TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental

College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator

LEARNING MODULE

BES 133 :
ENVIRONMENTAL
ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

COMPILED BY: ENG. JANREY BUENCONSEJO

2020
 VISION

The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university with
recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in the
ASEAN region.

MISSION

The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in practical
arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials; effect
technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of s mall-and-medium scale
industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)

QUALITY POLICY

The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality higher
and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension projects;
continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel competence and
effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory requirements; and
adhere to its core values.

CORE VALUES

T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the mandates of
the university
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values………………………1
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………..2
Course Description………………………………………………………. 3
Course Outcomes…………………………………………………………
General Guidelines/Class Rules……………………………………………
Grading System……………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 1) …………………………………………….
Topic/s………………………………………………………………
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………
Content/Technical Information………………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………..
References…………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 2) ……………………………………………
Topic/s………………………………………………………………
Learning Outcomes …………………………………………………
Content/Technical Information ……………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………..
References…………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 3)………………………………………………
Topic/s………………………………………………………………
Learning Outcomes……………………………………………………
Content/Technical Information……………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………..
References…………………………………………………………
Learning Guide (Week No. 4) ……………………………………………
Topic/s………………………………………………………………
Learning Outcomes……………………………………………………
Content/Technical Information……………………………………
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………..
References…………………………………………………………
List of References………………………………………………

About the Author/s……………………………………………………………..

 COURSE DESCRIPTION

COURSE OUTCOMES

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

GRADING SYSTEM
 LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __1__

TOPIC/S

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

TRACKS/FIELDS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

ECOSYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

NAMES AND WORD DEFINITIONS

FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS

OTHER BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

KINDS OF ORGANISM INTERACTIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

ENVIRONMENT (BIOPHYSICAL)

- The biotic and abiotic surrounding of an organism, or population, and includes particularly the
factors that have an influence in their survival, development and evolution.

Biotic – living component of a community. Plants, animals, fungi, protist and bacteria are all
biotic or living factors

Abiotic – nonliving factors that affect living organisms. Environmental factors such as habitat
(pond, lake, ocean, desert, mountain) or weather such as temperature, cloud cover, rain, snow,
hurricanes, climate regime etc. are abiotic factors.

ENGINEERING

The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines,

apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to
construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behaviour
under specific operating conditions.

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

The application of science and engineering principles to improve the natural environment (air,
water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation and
for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites. It involves waste water management and air
pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene,
environmental sustainability, and public health issues as well as knowledge of environmental
engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction
projects.

SANITARY ENGINEERING

Sanitary engineering emerged as a separate engineering field within civil engineering in the mid
1800's as the importance of drinking water treatment and wastewater treatment became
recognized. Sanitary engineering, which had an emphasis on water supply, water treatment, and
wastewater collection and treatment for many years, is the precursor of the present day field of
environmental engineering. Public concern about environmental quality issues like air pollution
and water pollution emerged in the middle third of the 20th century, leading to development of
environmental engineering as a separate discipline that deals with air pollution control,
hazardous waste management and industrial hygiene as well as the traditional sanitary
engineering fields of water supply and waste water treatment.
TRACKS/FIELDS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
 Air Quality Management
 Water Quality Management
 Solid and Hazardous Waste Management
 Geoenvironment Quality Management
 Environmental Systems Engineering

ROLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS

1) Collaborate with environmental scientists, planners, hazardous waste technicians, engineers,

and other specialists, and experts in law and business to address environmental problems.

2) Provide technical-level support for environmental remediation and litigation projects,

including remediation system design and determination of regulatory applicability.

3) Inspect industrial and municipal facilities and programs in order to evaluate operational
effectiveness and ensure compliance with environmental regulations.

4) Assess the existing or potential environmental impact of land use projects on air, water, and
land.

5) Develop site-specific health and safety protocols, such as spill contingency plans and methods
for loading and transporting waste.

6) Design systems, processes, and equipment for control, management, and remediation of water,
air, and soil quality

7) Develop and present environmental compliance training or orientation sessions

8) Serve on teams conducting multimedia inspections at complex facilities, providing assistance

with planning, quality assurance, safety inspection protocols, and sampling.

9) Monitor progress of environmental improvement programs.

