplification
Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
Rhythm
Good line quality
Variation
Indication of Forgery: Simulated and Traced

Tremulous and broken connecting strokes between letters, including points at which the
writer has temporarily struck.
No rhythm
Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
No contrast between upward and downward strokes
slow writing - angular writing
Blunt beginning and endings
Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters
Absence of spontaneity – lack of smoothness of letters
Absence of spontaneity – there is lack of freedom or “inhibited” movements. It gives the
impression that every stroke is made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
No variation.

Indications of Forgery by Means of Stamped Facsimile of a Genuine Signature:

Flat strokes
No contrast between upstrokes and down strokes
Deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes cross each other.
No variation – all signatures will superimpose over each other.

VIII. Instruments and apparatus used in questioned document examinations

a. MAGNIFYING LENS- bank personnel and other people involved in currency

examinations usually use an ordinary hand-lens, and this appears big with its wide frame it has a
magnifying power of two times the original only. Magnifying lenses of five times or more
magnifying power, with buit-in-lightning are more useful.
 b. SHADOWGRAPH- a pictorial image formed by casting a shadow, usually of the
hands, upon a rightful surface or screen.

c. STEREOSCOPOC BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE- a tri-dimensional (3D)

enlargement is possible.

d. MEASURES AND TEST PLATES (TRANSPARENT GLASS)- those used for

signatures and typewriting.

e. TABLE LAMPS WITH ADJUSTABLE SHADES (GOOSE NECK LAMP)- used

for controlled illumination; needed in sidelight examination wherein light is placed at a low-
angle in a position oblique to plane or document.

f. TRANSMITTED LIGHT GADGET- a device where light comes from beneath or

behind glass on document is placed.

g. ULTRA VIOLET LAMP- this is usually used in the detection of counterfeited bills
but can actually be used to detect security features of qualified documents.

h. INFRARED VIEWER- primarily used to decipher writings in a charred document.

i. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE- similar to that of the bullet comparison
microscope.

IX. TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

a. MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION- any examination or study, which is made with

the microscope in order to discover minute physical details.

- STEREOSCOPIC EXAMINATION- with low and high power objectives is used to

detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-lift in signature analysis.
 b. TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION- in this examination, the document is
viewed with the source of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper.
Documents are subjected to this type of examination to determine the presence of erasures,
matching of serrations and some other types of alterations.

c. OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION- an examination with the illumination so

controlled that it grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low angle.
Decipherment of faded handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, embossed
impressions, etc. are subjected to this type of examination.

d. PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION- very essential in every document

examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photographs.

e. ELECTROSTATIC DETECTION APPARATUS (ESDA)- recovers indented

writings, developed by Fosters and Freemen in UK.

f. CHEQUE-WRITING MACHINE- a device intended to prevent either erasure or

alteration of entries on cheque.

g. COMPUTERS- introduced in the 1940s. Apparatus built to perform routine

calculation with speed, reliability and ease.

h. ULTRA-VIOLET EXAMINATION- ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in

the wave length just below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum (rainbow). These visible
rays react on some substances so that visible light is reflected, phenomenon known as
fluorescence.

i. INFRARED EXAMINATION- This examination of documents employs invisible

radiation beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on a
specially sensitized photographic emulsion.
Review questions:

What are the primary signs of forgery?

What are the examples of characteristics common to a group?

What is the difference between a layman’s observation and of a handwriting expert’s opinion?

4. How individuality of handwriting be acquired?

CHAPTER 8

Historical background of writing materials

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:

1. Discuss the origin and the development of paper;
2. Identify the early mediums of writing surfaces;
3. Identify the different kinds and composition of inks;
4. Enumerate the different kinds of inks;
5. Identify the development of the alphabet;
6. Enumerate the different early forms of writing system;
7. Discuss the origin and development of writing tool.

Historical background of writing materials

One of the subjects of inquiry in questioned documents is the writing material used. The
common (probable) questioned on paper is its AGE, whether the actual age of the paper
corresponds with the alleged date of preparation of the question document.
To fully understand the principles of tracing the age of the writing materials used in
questioned documents, it is imperative for a questioned documents examiner to be aware of the
evolution and development of papers. When such paper was first introduced or used, physical
changes on papers and the importance of water marks, are some of the valuable things that an
investigator should know to come up with a more conclusive opinion.
WRITING MATERIALS
The evolution of writing materials culminated in the development of paper. The oldest
written records still surviving are the Sumerian clay tablets dating back from the 4 th
millennium B.C.
I. PAPER
Sheet of interlaced fibers – usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from cloth
rags or other fibrous material.
That is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat, to form a solid surface.
PAPYRUS
Came into use about 3,500 B.C. – people of Egypt. Palestine, Syria and Southern Europe
used the pith (soft spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (grasslike herb) CYPERUS
PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
PARCHMENT
Writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats – was
probably developed in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It
came into wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of PERGAMUM in
ANATOLIA
VELLUM
 Writing materials from fine skins from young calves or kids and the term (name) was
often used for all kind of parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing
material for bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts.
Almost every portable surface that would retain the marks of brush or pen was also used
as writing material during the early period.
DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING:

CAI LUN (TSAI LUN)

It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chineses court
official. CAI LUN (TSAI LUN). In about A.D. 105.
The first to succeed in making paper from vegetable fibers, tree barks, rags, old fish
nettings.
The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it only in the
7th century A.D.
In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by marauding Chinese and some
Chinese taken as prisoners were skilled papermaking and were forced by the city
Governor to build and operate a paper mill and Samarkand soon became the papermaking
center of Arab world.
Knowledge of papermaking traveled westward, spreading throughout the Middle East,
the Moorish invasion of Spain led to the invention (A.D. 1150) or erection of the first
European paper mill, at JATIVA, province of VALENCIA
Knowledge of the technology spread quickly and by 16 th century, paper was
manufactures throughout most of Europe.
CHLORINE
Was introduced in the 19 th century for bleaching and colored linen could already
manufactured for paper.
ESPARTO
A grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and North Africa was first introduced in England
in 1861.
STRAW
Was used to make paper in 1800.
SULPHITE
 Paper from wood was not attempted until 1896 and paper called SULPHITE 9modern
type) was first used between 1880 and 1890.
OLDEST MANUSCRIPT
Letters dated A.D. 874 have been found in Egypt and the oldest manuscript in England
on cotton paper dated A.D. 1890.
TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT)
The age of the document may be estimated from paper, four cases were reported by
Lucas in which the age of document was established from the compositor/composition of the
paper.
In one of these cases, a document dated 1213 A.H. (A.D. 1798) was found to be written
on paper composed entirely of chemically prepared wood cellulose. Considering that the type of
paper was not introduced not until about 60 years, the document is obviously a fake one.
WATERMARKS
Sometimes a LIMIT may be placed to the age of the document by means of
watermark, the earliest known dating from 1282 Unfortunately, however, not all papers
contain watermarks.
The earliest way of identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the
WATERMARK – a brand out on the paper by the manufacturers.
It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called DANDY ROLL that make the
paper, and these designs are changed from time to time.