10) Provide administrative support for projects by collecting data, providing project
documentation, training staff, and performing other general administrative duties.
COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

1) Lithosphere - The earth’s outer layer consisting of the soil and rocks. The soil is ended upon
non-living and natural matter. There are 2 types of lithosphere namely oceanic lithosphere and
continental lithosphere.
2) Hydrosphere - This comprise all water possessions both surface and ground water. Only less
than 1% of water resources are obtainable for human exploitation. Water is considered to be a
widespread compound with unusual property.
3) Atmosphere - It is the state of layer adjoining the earth and extends up to 500 kms above the
earth’s shell. Atmosphere is also called as layer of gases. The atmosphere, which is a gaseous
wrap, protects the earth from cosmic radiations and provides life supporting oxygen. The
atmosphere plays a major role in asserting the heat balance of the earth by gripping the re-
emitted radiation from the earth.
4) Biosphere - The biosphere is a shell encompassing the earth’s surface where all the living
things subsist. This segment extends from 10000 m underneath sea level to 6000 m above sea
level. Biosphere is the total computation of all ecosystems

ECOSYSTEM
- a community of organisms interacting with each other and with their environment such that
energy is exchanged and system-level processes, such as the cycling of elements, emerge.

- Ecosystems include living organisms, the dead organic matter produced by them, the abiotic
environment within which the organisms live and exchange elements (soil, water, atmosphere),
and the interactions between these components

- Ecosystems embody the concept that living organisms continually interact with each other and
with the environment to produce complex systems with emergent properties, such that “ the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts” and “everything is connected”

ECOSYSTEM TERMS

* Habitat - the natural environment in which an organism lives.

* Species - consists of a group of organisms that look alike and have similar characteristics,
share the same ecological niche and are capable of interbreeding.

* Population - consists of organisms living in the same habitat at the same time.
* Community - a natural collection of plant and animal species living within a defined area or
habitat in an ecosystem.

* Ecological niche - the function of an organism or the role it plays in an ecosystem

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM
1. Production – creation of new, organic matter. The synthesis and storage of organic
molecules during the growth and reproduction of photosynthetic organisms.
Photosynthesis reaction :
𝑺𝑼𝑵𝑳𝑰𝑮𝑯𝑻
𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐𝑶 → 𝑪𝑯𝟐𝑶 + 𝑶𝟐
𝑫𝑶𝑵𝑬 𝑩𝒀 𝑷𝑯𝑶𝑻𝑶𝑻𝑹𝑶𝑷𝑯𝑺
Chemosynthesis – inorganic substances are converted to organic substances in the
absence of sunlight. Done by chemotrophs which are specialized bacteria

2. Respiration – process of unleashing bound energy for utilization

𝑪𝑯𝟐 𝑶 + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐𝑶
3. Consumption – process in which a substance is completely destroyed, used up, or
incorporated or transformed into something else. It acts as a regulator for production
and decomposition.
4. Decomposition – responsible for the breakdown of complex structures
* Abiotic decomposition – degradation of a substance by chemical or physical
processes
 * Biotic decomposition (biodegradation4 - the metabolic breakdown of materials
into simpler components by living organisms

NAMES AND WORD DEFINITIONS

Producers - organisms, such as plants, that produce their own food are called autotrophs. The
autotrophs convert inorganic compounds into organic compounds. They are called producers
because all of the species of the ecosystem depend on them.

Consumers - all the organisms that can not make their own food (and need producers) are called
heterotrophs. In an ecosystem heterotrophs are called consumers because they depend on others.
They obtain food by eating other organisms. There are different levels of consumers. Those that
feed directly from producers, i.e. organisms that eat plant or plant products are called primary
consumers. Organisms that feed on primary consumers are called secondary consumers. Those
who feed on secondary consumers are tertiary consumers.

• Consumers are also classified depending on what they eat.

* Herbivores are those that eat only plants or plant products. Example are grasshoppers,
mice, rabbits, deer, beavers, moose, cows, sheep, goats and groundhogs.

* Carnivores, on the other hand, are those that eat only other animals. Examples of
carnivores are foxes, frogs, snakes, hawks, and spiders.

* Omnivores are the last type and eat both plants (acting a primary consumers) and meat
(acting as secondary or tertiary consumers).