Usually watermarks are requested by their owners/manufacturers with the patent office.
If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of tracing the age of the paper.
However, the questioned documents examiners findings are limited only to the
APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the paper manufacture.
In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to ascertain the owner
of the watermark in question or its manufacturer.
In the FBI, this is done by checking the reference file of the laboratory. Once the
manufacturer is determined, then consideration if given to changes in design and defects of
individual design.
In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated inconspicuous
changes in their watermark design in order to date their products.
Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark which was not existence at the
time the document purports to have been executed.
IN CASE THE WATERMARK OF A CERTAIN PAPER MANUFACTURER DID NOT
CHANGED, THE FOLLOWING IS APPLIED:

In Those cases where no change in the design has been made over a long period of time,
defects in the individual design may furnish a clue to the age of the paper.
The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged. This damage is also
known as caused by wear and tear which becomes progressively more and more as time
goes by.
The damage on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on the watermark of the
paper manufactured or all papers that will pass through the damaged roll.
The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused by the dandy roll’s
damage surface, will coordinate with the paper manufacturer regarding when such
damage occurred on the dandy roll used.
DISCOLORATION
One way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the changes in the
physical characteristics particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a
passage of time due to numerous environmental factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc.
CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION:
Discoloration is highly influenced by storage of the papers or documents and conditions
like the following:
Due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.
Brown spots due to molds that are very characteristics both in appearance and distribution.
Exposure to dust and dirt.
Occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
Excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
May also due to heat, partial burning, etc.
WOOD PULP – papers out of wood pulp may start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years.
RUG-SHIP QUALITY – maybe very old before discoloration starts.
II. WRITING INSTRUMENT (PEN)
PEN
 -A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink. The rise and spread of
Christianity increased the demand for permanent written religious documents.
-Pen comes from the Latin word “PENNA”, meaning feather.
REED PENS/SWAMP REED
-It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt, Armenia and along the
shores of the Persian Gulf were prepared by leaving them under dung heaps for several months.
-It was the first writing tool that had the wiring end slightly frayed like a brush. About
2,000 years B.C. this reed was first used in NEAR EAST on papyrus and later on parchment.
QUILL PENS
It is hollow, horny part of large feather usually from goose and was used for writing on
permanent. Poland, Germany, Russia and the Netherlands were the largest producers of quill.
As the size of writing became smaller, both writing tools and surfaces changed. Vellum
or parchment books replaced the papyrus roll, and QUILL replaced the REED PEN.
Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers of any bird, those of goose,
swan, crow and (later) turkey, were preferred. The earliest reference (6 th century AD) to quill
pens was made by the Spanish Theologian ST. ISIDORE of SEVILLE, and this tool was the
principal writing instrument for nearly 1300 years.
To make a quill pen, a wing feather is first hardened by heating or letting it dry out
gradually. The hardened will is then cut to a broad edge with a special pen knife.
The writer had to re-cut the quill pen frequently to maintain its edge. By the 18 th century
the width of the edge had diminished and the length of the slit had increased creating a flexible
point that produced thick and thin strokes by pressure on the point rather than by the angle at
which the broad edge was held.
Also by the 18th century, paper had replaced vellum as the chief writing surface, and more
writing was being done for commerce that for church or crown during this period, attempts were
made to invent a lasting writing tool that did not require recruiting. Horn, tortoise shell, and
gemstones were tried, but steel was eventually used for permanent pen points.
Although pens of bronze may have been known to Roman, the earliest mention of
“BRAZEN PENS” was in 1465. The 16th century Spanish calligrapher JUAN DE YCIAR
mentions brass pens for very large writing in his 1548 writing manual, but the use of metal pens
did not become widespread until the early part of 19th century.
The first patented steel pen point was made by the English engineer BRYAN DONKIN
in 1803.
The leading 19th century English pen manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT,
WILLIAM MITCHELL and JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.
 Use of the quill rapidly declined during that century, especially after the introduction of
the free public education for children; more emphasis was then placed on the teaching of writing
than on teaching the skill of quill cutting.
In 1884, LEWIS WATERMAN, a New York insurance agent, patented the first practical
FOUNTAIN PEN containing its own ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed
ink to the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while writing.
By the 1920’s the fountain pen was the chief writing instrument in the west and remained
so until the introduction of the ball point pen after WORLD WAR II.
THE BALL POINT PEN:
JOHN LOUD in 1888 patented the first ball point writing tool. A ball point pen has in its
point a small rotating metal ball that continually inks itself as it turns.

The ball is set to a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feed to the socket
from a long tube reservoir inside the pen.
As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to manufacture a pen with a rolling
ball tip, but not until 1938 did Hungarian inventor GEORGE LASLO BIRO invent a viscous,
oil-based ink that could be used with such pen.
Early ball point pens did not write well; they tended to skip, and the slow-drying oil-
based ink smudged easily. However, the ball-point pen had several advantages over the fountain
pen:
The ink as waterproof and almost inerasable;
The ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces and could be hold almost any
position for writing; and
The pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making carbon copies.
Ink formulas were improved for smother flow and faster drying, and soon the ball-point
replaced the fountain pen as the universal writing tool.
FIBER TIP PENS
In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S. market and have since
challenged the ball point as the principal writing instrument.
The first practical fiber tip pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE of Japan, in 1962. It
was ideally suited to the strokes of Japanese writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed
ink brush.
Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber
tip pen can produce a wide range of colors unavailable in ball point and fountain pen inks. The
tip is made of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers drawn to a point and fastened to the barrel of
the pen. Dye is fed to the point by elaborate capillary mechanism.
Felt-tip markers are made of dense natural or artificial fiber impregnated with a dye.
These markers can be cut to a variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A
modification of the ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a metal/plastic ball was introduced in
the U.S. from Japan in 1973.
III. The examination and identification of inks
The examination of inks often plays an important part in document examination. In these
cases the inks to be examined are not available to liquid form. One kind of examination centers
on the question as to whether the ink of some writings or of alterations in a police blotter is
identical with the ink found in the possession of the suspect.
For this reason, the examination of question documents is restricted to a comparative
examination of certain properties of these inks. However, the examination carries with it certain
difficulties as the quantity of material available examination is small and the examination can be
done only once.
It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which results in a
partial destruction of writing an exhausted examination by non-destruction methods be carried
out.
These non-destruction methods include visual examination with the need of a binocular
microscope as well as photographic examination. They should be used first before any chemical
examination is resorted to:
It is necessary therefore to be acquainted with the composition and development history
method of manufacture of the types of ink most commonly used. Sometimes, antedating can
only be proved by identifying a competent of the ink. Which was not yet included in inks at the
alleged date of the document.
Composition and characteristics of inks
Indian Inks
The oldest form of Indian ink consisted of suspension of carbon block (soot or
lampblack) in water in which glue or a vegetable gum was added. Inks of this
composition are still on the market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes. In modern
carbon ink, the glue or gum is replaced by a solution of shellac in borax or ammonia.
These inks are not affected by oxidants. It is practically impossible to remove the last
races of the carbon from the paper without causing damage to it.
Log Wood Inks
These were used extensively about a century ago, have now become obsolete and
are no longer manufactured. They were made form an aqueous extract of logwood chips
and potassium chromate. These inks will be found only on old.
Iron Gallotannate Inks
This ink has been used as writing for over a thousand years; formerly it was made
of a fermented infusion of gall nuts to which iron salts were added. The ink was
composed of suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric tannate.
The particles were kept in suspensions by adding glue or gum Arabic. This
manufacturing method was not economical and so it had to be changes. It was observed
that if the ink was slightly acidified with hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, the oxidation
of the ferrous iron was checked and the undesirable precipitation of the ferric tannate was
prevented. The ink thus obtained was practically colorless and did not acquire the black
color desired before it matured on paper. Coloring matter (Aniline dyes) was added to
the ink as well as a sterilizing agent to prevent growth of mold and bacterial in the ink.
Fountain Pen Inks
These inks are regarded as special fountain pen inks, and consisting of ordinary
iron gallotannate inks with a lower iron content in most cases but with a higher dyestuff
content than normal inks. This type of ink is placed on the market under the name of
“blue-black permanent”. The iron content range from .7 Fe/I (e.g. Parker Quink
permanent blue) to 2.7 Fe/I (e.g. Pelikan Fullhaltertinte).
Dyestuff Inks
These inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuffs, to which a
preservative and a flux are added. The writing qualities of the ink are improved by
addition of substances such as glycerol, glucose or dextrin.
The dark blue and black inks are often composed of four or more dyes because no
black dyestuffs of sufficient pictorial capacity are known.
Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks
These inks are special group of dyestuff inks. They consist of a pigment paste
and a solution of shellac made soluble in water by means of borax, liquid ammonia or
ammonium bicarbonate. Sometimes the pigment suspension is combined with acid or
basic dyestuff.
Alkaline Writing Inks
These are quick drying inks which possesses a ph of from 9 to about 11. They
penetrate quickly through the size of the paper allowing the ink to penetrate quickly into
the paper. The dyestuff in these inks consists of acid dyes, sometimes combined with
phthalocyanide dyes. These inks are not much in demand because they are rather
expensive and because they affect the material of many fountain pens.
The best known of these inks are the Parker super-chrome inks which in the
colors black, blue, red, and green. Phthalocyanine dye is found in the blue super-chrome
inks. The super chrome inks were already obtainable since 1950, which fact may be of
importance for the determination of the age of a document.
Ballpoint Pen Inks
The ballpoint pens did not appear on the European market before 1945. The
development of the present pen was accomplished during World War II because the
Army and Air Force needed a writing instrument which would not leak at high altitude
and which supplied quick drying water resistant writing.
In principle, the construction of all ballpoint pens is the same. The differences are
in the finish, the precision with which the instrument is made, the size and the material of
the ball, and the composition of the ink. As a rule, the diameter of the ball lies between
0.6 m to 1.0 mm., the cheapest makes having the largest diameter. The ball is made of
steel while the more expensive makes the sapphire.
The quality f the pen is chiefly to be judged by the writing angle. The best
writing angle for a ballpoint pen is 90 degrees, but a normal hand of writing seldom use
this angle. The cheaper makes a minimum writing angle of 55-60 degrees. If one writes
at too small angle, the brass socket holding the ball will scratch a line into the paper,
parallel with the ink line.
Stamp Pad inks
They are made with the acid of substances such as glycerol, glycol, acetin and
benzyl alcohol and water. Airline dyes are added as coloring matter. For quick stamp
pad inks, more volatile organic solvents are used as acetone, ethanol, etc. As a vehicle,
dextrin, gum Arabic or tannin is sometimes added. Through the addition of tannin, the
stamp impression comes water resistant after drying.
Hectograph Inks
These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and are exclusively made with
basic dyes. To the dyestuff solution several other substances are added such as glycerol,
acetic acid and acetone.
Typewriter Ribbon Inks
These inks are usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes, carbon and oil such as
plain or castor oil. The two-tone ribbons however contain no dye, but pigment suspended
in oil base. This is necessary because aniline dyes ten to bleed and would cause the sharp
division between the differently colored halves of the ribbon to merge.
Printing Inks
Printing inks often consists of a mixture of colored pigments, carbon black and a
“base” which may consists of oil, resin, synthetic resins or a mixture of these. It is
possible to remove printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document with an
aqueous solution of a suitable detergent. The rubbing and breaking up of the surface of
the ink and the detergent facilitates the suspension and eventual removal of the carbon
and other ingredients by the water.
Canceling Inks
 These inks often contain carbon and this fact should be burned in mind when it is
required to decipher faint cancellation marks on a postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon
is opaque to infra-red sensitive plate and be relied upon to improve the legibility of any
marking affected by a carbon containing cancelling ink.
Erasure of canceling ink on valuable stamps is usually affected by attack on the
medium which bind the carbon to the surface of the stamp and it is to be regretted that
many canceling inks are manufactured with media which offer resistance to attack so that
the resistant carbon can simply be swabbed off. This can be usually be detected by infra-
red photography which will reveal the traces of carbon, which almost invariably remain
on the stamp.
Skrip Ink
Skrip inks are manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen Company since 1955. The inks
contain a substance which is colorless in visible light and has a string affinity for the
fibers of the paper, and yet is not bleached by hypochlorite ink eradicators or washed out
by soaking on water.
Thus, is a writing with “Skrip” is obliterated with ink eradicator; the original will
produce a characteristic fluorescence and can be deciphered by reviewing under filtered
ultraviolet. Similarly if writing made with was able skrip is soaked in water so the
invisible dye is washed out, the original record can be read clearly by filtered ultra-violet
light.
The Chemical Examination of Ink:
The chemical examination of ink is indicated in the following problems:
The Chromatographic examination and separation of the dyestuff in the ink.
(Chromatographic Analytical Methods)
Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)- in the last 20 years this ink analysis is the most
common chemical ink testing.
a. This is restricted to a comparison of the dyestuffs in the ink but sometimes it is also
possible to identify one or more of the components of the dyes.
b. Regarded as the principal method of ink examination. Inks usually contain several
dyestuffs and chromatographic analysis will be able to distinguish and sometimes to
identify this dyes.
c. To identify dyestuffs, it is necessary to possess a collection as complete as possible of
the various dyes used in the manufacture of inks.
d. The chromatographic separation of the dyes may be carried out by the paper
chromatography.
e. Procedures:
 1. Collection of the ink material
-Extraction of the inks stroke by scraping fragments from the ink stroke.
Dyestuff inks as a rule be extracted with water. Ball point ink can be extracted with
organic solvent such as ethanol, acetone or butanone. Pyridine is the best solvent for ball
point inks.
- It is also possible to cut a small pocket at starting line in the
chromatographic paper into which the ink fragments are placed. The pocket is firmly
pressed.
2. The vessel, which is a breaker of a flask, is filled with the solvent; then the
filtered paper strip containing the ink material is lowered into the vessel with the ends
just touching the surface of the solvent and let it hang on the side of the vessel for 15-20
minutes.
3. The chromatography should be carried out in shaded light.
The determination of the age of the ink.
a. In the examination of questioned documents, the query of the age of writing sometimes
arises. This may be the case when the questioned document is undated, or it is suspected that the
date of the document is not purportedly what it is written on the document.
b. There is also the problem of comparative examination of the possible difference in age
of parts of a handwritten text on one and the same document, on one and the same cash book, or
one and the same police blotter. This examination of the relative ages of two or more inks
writings my serve to answer the question which was written first.
c. In general, in order to determine the age of writing or the difference in the ages of the
different writings, the document examiner makes use of a property of the ink writing which
changes in the course of time. This selection of properties will be determined by the comparison
of ink and the circumstances under which the writing ages.
Review questions: Identification.
The first form of paper used by the Egyptians made from grasses called reeds.
The first paper was made more than 2,000 years ago in_______________.
Inks made from soot, lampblack, and glue and other ingredients.
Inks made up of gallo tanic acid from the gall nuts obtained from the oak tree.
Ink containing potassium chromate in saturated logwood used since about 1850.
Inks manufactured sometime in 1870 derived or made a coal tar.
The first form of written communication started about 20,000 years ago which is
graphically represented by arranged objects and drawing on the walls of caves and big
stones.
 CHAPTER 9

MONEY COUNTERFEITING

Identification of BSP Bank Notes and Coins; Designs and security features of the
Philippine legal tender currency; general features of the new BSP coins; Pertinent laws and
regulations to protect and maintain the integrity of the currency.
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Identify the different features and design of the BSP legal tender and coins;
2. Enumerate the pertinent laws and regulations for the protection of the Philippine
currency;
3. Distinguish genuine currency from counterfeit money;
4. Define the different features of the Philippine legal tender;
5. Define counterfeiting.
I. DEFINITION OF TERMS:

COUNTERFEITING- it is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins and

banknotes. Literally, it means to make a copy of; or imitate; to make a spurious semblance of, as
money or stamps, with the intent to deceive or defraud. The word is usually applied to a form of
forgery involving money. The right to make coin and print paper money is limited by law to
government and most nations prohibits not only the making of coin of their own but also the
making of coins or paper of any other government.