* Trophic level - corresponds to the different levels or steps in the food chain. In other
words, the producers, the consumers, and the decomposers are the main trophic levels.
FEEDING RELATIONSHIPS
1) Food chain – transfer of food energy from the source through a series of organisms in a
process of repeated/sequential eating or being eaten pattern.
a) Grazing food chain – starts from plants to grazing herbivores to carnivores
b) Detritus food chain – starts from dead organic matter to microorganisms such as
bacteria, fungi, etc.

Above: Grazing Food Chain

Below: Detritus Food Chain
 2) Food Web – refers to the interconnected or interlocking relationships among food chains
in an ecosystem

3) Food Pyramid – constitute the over – all structure of dependency among the living
elements

OTHER BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

1) Diversity - variety of habitats, living communities, and ecological processes in the living
world. It also refers to the extent that an ecosystem possesses different species.

2) Distribution - the frequency of occurrence or the natural geographic range or place

where species occur

* Immigration - used to describe the process by which a person moves into a country for
the purpose of establishing residency. In such a case, the individual is not a native of the
country which he immigrates to
* Emigration - process by which a person leaves his place or country of residency, to
relocate elsewhere. In this case, the individual moving is referred to as an emigrant
(Immigration is movement to a country; emigration is movement from a country)
* Migration – parent term of the aforementioned terms
3) Population Density - the number of individuals of a population per unit of living space
(say, number of trees per hectare of land)
 4) Dominance - the degree to which a specie is more numerous than its competitors in an
ecological community, or makes up more of the biomass. Most ecological communities
are defined by their dominant species
* Keystone species - species that have a disproportionately large effect on its
environment relative to its abundance. Such species play a critical role in maintaining the
structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an ecosystem
and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the
community.
5) Limiting Factors – environmental factors, chemical and physical factors etc.

KINDS OF ORGANISM INTERACTIONS

1. Competition - two species share a requirement for a limited resource  reduces fitness of
one or both species
2. Predation - one species feeds on another  enhances fitness of predator but reduces
fitness of prey
3. Symbiosis – close long lasting relationship of 2 different species

a) Parasitism - one species feeds on another

- enhances fitness of parasite but reduces fitness of host
2 Kinds of Parasites
a.1) Ectoparasites – live on the bodies of the host (ex. molds, flies, lice)
a.2) Endoparasites – live inside the bodies of the host (ex. Tapeworms, bacteria,
fungi)

b) Commensalism – one species receives a benefit from another species  enhances

fitness of one species; no effect on fitness of the other species

c) Mutualism – two species provide resources or services to each other  enhances

fitness of both species
REFERENCES

Introduction To Environmental Engineering And Science – Second Edition

GILBERT M. MASTERS
 LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __2__

TOPIC/S
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

WATER CYCLE

NITROGEN CYCLE

OXYGEN CYCLE

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

SULFUR CYCLE
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

In ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle or nutrient cycle is a pathway by which a
chemical element or molecule moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere) compartments of Earth. In effect, the element is recycled,
although in some cycles there may be places (called reservoirs) where the element is
accumulated or held for a long period of time (such as an ocean or lake for water). Water, for
example, is always recycled through the water cycle, as shown in the diagram. The water
undergoes evaporation, condensation, and precipitation, falling back to Earth clean and fresh.
Elements, chemical compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to
another and from one part of the biosphere to another through the biogeochemical cycles

SYSTEMS

All chemical elements occurring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles. In addition to
being a part of living organisms, these chemical elements also cycle through abiotic factors of
ecosystems such as water (hydrosphere), land (lithosphere), and the air (atmosphere). The
living factors of the planet can be referred to collectively as the biosphere. All the nutrients—
such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—used in ecosystems by living
organisms operate on a closed system; therefore, these chemicals are recycled instead of being
lost and replenished constantly such as in an open system
 HYRODOLOGY AND WATER CYCLE

WATER

- A clear, colorless, odorless, and tasteless liquid essential for most plant and animal life

- Under nomenclature used to name chemical compounds, dihydrogen monoxide is the scientific
name for water, though it is almost never used.

SOME CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. The intrinsic color of water and ice is a
very slight blue hue, although both appear colourless in small quantities. Water vapour is
essentially invisible as a gas

Water is a good solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances that dissolve
in water, e.g., salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases – especially oxygen, carbon dioxide
(carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances, while those that do not mix
well with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-fearing) substances.