FALSIFICATION- the act or process of making the contents of a document not the intended
content.

FORGERY- the act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to defraud, any writing
which if genuine, might be of legal efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability.

In forgery, every person who, with intent to defraud, signs the name of another
person, or of fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely
makes, alters, forges, or counterfeits any checks, drag-due bill for the payment of money
or property- or counterfeits the seal forged or counterfeited, with intent the same to be
 faked, altered, forged or counterfeited with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any
person… is guilty of forgery.

II. The following are the characteristics, designs, and distinct features of BSP banknotes:

A.PAPER BILL

PAPER- Feel the paper. The genuine note is printed on a special kind of paper which is rough
when you run your fingers through it. It does not glow under the ultra-violet light. During paper
manufacture, the watermarks, security fiber, security thread and iridescent band are included.

WATERMARK- examine the watermark on the unprinted portion of the note. The watermark
is the silhouette of the portrait appearing on the face of the note. Sharp details of the light and
shadow effect can be seen when the note is viewed against the light.

SECURITY FIBERS- inspect the security fibers. Embedded red and blue visible fibers are
scattered at random on both surfaces of a genuine note and can be readily picked off by means of
any pointed instrument.

EMBEDDED SECURITY THREAD- view the embedded security thread. The embedded
security thread is a special thread vertically implanted off center of the note during paper
manufacture. This can easily be seen when the note is viewed against the light. It appears as a
broken line for 5’s, 10’s and 20’s and straight line for 50’s, 100’s, 200’s, 500’s and 1000’s.

WINDOWED SECURITY THREAD- view the windowed security thread on the improved
version of 100’s, 500’s and 1000’s peso notes and new 200 peso notes. The windowed security
thread IS A NORROW SECURITY THREAD VERTICALLY LOCATED LIKE “STITCHES”
at the face of the note with a clear text of the numerical value in repeated sequence and changes
in color from magenta to green or green to magenta depending on the angle of view.

IRIDESCENT BAND- look for the iridescent band on the improved portion of 100’s, 500’s and
1000 peso notes and the new 200 peso notes. A wide glistening gold vertical stripe with the
numerical value printed in series.

PORTRAIT- appears lifelike. The eyes “sparkle”. Shading is formed by the fine lines that give
the portrait a characteristics facial expression which is extremely difficult to replicate.

SERIAL NUMBER- composed of 1 or 2 prefix letters and 6 or 7 digits. The letters and
numerals are uniform in size and thickness, evenly spaced and well-aligned; they glow under
ultra-violet light.

BACKGROUND/LACEWORK DESIGN- the background designs are made up of

multicolored and well-defined lines. The lacework designs are composed of web-crossing lines
which are continuous and traceable even at the intersection.
VIGNETTE- the lines and dashes composing the vignette are fine, distinct and sharp; the
varying color gives a vivid look to the picture that makes it “standout” of the paper.

VALUE PANEL- Check the numerals found at the four corners of the front and back of the
note. The numerals denote the denomination of the note.

COLOR-recognize predominant color of each denomination:

1000-peso………………….blue 50-peso……………….red

500-peso………………….yellow 20-peso………………..orange

200-peso………………….green 10-peso………………..brown

100-peso…………………..mauve 5-peso………………..green

FLOURESCENT PRINTING- Look for the presence of the fluorescent print when the note is
exposed under the ultra-violet light. The fluorescent print is the invisible numerical value located
off of the center of the face of the note that glows when exposed to ultra-violet light.

MICROPRINTING-Verify under the lens the presence of the microprinting the dominations
50’s,100’s,200’s,500’s and 1000-Microprinting are the minute and finely printed words ‘’Banko
Sentral ng Pilipinas or ‘’Central Bank of the Philippines’’ located at the face or back of the note
that are clearly printed and readable.

CONCEALED VALUE-Check the concealed value on the 500-peso denomination-This

concealed value is located at the lower left corner of the face of the note and is recognizable
when the note is held at eye level.

OPTICALLY VARIABLE INK-Check the optically variable ink on the 1000-peso

denomination-It changes color from green to blue or blue to green when the note is held at
different angles.

B. COINS

1. DEFINITION- these are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as
money or collectively referring to metal currency.

2. MAKING COINS

A. CASTING- is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds
bearing an image of gold coins are filled (within a low temperature) with alloy
made with lead or tin. Some, molds are used for high temperature metal such as
copper or silver alloy.
 B. STRIKING OR STAMPING- is the making of an impression of a coin or
metal blank by pressure.

3. CHARACTERISTICS

A. GENUINE COINS- show an even flow of metallic grains. The details of the
profile, the seal of the Republic of the Philippines, letterings and numerals are of
high relief, so that it can be readily felt distinctly by running the fingers on these
features. The beadings are regular and the readings are deep and even.

B. COUNTERFEIT COINS- feel greasy and appear slimy. The beading

composed of tiny round dots surrounding the genuine coin appear irregular and
elongated depressions and are not sharp and prominent as in the genuine. The
readings are uneven.

III. LEGAL ASPECT OF FORGERY, COUNTERFEITIG AND FALSIFICATION

(Pursuant to tile four, chapter one, Revised Penal Code- Crimes against public interests)

A. FORGERIES—what are the crimes called forgeries?

1. Forging the seal of the government, signature or stamp of the chief Executive
(Art. 164).

2. Counterfeiting coins (Art. 163).

3. Mutilation of coins (Art.164).

4. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents not payable to bearer

(Art.166).

5. Counterfeiting instruments not payable to bearer (Art.167).

6. Falsification of legislative document (Art.172)

7. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastical minister

(Art.171).

8. Falsification by private individuals (Art.172).

9. Falsification of wireless, cable, telegraph and telephone messages (Art.173)

10. Falsification of medical certificates, certificates of merit or service (Art.147)

B. ACTS PUNISHABLE UNDER ART. 161:

1. Forging the great seal of the Government of the Philippines.

 2. Forging the signature of the President.

3. Forging the stamp of the President.

C. What are the crimes under counterfeiting coins? They are:

1. Making and important and uttering false coins (Art.163)

2. Mutilation of coins – importation and utterance of mutilated coins (Art.164);

and

3. Selling of false or mutilated coin (Art.165)

D. WHEN IS A COIN FALSE OR COUNTERFIETED? A coin is false or

counterfeited, if it is forged or if it is not authorized by the Government as legal tender,
regardless of its intrinsic value.

Counterfeiting means that the imitation of a legal or genuine coin. It may contain
more silver than the ordinary coin. There is
counterfeiting when a spurious coin is made. There must be an imitation of the peculiar
design of a genuine coin. (U.S. vs. Basco, 6 Phil. 110).

IMPORT- means to bring them into port. The importation is complete before entry at the
customs house. (U.S. vs. Lyman, 26 Fed. Cas. 1024)

UTTER- means to pass counterfeited coins. It includes their delivery or the act of giving them
away. A counterfeited coin is uttered when it is paid, when the offender is caught counting the
cou nterfeited coins preparatory to the act of delivering them, even though the utterer may not
obtain the gain he intended. Hence, damage to another is not necessary.

MUTILATION—means to take of part of the metal either by filing it or substituting it for

another metal inferior quality.

N. B. – The coin mutilated must be genuine and has not been withdrawn from circulation.
The coin must be of the legal currency or current coins of the Philippines. Therefore, if
the coin mutilated is legal tender of a foreign country, it is not a crime of mutilation under
the Revised Penal Code.

E. ACTS PENALIZED UNDER ARTICLE 166:

1. Forging or falsification of treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to

bearer.
2. Importation of such false or forged obligations or notes.
3. Uttering of such false or forged obligations or notes in connivance with the
forgers or importers.
F. HOW FORGERY AND FALSIFICATION ARE COMMITTED (Art. 169)?

1. Forgery is committed by giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument

payable to bearer order mentioned therein, the appearance of a true and genuine
document; and

2. falsification is committed by erasing, substituting, counterfeiting, or altering by

any means the figures, letters, words, or signs contained therein.

G. REASONS FOR PUNISHING FORGERY- forgery of currency is punished so as to

maintain the integrity of the currency and thus ensure the credit standing of the
government and prevent the imposition on the public and the government of worthless
notes or obligations.

H. ACTS OF FALSIFICATION (Art. 171 & 172)

1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature, or rubric;

2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or proceeding when they
did not in fact participate.
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding statements other
than those in fact made by them;
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts.
5. Altering true dates.
6. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its
meaning.
7. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of an original
document when no such original exist, or including in such a copy a statement contrary
to, or different from, that of the genuine original; or
8. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol,
registry, or official book.
Review questions:
Discuss the security features of a genuine banknote.
What are the distinction between genuine and fake coins?
What are the invisible security features of a genuine bank note?
What are the existing laws on counterfeiting?
 CHAPTER 10
TYPEWRITER/TYPEWRITING EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the evolution of typewriter;
2. Determine those personalities behind the development of typewriter;
3. Define terminologies involving typewriter’s defects;
 4. Explain the procedures in obtaining typewritten exemplar;
5. Discuss the importance of the typewriter’s defects in relation to the typewritten
document.
TYPEWRITER:
A machine that can reproduce printed characters on papers or that can produce printed
letters and figures on paper.
EVOUTION OF TYPEWRITERS:
Several typewriters like machines were developed during the later part of the 17 th century
the first patent, however, was granted by QUEEN ANNE of England to HENRY MILL
in 1714 for a machine designed to reproduce a letter of the alphabet.
Within the next 100 years, however, at least 50 attempts were made by various inventors
to develop a typing machine.
In 1829, WILLIAM AUSTIN BURT of Detroit, invented the TYPOGRAPHER.
The development of the first practical typewriter begun in 1866 by CHRISTOPHER
LATHAN SHOLES and was patented in 1868. He developed the first practical
typewriter in cooperation with two fellow mechanics, CARLOS GLIDEN and SAMUEL
SOULE
Six years later. Christopher Latham Sholes entered an agreement with ELIOHAT
REMINGTON AND SONS, GUNSMITHS & SEWING MACHINES
MANUFATURER; the company produced the REMINGTON MODEL.
Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having both the lower and
upper case of the alphabet.
MARK TWAIN was among the first to buy a typewriter and the first to submit a
typewritten manuscript to a publisher.
GEORGE BERNARD SHAW recognized the importance of typewriter when he became
the first playwright to use it as a stage prop in Candida in 1897.
When THOMAS EDISON visited Sholes to see his machine, he forecasted that
typewriter would one day be operated by electricity.
Soon afterwards Edison built such a typewriter. He used a series of magnet, which made
the machine cumbersome and too expensive to be marketed.
The first practical electric typewriter was invented in 1914 by JAMES F. SMNATHERS
of Kansas City.
In 1933 the International Business Machines Inc. (IBM), introduced the first
commercially successful electric typewriter to the business world.
 The latest development in electric typewriter is one which not only eliminates type bars
and movable carriages but can use six interchangeable type of type faces.
The first basic change in typewriting operation appeared in 1961. Despite of the
revolutionary advances in typewriting capabilities, one essential element has remained
unchanged since the first Remington. The keyboard arrangement, nicknamed QWERTY
for the line of letters. Was designed to make it easier for salesmen to use the machine.
A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by AUGUST DVORAK. The
process of changing over the DVORAK seemed so difficult that it was never ever begun.
IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITTEN QUESTIONED
DOCUMENTS
The earliest comment in writing by a document examiner on typewriting identification
was made by HAGAN in 1894. He wrote that all typewriter machines even when using
the same kind of type become more or less peculiar by use as to the work done by them.
These peculiarities positively connect them with the printing done by the machine.
This exposition of the principles of typewriting identification was followed in 1900 by
AMES who wrote that the identity of writing by different operators as well as that done
on different machines can be done with considerable degree – Different operators have
their own peculiar methods which differ widely in the location of date, address, margins,
punctuations, spacing, signing as well as impressions from touch.
In several articles written between 1901 to 1907, ALBERT S. OSBORNE, the foremost
document examiner of the early 20th century, defined the principles of typewriting
identification used today. He called it THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING
IDENTIFICATION.

Typewriting Examination
The typewriter has become an instrument of world wide importance in the
correspondence and commerce of the world and therefore could be an effective screen for
committing crime. In several articles written between 1901 and 1907, Albert S. Osborne the
foremost document examiner of the early 20 th century, defined the principles points enunciated
by Osborne are as follows.
The type faces used by the different type writer manufacturer can be differentiated on the
basis of design and have dating significance.
Through usage, typewriters develop individually which can be serve to identify the
typewriting of a particular typewrite.
The gradual development of typewriting individuality plus ribbon condition and typeface.
Cleanliness can be used to date a document of fix if written a period of time.
 Horizontal and vertical alignment, tilting characters, lock of uniformity of impression
(off-footedness); type-faced score, bread, defects and deformities all serve to identify the
type writing of a particular machine.
Peculiar habits of striking the type writer keys, spacing, arrangement, punctuation,
mistakes, corrections, can be used to identify a typist or differentiate typist.
A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in exact register with previous typing done on the
sheet of paper.
Classification of Typewriters as to Typeface:
Pica type – the type are spaced then characters to the horizontal inch.
Elite type – the type faces spaced twelve characters to the horizontal.
Identification of Typewriter by the Defect of the Stroke:
Introduction:
The identification of a typewriter consists first of the preliminary examination of the questioned
document in which the general characteristics such as the style, the dimension of the characters,
the spacing and the design of the letters. This important phase of work enables document
examiner to eliminate numerous suspect typewriters keeping only those of the same make and
model as that of the suspected typewriters provided however they are equipped with the same
characters. The defects of the typewriter maybe compared to ailment or sickness and congenital
deformation while its translation on the paper be compared to symptoms of the defects. This
comparison has the advantage of sorting out the exact conditions of the control of questioned
typewritten documents as follows:

First, it will show the actual state of the typewriter and consequently that the aspect of the
stroke is not immutable but evolves progressively so that a good identification needs the
comparison of documents from sufficiently adjacent.
It will show that the expert does not see the defect typewriter right away but only its
translation on the paper by a writing anomaly of which he must appreciate the cause.
Like in medicine, a given symptom maybe common to several ailments and inversely the
same ailment maybe accompanied at certain movements by different symptoms.
Lastly it will explain that certain anomalies are not even ascribable to an organic cause of
the type writer to a phenomenon outside it. For example, an error of manipulation by the
typist may give some anomalies of the stroke and have no connection with the
mechanism of the type writer itself. Others are due to a temporary sickness such as a torn
ribbon which will give an incomplete impression of the character or dust which may
choke the mechanism of the stroke. It is only permanent faults which permit of a positive
identification.
TERMINOLOGIES IN TYPEWRITING EXAMINATIONS
 AILMENT DEFECT – Include character which write improperly in the following
respects: A twisted letter. Horizontal mal-alignment, vertical, mal-alignment and a
characters special adjustment to the types block.
CARBON IMPRESSION – any type writing which is placed on the paper by action of
the typefaces striking through carbon paper is classed as a carbon impression, generally
carbon impression are “Carbon Copies” but sometimes original typewriting are made
directly through a carbon paper carbon.
CHARACTER – In connection with typewriting identification the terms “Character” I
used to include either letters, symbols, numerals or point of punctuation.
CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPEFACES – With use the type faces becomes filled with lint
dirty and ink, particularly in enclosed letters such as the o.e.p. and g. If this condition is
allowed to progress without cleaning, there comes a time when the written impression
actually print with the clogged areas shaded on a sold block.
DEFECTS – the term defect describes any abnormality or maladjustment on a typewriter
which is reflected in it works and which leads to its individualization or identification.
HORIZAONTAL MAL – ALIGNMENT – An alignment defect in which the character
prints the right or left of its proper position Is known as horizontal Alignment Defects”.
MAL- ALIGNMENT - Is synonymous with the term “Alignment Defects”.