The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure.
(On the top of Mt. Everest water boils at 68 °C, compared to 100 °C at sea level) Conversely,
water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of hundreds of degrees
and remain liquid.

The maximum density of water occurs at 3.98 °C. It has the anomalous property of becoming
less dense, not more, when it is cooled down to its solid form, ice. It expands to occupy 9%
greater volume in this solid state, which accounts for the fact of ice floating on liquid water, as in
icebergs.
 WATER CYCLE

- The hydrological cycle is central to hydrology

- As shown, water evaporates from the earth’s oceans and water bodies and from land surfaces.
(About seven times more evaporation occurs from oceans than from the earth’s land surfaces)

- The evaporated water rises into the atmosphere until the lower temperatures aloft cause it to
condense and then precipitate in the form most globally as rain but sometimes as snow.

- Once on the earth’s surface, water flows into streams, lakes, and eventually discharge into
surface waters.

• Through evaporation from surface waters or transpiration from plants, water

molecules return to the atmosphere to repeat the cycle. The term evapotranspiration is
used referring to combined evaporation and transpiration.

* Transpiration - the process where water contained in liquid form in plants is

converted to vapor and released to the atmosphere. Much of the water taken up by plants
is released through transpiration.
 • In general, of 100 units of rain that falls on grassland in temperate zones, 10 to
20 units will go to groundwater, 20 to 40 units will transpire and 40 to 70 units will
become stream runoff.

1) Precipitation
Transported through the circulating atmosphere the clouds move themselves inland, as a result of gravity, and lose their
water as it falls back unto the ground. This phenomenon is called rain or precipitation.

2) Infiltration
Rainwater infiltrates into the ground and sinks to the saturated zone, where it becomes groundwater. Groundwater slowly
moves from places of high elevation and pressure to places with low elevation and pressure. It moves from the area of
infiltration through an aquifer and out to a discharge area, which can be either a sea or an ocean.

3) Transpiration
Plants and other forms of vegetation take up water from the soil and excrete it again as water vapour. About 10% of the
precipitation that falls on the ground vapourizes again through transpiration of plants, the rest evaporates from seas and
oceans.

4) Surface run-off
The rainwater that does not infiltrate into the soil will directly reach the surface water, as it will run-off to rivers and lakes.
After that it will be transported back to the seas and oceans. This water is called surface run-off.

5) Evaporation
Due to the influence of sunlight the water in oceans and lakes will warm up. As a result of that it will evaporate and rise up
into the atmosphere. There it will form clouds that will eventually cause rainwater to fall back on earth. The evaporation of
oceans is the most important kind of evaporation.

6) Condensation
In contact with the atmosphere the water vapour will transform back to liquid, so that it will be visible in the air. These
accumulations of water in the air are what we call clouds.
 The hydrological cycle

GROUNDWATER SUPPLIES

- Ground water is both an important direct source of water supply and a significant indirect
source since a large portion of the flow to stream is derived from subsurface water.

- Near the surface of the earth in the zone of aeration, soil pore spaces contain both air and water.
Moisture from this zone cannot be tapped as water supply source since this water is held on soil
particles by capillary forces and is not readily released.

- Below the zone of aeration is the zone of saturation, in which the pores are filled with water.
Water within this zone is referred to as Groundwater. A stratum containing a substantial
amount of groundwater is called an aquifer and the surface of this saturated layer is known as
the water table. If the aquifer is underlain by an impervious stratum, it is called an unconfined
aquifer. If the stratum containing water is trapped between two impervious layers, it is known as
confined aquifer.
 THE CARBON CYCLE

Carbon moves from the atmosphere to plants.

In the atmosphere, carbon is attached to oxygen in a gas called carbon dioxide (CO2 ). With the
help of the Sun, through the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is pulled from the air to
make plant food from carbon.

Carbon moves from plants to animals.

Through food chains, the carbon that is in plants moves to the animals that eat them. Animals
that eat other animals get the carbon from their food too.

Carbon moves from plants and animals to the ground.

When plants and animals die, their bodies, wood and leaves decay bringing the carbon into the
ground. Some becomes buried miles underground and will become fossil fuels in millions and
millions of years.
Carbon moves from living things to the atmosphere.
Each time you exhale, you are releasing carbon dioxide gas (CO2 ) into the atmosphere. Animals
and plants get rid of carbon dioxide gas through a process called respiration.
Carbon moves from fossil fuels to the atmosphere when fuels are burned.
When humans burn fossil fuels to power factories, power plants, cars and trucks, most of the
carbon quickly enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas. Each year, five and a half billion
tons of carbon is released by burning fossil fuels. That’s the weight of 100 million adult African
elephants! Of the huge amount of carbon that is released from fuels, 3.3 billion tons enters the
atmosphere and most of the rest becomes dissolved in seawater.

Carbon moves from the atmosphere to the oceans

The oceans, and other bodies of water, soak up some carbon from the atmosphere.
 NITROGEN CYCLE

• The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical
forms.
• Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and
denitrification.
a) Nitrogen Fixation
• Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed" to be used by plants.
• There are four ways to convert N2 (atmospheric nitrogen gas) into more chemically
reactive forms:
1) Biological fixation: some symbiotic bacteria and some free-living bacteria are able to
fix nitrogen as organic nitrogen.
2) Industrial N-fixation: Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600 C, and with the
use of an iron catalyst, hydrogen and atmospheric nitrogen can be combined to form
ammonia
 3) Combustion of fossil fuels: automobile engines and thermal power plants, which
release various nitrogen oxides (NOx )
4) Other processes: In addition, the formation of NO from N2 and O2 due to photons and
especially lightning, can fix nitrogen.
b) Ammonification
• When a plant or animal dies, or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is
organic. Bacteria, or fungi in some cases, convert the organic nitrogen within the remains
back into ammonium , a process called ammonification or mineralization

b) Nitrification
• This is the biological oxidation of ammonium. This is done in two steps, first from the
nitrite form then to the nitrate form. Two specific chemoautotrophic bacterial genera are
involved, using inorganic carbon as their source for cellular carbon.

𝑵𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒔 𝑵𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑵𝑯𝟒+ + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑵𝑶𝟐− + 𝑶𝟐 → 𝑵𝑶−
𝟑
c) Denitrification
• This is the biological reduction of nitrate to nitrogen gas. This can proceed through
several steps in the biochemical pathway, with the ultimate production of nitrogen gas. A
fairly broad range of heterotrophic bacteria are involved in the process, requiring an
organic carbon source for energy.
𝑵𝑶−
𝟑 + 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 → 𝑵𝑶−
𝟐 + 𝑶𝒓𝒈𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒄 𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒃𝒐𝒏 → 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑪𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 𝑶
 PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

Most of the world’s phosphorus is locked up͟ in rocks–it can only be released by weathering

Weathering - refers to a group of processes by which surface rock disintegrates into smaller
particles or dissolve into water due to the impact of the atmosphere and hydrosphere. The
weathering processes often are slow (hundreds to thousands of years).

• Weathering processes are divided into three categories:

– Physical Weathering – abrasion, thermal expansion and contraction, wetting and drying etc
– Chemical Weathering – hydrolysis, oxidation - reduction
– Biological Weathering – lichen

A lot of the phosphorus that runs off into the ocean also gets ͞buried into the ocean floor because
it precipitates into solid form and settles to the bottom as sediment. . Only the occasional
upwellings in the ocean can recycle phosphorus back to the top of the ocean. **Note that birds
are one of the few manners of carrying phosphorus back to land because they eat fish (that eat
phosphorus-rich phytoplankton) and then excrete the phosphorus back onto land
The top 4 reservoirs for Phosphorus are:
1. SEDIMENT (LITHOSPHERE)
2. SOIL (LITHOSPHERE)
3. OCEANS
4. MINEABLE ROCK (LITHOSPHERE)
 SULFUR CYCLE
Sulfur is one of the constituents of many proteins, vitamins and hormones. It recycles as in other
biogeochemical cycles.
The essential steps of the sulfur cycle are:
• Mineralization of organic sulfur to the inorganic form, hydrogen sulfide: (𝐻2 𝑆).
• Oxidation of sulfide and elemental sulfur (S) and related compounds to sulfate (𝑆𝑂42−).
• Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
• Microbial immobilization of the sulfur compounds and subsequent incorporation into the
organic form of sulfur.