OFF IT’S FEET – The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner
than over the remainder of its outline.
PERMANENT DEFECT – Any identifying characteristics of typewriter which cannot
be corrected by simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon is classed permanent
defect. Actually, this term is not absolutely accurate since all defects in typewriters
undergo modification and changed.
PLATEN – The cylinder which serve as the backing of the paper and which absorbs the
blow from the type face is known as a platen.
PROPORTIONAL SPACING TYPEWRITING – A modern form of typewriting
which resembles printing in that all of the horizontal space as they do with the
conventional typewriter, for example, the “I” occupies two units. The “o” three and the
“m” five. A typewriter of this design is known as a proportional spacing machine.
REBOUND – A defect which a character prints a double impression with the lighter on
slightly offset to the right or left.
RIBBON CONDITION - Typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use and the
degree of determination is a measure of the ribbon condition.
 RIBBON IMPRESSION- Typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon is
called ribbon impression
TRANSITORY DEFECTS – An identifying typewriter characters which can be
eliminated by cleaning
TYPE FACE – The printing surface of the type block is know as the type face, with
most modern typewriter this block is attached at the end of a movable arm or type bar
which propels the type face against the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter
impression.
TYPE FACE DEFECTS – Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to
the type face metal is known as type defect. These defects may be actual breaks in the
outline of the letter where the metal has been chipped away sometimes referred to as
broken type or they may be distorted outlines of the letter where the type face metal has
become bent or smashed, they can only be corrected by replacing the type block.
TWISTED – Each letter and character is designed to print a certain fixed angle to the
base line, due to wear and damage to the type bars and the type block, some letters
become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
VERTICAL MAL-ALIGNMENT – A character printing above or below its proper
position has the quality of vertical mal-alignment.

IDENTIFICATION OF TYPEWRITING DOCUMENTS

Is a preliminary step in the identification of typewriting, it is necessary to establish that
the style and size of the letters and numerals are the same and that both the letters spacing
and the line spacing are the same. In order to make a further study leading either towards an
identification or non identification such instrument as magnifying lenses, microscopes and
various kinds of measuring devices are used. These instruments make it possible to study the
following.
SLANT – A study of each character to determine to what extent, if any, it leans either to
the right or to the left.
ALIGNMENT – if a typewriter is in proper alignment each character should strike in the
center of an imaginary rectangle.
FOOTING – A letter may strike heavier either on the right on the left, on the top or on
the bottom.
DEFECTS IN THE TYPE FACES – These maybe brought about either through
mistreatment or as a result of ordinary wear and tear. When questioned typewriting is
compared with known typewritten exemplars, three general areas of examination are
made:
Size and spacing
 Type style
Unique identifying characters- Character and alignment defects.
OBTAINING KNOWN TYPEWRITTEN EXEMPLARS
Properly prepared typewriting samples not only facilitate the examination in the laboratory but
they aid immeasurably in the demonstration in the court room.
HOW TO OBTAIN EXEMPLARS OF TYPEWRITING
If the typewriter ribbon is obviously know remove from the typewriter and send it to the
laboratory with the typewriting exemplars prepared from another ribbon (the next of the
material in question may still be discernible of the ribbon)
Use paper of about the same size as the questioned materials type out a fill word for word
copy of the message in question, typographical error, using as nearly as possible the same
degree of t6ouch as that used in typing the questioned material.
After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or removing the cloth ribbon, obtain
samples of each character on the keyboard by typing through carbon paper which has bee
inserted carbon slide down over a piece of white bond paper.
Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and serial number of the
typewriter from which it was produced as well as the date and initials of the officer.
Typewriter specimens should be taken from suspect’s typewriter/s. It is usually not
necessary to forward the typewriters to the laboratory if complete known exemplars are
obtained.
If possible after a typewritten exemplar is obtained from a suspect’s typewriter the
investigation should insure that the typewriting is kept in its current condition.
With evidence obtained from typewritten document, the laboratory is in position to lend
valuable assistance to the solution and subsequent prosecution of many cases.
TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS
CONVENTIONAL TYPEWRITERS
Pica Type – 10 letter/inch
Elite Type – 12 letters/inch
6 Lester/inch
Teletype Machine
14 – 16 letter inch – special typewriters
 TYPEWRITER USING SINGLE ELEMENT OR BALL – A typewriter chine,
capable of typing 10 to 12 characters per inch. Change of horizontal spacing is done
easily by the flip of a switch.
TYPEWRITER USING A PRINT WHEEL (ELECTRONIC TYPEWRITER) This
is a typewriter equipped with a disc type device called a print wheel, the printwheel
contains all of characters represented on the typewriter keyboard. This machine has the
capability of typing 10, 12 and 15 letters per inch.
The Defect of a Typewriter
Defects of the Character
The character may show a distortion in its engraving, a “break” which is shown by an
alteration of the design. Exceptionally, it means a defect of manufacture. Most often the
break occurs when the machine is working. The metal is locally damaged by the
continued striking of the letter against hard surfaces and according to the general
direction of the striking will dented or deviated. In the firs case the altered sign will print
on a complete design with broken or interrupted lines, in the second case it prints
deformed sign. The predominant cause of the defect is the corresponding bars one behind
the others; character of corresponding bars strikes the back of the first and crashes on it.

Twin: of the printing surface which comes in the course of manufacturing, Irregular
tempering gives an abnormal contraction of the metal for the hearing of the character
again the placed and gives a local impression more intense and more heavily inked.
Misalignment of two signs engraved on the same character so that they are not set exactly
one under the other. This defect may be due to a bad engraving of the mold.
Positioning of the Character on the Type – bar:
A bad position of the bar on the plate of the soldering apparatus, results in a bad
portioning of the character. It will be bend forward, backward or sideways.
Sometimes a solder fails in the course of typing. The character turn over the slides along
its support. The changes of alignment become greater and greater growing in frequency
in proportion with the collar of the solder. This defect is detected in the writing by the
fact that the top and bottom of the letter are not printed with the same intensity and
mostly, the vertical misalignment has a tendency to vary at each stroke and becomes so
important that often a part both signs of the deficient characters are impressed at the same
time.
Defects of the Type – bar
The deformation of a type – bar modifies the position of the character in connection with the
platen and alters the originally correct writing.
 Any error of place position of the bar in the basket gives an incline to its head and to the
character.
The type – bars are outer sinuous. Under the effect an intensive working, the bends are
modified, sot that the type – bar elongates or shorten and its head inclines forward or
backward. This deformation cause a misalignment of the character and us longer allow a
uniform impression of its surface.
Twist the type – bars is caused by mistakes of the typist. In depressing, by error, two
neighboring keys, two corresponding bars are moved towards the type – bar guide 1, each
bars undergoes the lateral strike of the other and bends along its longitudinal axis. One
error in manipulation does not great damage but its repetition certainly develop to the
axis of the platen and the character strikes the paper more or less off its feet.
Defects of the Ring:
On the worn typewriter it is not exceptional to find the more active type – bars have
depressed the metal of the ring at their point of contact. It no longer has any effect on the
type – bars corresponding to the depression – it no longer stops them in their travel and it
does not send them back to their original position.