Sulfur is produced naturally as a result of volcanic eruptions and through emissions from hot
springs. It enters the atmosphere primarily in the form of sulfur dioxide, then remains in the
atmosphere in that form or, after reacting with water, in the form of sulfuric acid.

Sulfur is carried back to Earth's surface as acid deposition when it rains or snows

On Earth's surface, sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid react with metals to form sulfates and
sulfides. The element is also incorporated by plants in a form known as organic sulfur. Certain
amino acids, the compounds from which proteins are made, contain sulfur. Organic sulfur from
plants is eventually passed on to animals that eat those plants. It is, in turn, converted from plant
proteins to animal proteins.

When plants and animals die, sulfur is returned to the soil where it is converted by
microorganisms into hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide gas is then returned to the atmosphere,
where it is oxidized to sulfuric acid
 LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __3__

TOPIC/S

WATER TREATMENT

WATER CLASSIFICATIONS IN THE PHILIPPINES

COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION

SEDIMENTATION

FILTRATION

DISINFECTION

STORAGE
 WATER TREATMENT

Water treatment is a process of making water suitable for its application or returning its natural
state. Thus, water treatment required before and after its application. The required treatment
depends on the application.

Water treatment involves science, engineering, business, and art. The treatment may include
mechanical, physical, biological, and chemical methods. As with any technology, science is the
foundation, and engineering makes sure that the technology works as designed. The appearance
and application of water is an art.

General Wastewater Treatment

Water is a renewable resource. All water treatments involve the removal of solids, bacteria, algae,
plants, inorganic compounds, and organic compounds. Removal of solids is usually done by
filtration and sediment. Bacteria digestion is an important process to remove harmful pollutants.
Converting used water into environmentally acceptable water or even drinking water
is wastewater treatment

REVISED WATER USAGE AND CLASSIFICATION/WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

IN THE PHILIPPINES

(a) Fresh Surface Waters (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, etc.)

CLASSIFICATION BENEFICIAL USE

CLASS AA Public Water Supply Class I. This class is intended primarily for
waters having watersheds which are uninhabited and otherwise
protected and which require only approved disinfection in order to
meet the National Standards for Drinking Water (NSDW) of the
Philippines.
CLASS A Public Water Supply Class II. For sources of water supply that
will require complete treatment (coagulation, sedimentation,
filtration and disinfection) in order to meet the NSDW.
CLASS B Recreational Water Class I. For primary contact recreation such
as bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc. (particularly those
designated for tourism purposes).
CLASS C 1) Fishery Water for the propagation and growth of fish and other
aquatic resources;
2) Recreational Water Class II (Boatings, etc.)
3) Industrial Water Supply Class I (For manufacturing processes
after treatment).
CLASS D 1) For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering, etc.
2) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.)
 3) Other inland waters, by their quality, belong to this
classification.

b) Coastal and Marine Waters

CLASSIFICATION BENEFICIAL USE
CLASS SA 1) Waters suitable for the propagation, survival and harvesting of
shellfish for commercial purposes;

2) Tourist zones and national marine parks and reserves established

under Presidential Proclamation No. 1801; existing laws and/or
declared as such by appropriate government agency.

3) Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law and concerned

authorities.
CLASS SB 1) Recreational Water Class I (Areas regularly used by the public
for bathing, swimming, skin diving, etc.);

2) Fishery Water Class I (Spawning areas for Chanos chanos or

"Bangus" and similar species).
CLASS SC 1) Recreational Water Class II (e.g. boating, etc.);

2) Fishery Water Class II (Commercial and sustenance fishing);

3) Marshy and/or mangrove areas declared as fish and wildlife

sanctuaries;
CLASS SD 1) Industrial Water Supply Class II (e.g. cooling, etc.);

2) Other coastal and marine waters, by their quality, belong to this

classification.
 WATER TREATMENT PROCESS
Clean, safe water is vital for everyday life. Water is essential for health, hygiene and the
productivity of our community. The water treatment process may vary slightly at different
locations, depending on the technology of the plant and the water it needs to process, but the basic
principles are largely the same. This section describes standard water treatment processes.
Coagulation / Flocculation

 Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in water. Alum and other chemicals
are added to water to form tiny sticky particles called "floc" which attract the dirt particles.
The combined weight of the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough to sink to the
bottom during sedimentation.