These bars directly at the platen, stoop their momentarily and fall back by their own
weight giving by this very slow motion a vibration to the character in the vicinity of the
platen. At this time the escapement has already moved and the character gives two
impressions instead of one. The second impression, displaced in connection with the first
and much paler seems to be its shadow. The name given to it is ‘vei’ led stroke’.
Review questions:
What are the procedures in obtaining typewriting exemplar?
Discuss the defects of typewriter and its importance in typewriting examination.
What is the importance of exemplar in questioned document examination?
 APENDICES

APENDIX “A”

DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS EXAMINATION

DOCUMENT – in its fullness meaning a document is any material which contains marks,
symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible, or invisible that may presently or
ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone. Pencil or ink writing typewriting,
printing on paper is its most usual form.
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT – Any document about which those some issue has been
raised or which us under scrutiny is referred to as a questioned document (Also
DISPUTED DOCUMENT)
DISPUTED DOCUMENT – The term “disputed document” suggest that there is an
argument or controversy over the document and strictly speaking, this is its true meaning.
In this text, however, disputed document and questioned document which is under social
scrutiny.
HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT – Any document which is completely written and signed
by one person is know as a holograph or holographic document. In a number of
jurisdictions a holographic can be probated without anyone having witnessed it’s
execution.
EXAMINATION – Is the act of making a close and critical study of any material, and
with questioned documents is the process necessary to discover that facts about them.
Various types are undertaken, including microscopic, visual, photographic, chemical,
ultraviolet, and infrared examinations.
COMPARISON – is the act of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities. It infers not only a visual but also the mental act in which the
elements of one item are related to the counterparts of the others.
COLLATION – (As used in this text) means critical comparison or side by side
examinations.
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION – Any study or examination which is made ,with the
microscope in order to discover minute physical details is termed a microscopic
examination.
OBLIQUE OR SIDE LIGHT EXAMINATION – An examination with the illumination
so controlled that I gazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very
slow angle is referred to as an oblique or side light examination.

TRANSMITTED LOIGHT EXAMINATION – In an examination of this kind, the

document is viewed with the source illumination behind it and the light passing through
the paper.
ULTRAVIOLET EXAMINATION – ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in the
wave lengths just below the visible below the visible – violet and of the spectrum
(rainbow). These invisible rays react on some substances so that visible light is violet
examination recording either the reflected ultraviolet or visible radiation.
INFRARED EXAMINATION – infrared examination of documents employs invisible
radiation beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually
recorded on specially sensitized photographic emulsions. These infrared or heat rays can
be also be converted to visible light by electronic viewing equipment which to date has
had limited use in the questioned works.
CONCLUSION – A scientific conclusion results from relating observed facts by logical,
common – sense reasoning in accordance with established rules of laws. The document
examiner’s conclusions legal term “opinion”.
OPINION – In legal language, the document examiners conclusion is know as an
opinion. Actually in court he not only expresses an opinion but demonstrates there
reasons for arriving at this opinion (Throughout this book opinion and conclusion are
used synonymously)
SIGANTURE – As defined by Webster, is one’s name written by himself on a document
as sign of acknowledgement.
EVIDENTIAL SIGANTURE – is not simply a signature – its is a signature, signed at a
particular time and place, under particular conditions while the signer was a particular
age, in a particular physical and mental condition, using particular implements, and with
a particular reason and purpose for recording his name
SIMULATED SIGNATURE – A freehand signature which has been used to prepare an
imitated or traced forgery is know as the model.
WRITING / HANDWIRINT – Writings is the result of a very complicated series of acts,
being as a whole a combination of certain forms which as the very visible results of
mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued, painstaking effort. What is seen
as writing is the end aimed at, but is only a record of the more fundamental part of the
process, which is a series of controlled, successive movements growing out ot the
initiation of arbitrary forms. A written form is simple a record of a motion, and mature
writing by many repetitions finally becomes an unconscious coordinated movement that
produces record.
COPY BOOK FORM – The designed of letters which are fundamental to a writing
system are referred to as copy book forms. This terminology is derived from the old
method of teaching handwriting from a copy which contained engraved script printed on
each page for the study to imitate.
STANDARDS – by “standard” in questioned documents investigation, we mean those
things whose origins are known and can be proven and which can be legally used as
examples to compare with other matters in question. Usually a standard consist of the
known handwriting of a person such as ‘standard” has the same meaning as is understood
by the “specimen” of handwriting.
SAMPLE – A selected representative portion of the whole is know as a sample. In this
text, the term “sample” follows closely the statistical usage.
EXEMPLARS – Specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars.
The term standards is general term referring to all authentically writings of the suspects
while exemplars refers more especially to a specimen of standard writing offered in
evidence of obtained or request for comparison with the questioned writing.
FORGERY – Every person who, with intent to defraud signs the name of another person,
or fictitious person, knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely makes, alters,
forger or counterfeits any – checks, drug – due bill for the payments of money or
property – or counterfeits or forges the seal forged, or counterfeited, with intent the same
to be fake, altered forged, counterfeited, with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any
person…is guilty of forgery
SIMPLE FORGERY – Is the fraudulent writing of the signature of another in the natural
or disguised writing of the forgery, the latter exerting no effort to effect resemblance
between the forgery and the genuine signature, of the individual whose signature is being
forged.
TRACED FROGERY – Any fraudulent signature which was executed by actually
following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing instrument is traced forgery.
Such a signature maybe produced with the aid of carbon paper by first facing a carbon
outline made visible by the light coming through the model signature and the fraudulent
document.
FREEHAND – IMITATION (SIMILATERD FORGERY)- A fraudulent signature which
was executed purely by simulation rather than by tracing the outlines of a genuine
signatures cab be referred to as a freehand imitation or freehand forgery. The term
simulated forgery has identical meaning.
SYSTEM (WRITING) the combination of the basic design of letters and the writing
movement as taught in school make up the writing system. Writing through use diverges
from the system, but generally some influence of the basic training.
HABIT – A writing habit is repeated element or detail which may serve to individualize
writing.
SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABITS – This term is applied to any characteristics of
handwriting which is sufficiently unique any well – fixed to serve as a fundamental
points in the identification.
CHARACTERISTICS – A characteristics is any property or mark which distinguishes
and in document examination commonly refers to identifying details. There are two
groups of characteristics, class and individual.
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – Not all characteristics encountered in document
examination are peculiar to a single person or thing and one which is common to a
group ,ay be described as a class characteristics.
NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS – These are normal or usual deviations found
between repeated specimen of any individuals handwriting or in the product of any
typewriters.
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – A characteristics which is highly personal or
peculiar and is unlikely to occur in other instances is best described as individual.
(Compare with Class Characteristics)
CURSIVE WRITING – Writing in which the letter are for the most part joined together
is cursive.
NATURAL WRITING – Any specimen of writing executed normally without any
attempt to control or alter is identifying habits and its usual quality execution is natural
writing (Compare with Disguise Writing)
DISGUISED WRITING – A writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits
in hopes of hiding his identity. The results, regardless of their effectiveness are termed
disguised writing.
LEFT - HAND WRITING – Any writing executed with hand from the normally used can
be termed “wrong – handed writing.” This is one means of disguise. Thus, the writing of
a right - handed person which has been executed with his left hand accounts for the
common terminology for this class of disguise as “left – hand writing”.
MOVEMENT – is an important element of handwriting. It embraces all of the factors
which are related to the motion of the writing instrument – skill, speed, freedom,
hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremor, and the like. The manner in which the writing
instrument is moved – That is by finger, hand or arm action – influence each of these
factors.
SPEED WRITING – Not everyone writes at the same rate so that consideration of the
speed of writing may be significant identifying element. Writing speed cannot be
measured precisely from the finished handwriting but can be interpreted in broad terms of
slow, moderate, or rapid.
PEN EMPHASIS – The act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface
with increased pressure is termed “pen emphasis”. When the pen point has flexibility,
this emphasis produce shading but with more rigid writing points heavy pen emphasis
can occur in writing without any evidence of shading.