 During coagulation, liquid aluminum sulfate (alum) and/or polymer is added to untreated
(raw) water. When mixed with the water, this causes the tiny particles of dirt in the water
to stick together or coagulate. Next, groups of dirt particles stick together to form larger,
heavier particles called flocs which are easier to remove by settling or filtration.

WHAT IS REMOVED DURING COAGULATION?

Coagulation can successfully remove a large amount of organic compounds, including

some dissolved organic material, which is referred to as Natural Organic Matter (NOM)
or Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC). Coagulation can also remove suspended particles,
including inorganic precipitates, such as iron. A large amount of DOC can give water an
unpleasant taste and odour, as well as a brown discolouration. While coagulation can
remove particles and some dissolved matter, the water may still contain pathogens.
SEDIMENTATION
 The heavy particles (floc) settle to the bottom and the clear water moves to filtration.
 As the water and the floc particles progress through the treatment process, they move into
sedimentation basins where the water moves slowly, causing the heavy floc particles to
settle to the bottom. Floc which collects on the bottom of the basin is called sludge, and is
piped to drying lagoons. In Direct Filtration, the sedimentation step is not included, and
the floc is removed by filtration only.

The chart below shows the length of time that is required for particles of different
sizes to settle through the water.
Filtration

 The water passes through filters, some made of layers of sand, gravel, and charcoal that
help remove even smaller particles.
 Water flows through a filter designed to remove particles in the water. The filters are made
of layers of sand and gravel, and in some cases, crushed anthracite. Filtration collects the
suspended impurities in water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection. The filters
are routinely cleaned by backwashing.

FILTRATION METHODS

Rapid sand filtration is a physical process that removes suspended solids from the water.
Rapid sand filtration is much more common than flow sand filtration, because rapid sand filters
have fairly high flow rates and require relatively little space to operate. In fact, during rapid
sand filtration, the water flows at a rate up to 20 metres per hour. The filters are generally
cleaned twice per day with backwashing filters and are put back into operation immediately.

Slow sand filtration is a biological process, because it uses bacteria to treat the water. The
bacteria establish a community on the top layer of sand and clean the water as it passes through,
by digesting the contaminants in the water. The layer of microbes is called a schumtzdecke (or
biofilm), and requires cleaning every couple of months, when it gets too thick and the flow rate
declines

An ultrafiltration filter has a pore size around 0.01 micron. A microfiltration filter has a
pore size around 0.1 micron, so when water undergoes microfiltration, many microorganisms
are removed, but viruses remain in the water. Ultrafiltration would remove these larger
particles, and may remove some viruses. Neither microfiltration nor ultrafiltration can remove
dissolved substances unless they are first adsorbed (with activated carbon) or coagulated (with
alum or iron salts).

A nanofiltration filter has a pore size around 0.001 micron. Nanofiltration removes most
organic molecules, nearly all viruses, most of the natural organic matter and a range of salts.
Nanofiltration removes divalent ions, which make water hard, so nanofiltration is often used
to soften hard water.

Reverse osmosis filters have a pore size around 0.0001 micron. After water passes through
a reverse osmosis filter, it is essentially pure water. In addition to removing all organic
molecules and viruses, reverse osmosis also removes most minerals that are present in the
water. Reverse osmosis removes monovalent ions, which means that it desalinates the water.
To understand how reverse osmosis works, it is helpful to understand osmosis.
 Osmosis occurs when a semi-permeable membrane separates two salt solutions of different
concentrations. The water will migrate from the weaker solution to the stronger solution, until
the two solutions are of the same concentration, because the semi-permeable membrane allows
the water to pass through, but not the salt. In the following diagram, (A) and (B) illustrate the
process of osmosis.

In reverse osmosis, the two solutions are still separated by a semi-permeable membrane, but
pressure is applied to reverse the natural flow of the water. This forces the water to move from
the more concentrated solution to the weaker. Thus, the contaminants end up on one side of
the semi-permeable membrane and the pure water is on the other side. In the diagram below,
reverse osmosis is represented in (C).

WHAT DO THESE THREE PROCESSES REMOVE?

Ultrafiltration removes bacteria, protozoa and some viruses from the water.