PEN LIFT – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument (pen)
from the paper is described as pen lift.
PEN POSITION – the relationship between the pen point and the paper is know as pen
point and the paper surface, are the elements of pen position. Both conditions maybe
reflected in the writing.
PEN PRESSURE – the average force eight which the pen contacts the paper is describes
as pen pressure, and may be estimated from an examination of the writing. Pen pressure
as opposed to pen emphasis deals than the periodic increases.
PATCHING – Retouching or going back over a defective portion of a writing stroke can
be described as patching. Careful patching is a common defects in forgeries.
RETOUCHING - Retouching and patching are used synonymously.
RETRACING – Any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke is a retracting.
In natural handwriting, there may be many instances in which the pen doubles back over
the same course.
RHYTHM – Rhythm is that element of the writing movement which is marked by regular
or periodic recurrences. It may be classed as smooth, intermittent or jelly in its quality.
SHADING - Shading is a widening of ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen
point or the use of a stub pen/
SKILL – in any act there are relative degrees of ability or skill, and specimen of
handwriting usually contains evidence of the writer.
WRITING CONDITION – writing condition included both the circumstances under
which the writing was prepared and the factors which influences the writer’s ability to
writhe at the time of execution. Circumstances pertaining to preparation involve the
writer’s position (sitting, standing, at bed etc), the paper support and backing, the writing
instrument, while the writing ability to modified by the writer’s health, nervous, state, or
degree of intoxication.
BASELIN – The ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rest is termed the based
line.
QUALITY – Quality is a distinct or peculiar character. In this Text, quality is used in
describing handwriting to refer to any identifying factor which is related to the writing
movement itself.
LINE QUALITY – the visible records in the written stroke of the basic movements and
manner of holding the writing instrument is characterized by the term “line quality”. It is
derived from a combination actors including writing skill, speed rhythm, freedom of
movements, shading and pen position.
ALIGNMENT – is defined as including block capitals, sometimes referred to as lettering
and manuscript and manuscript writing occasionally described a slower – case printing.
HAND LETTERING – Any disconnected style of writing in which each letters is written
separately is a form of hand lettering or hand printing.
ALIGNMENT DEFECTS – Alignment defects include characters which write
improperly in the following respects; a twisted letter, horizontal mal – alignment, vertical
mal – alignment, and a character “Off its feet”. These defects can be corrected by special
adjustments to the type bar and type block.
CARBON IMPRESSION – Any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the action
of the type faces striking thought carbon paper is classed as a carbon impression.
Generally, carbon impression are “carbon copies”, but sometimes original typewriting is
made directly through a carbon ribbon.
CHARACTER – In connection with typewriting identification, the term “Character” is
used to include letters, symbols, numerals, or points of punctuation.
CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPE FACES l- with use the type feces become filled with line,
dirt, and ink, particularly in enclosed letters such as the o,e,p and g. If this condition is
allowed to progress.
DEFECTS - the term “defect” described any abnormality of mal-alignment in a
typewriter which is reflected in its work and which leads to its individualization or
identification.
HORIZONTAL MAL-ALINGMENT – An alignment defects in which the character
prints to the right of left of its proper position is known as horizontal mal – alignment.
MAL-ALIGNMENT – mal – alignment is anonymous with the term “alignment defects’
(See term No. 59. Hereof)

OFF ITS FEET – the condition of a type face printing heavier on one side or corner than
over the remainder of its outline is described by the term “off its feet”.
PERMANENT DEFECT – Any identifying characteristics of a type – writer cannot be
corrected by simply cleaning the type of face or replacing the ribbon is classed as a
permanent defect. Actually, this term is not absolutely accurate since all defects in
typewriter undergo modification and change with time.
TRANSITORY DEFECT – Any identifying typewriter characteristics which can be
eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon is described as a transitory
defects. Clogged type are the most common defects in this class.

TYPE FACE – The printing surface of the type block is know as the type face. With
most modern typewriter’s this block is attached at the end of a movable or type bar which
propels the face against the ribbon and the paper to make typewriter impression.
VERTICAL MAL-ALIGNMENT – A character printing above or below its proper
position has the quality of vertical mal-alignment.
TYPE FACE DEFECTS – Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the
type face metal is known as type face defects. These defects maybe actual breaks in the
outline of the letter where the metal has been chipped away, sometimes referred to as a
broken type, or they may be distorted outlines of the letter where the type face metal his
become bent or smashed. They can only be replaced by replacing the type block.
PEN – A writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper is a pen.
FOUNTAIN PEN – A fountain pen is a modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a
specially designed flask of chamber. After complete filling the pen is capable of writing
a number of pages without refilling.
PEN NIBS – The two divisions or points which form the writing portion of a pen are the
nibs.
FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT – One quality of the nib pen is its flexibility. This
quality varies with different pens and can be measured by the amount of pressure
necessary to cause a spreading of the nibs or a given degree of shading.
BALL POINT PEN – A writing instrument which has its marking tip a small freely
rotating ball bearing which rolls the ink on to the paper is known as a ball point pen.
These all use a highly vicious non-aqueous ink.
 INK – is a fluid or vicious marking material used for writing or printing.
ERASURE – The removal of writings, typewriting or printing, from a document is an
erasure. It maybe accomplished by either of two means. A chemical eradication, in
which the writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (e.g. liquid ink eradicator);
and an abrasive erasure, in which the writing is affected by rubbing with a rubber eraser
or scratching out with a knife or other sharp implement.
OBLITERATION – the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original
invisible to as an addition.
ADDITION – Any matter made of part of the document after its original preparation may
be referred to as addition.
INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION – The term “Insertion” and “interlineations”
include the addition of writing and other material between lines or paragraphs of the
addition of whole page to a document.
SEQUENCE OF STROKES – The order in which writing strokes are placed on the paper
is referred to as their sequence.
WATERMARK – Certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a watermark
impressed in them during the course of their manufacture.
COUNTERFEITING – The term “Counterfeiting” as used in the articles 161 to 168 and
as ordinarily understood in law, is applied to an uttering of false money, or the forgoing
of bank notes which are the equivalent of money.
TYPEWRITER – A writing machine with a keyboard for reproducing letters, figures,
symbols, and other resembling printed ones.
PEN STOP – Is a temporary cessation of the movement of the pen (w/out lifting) to
change direction of movement or strokes.
REFERENCES:
A. Books:
Camara, (2016). Questioned Document Examination-An Instructional Materials for Criminology
Students, Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
Tulalian (2016). The revised penal Code Book II, Specific Crimes and their Penalties,
Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
Mendoza (2012). The Questioned Document Examination and Practices, Wiseman’s Books
Trading, Inc.
Sorra (2011). Forged or Genuine (A Questioned Document Handbook), Wiseman’s Books
Trading, Inc.
Gonzales, Jonas A. (2008). Forensic Questioned Document Examination, Wiseman’s Books
Trading, Inc.
Agas, Guevara and Bautista (2005). Comprehensive Criminology Digest, RMG Publishing
House, Caloocan City, Philippines.
Panganiban, Artemio (1999). Notes on Questioned Documents., University of Cebu, Cebu City,
Philippines.