Nanofiltration removes these microbes, as well as most natural organic matter and some natural
minerals, especially divalent ions which cause hard water. Nanofiltration, however, does not
remove dissolved compounds.

Reverse osmosis removes turbidity, including microbes and virtually all dissolved substances.
However, while reverse osmosis removes many harmful minerals, such as salt and lead, it also
removes some healthy minerals, such as calcium and magnesium. This is why water that is
treated by reverse osmosis benefits by going through a magnesium and calcium mineral bed.
This adds calcium and magnesium to the water, while also increasing the pH and decreasing
the corrosive potential of the water. Corrosive water may leach lead and copper from
distribution systems and household water pipes.

Disinfection
 A small amount of chlorine is added or some other disinfection method is used to kill any
bacteria or microorganisims that may be in the water.
 Water is disinfected before it enters the distribution system to ensure that any disease-
causing bacteria, viruses, and parasites are destroyed. Chlorine is used because it is a very
effective disinfectant, and residual concentrations can be maintained to guard against
possible biological contamination in the water distribution system.

METHODS OF DISINFECTIONS

Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas. By providing high pressure, the gas becomes liquid. It is toxic.
Chlorine gas is mostly used as a water disinfectant. Introducing chlorine to water plays a very
effective role for removing almost all pathogenic microorganisms. It can be used both as a
primary and a secondary disinfectant.
Ozone is produced from a gas containing oxygen (usually ambient air or pure oxygen). The gas is
then passed through an electric field. The air is treated to make sure that it is dry and free from
dust impurities. Oxygen is converted to ozone in an electrical field. The ozone is then fed to the
contact tank so that ozone is dissolved by water to proceed disinfection process.
UV disinfection units are used nowadays as water disinfection methods. The design is quite simple
that consists of a UV light source that is enclosed in a transparent protective sleeve. The light
source is mounted so that water can pass through a flow chamber so that UV rays can be both
admitted and absorbed into the stream. No change in taste and color occur that is an advantage of
this method. The contact time is also very short as these rays kill the pathogenic bacteria quickly.

Storage
 Water is placed in a closed tank or reservoir in order for disinfection to take place. The
water then flows through pipes to homes and businesses in the community.
 LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __4__

TOPIC/S

Waste Water Characteristics

Waste Water Treatment Process
Stages of Sewage Treatment
WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS

Wastewater contains the impurities added as a result of domestic, commercial and

industrial use. The analyses used to characterize the principal physical, chemical. And
biological impurities found in wastewater.

Characteristics:
 PHYSICAL
 CHEMICAL
 INORGANIC CHEMICAL
 ORGANIC CHEMICAL
 BIOLOGICAL
 PRIORITY POLLUTANTS
 VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs)

 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Solid Contents
 TOTAL SOLIDS
found in wastewater are consist of the insoluble or suspended solids and the
soluble compounds dissolved in the water
 SUSPENDED SOLIDS
are found by drying and weighing the residue removed by filtering the sample
 VOLATILE SOLIDS
are organic matter that are burned at high temperature
 SETTLEABLE SOLIDS
(milliliters per liter) are solids that can be removed by sedimentation

 Colour
 LIGHT BROWN COLOR
Wastewater is less that 6 hour old
 LIGHT-TO-MEDIUM GREY COLOR
Wastewater that have undergone some decomposition or that have been in the
collection system
 DARK GREY OR BLACK COLOR
The water is septic having undergone extensive bacterial decomposition under
anaerobic conditions
 odour
 HYDROGEN SULFIDE
Principal odorous compound
  Indol, skatol, cadaverin, and mercaptan
Are formed under anaerobic conditions that may cause odours that are more
offensive that hydrogen sulfide
 ANAEROBIC CONDITION
Condition in absence of Oxygen

 Temperature
 COLD REGIONS
The temperature will vary from 45ºF to 65ºF (7ºC to 18ºC)
 WARMER REGIONS
The temperature will vary from 55ºF to 75ºF (13ºC to 24ºC)

 INORGANIC CHARACTERISTICS

Specific inorganic constituents are determined to assess the presence or absence of priority
pollutants and to determine if any potential treatment or disposal problems will develop.
Some chemicals includes:

 Nitrogen
 Phosphorus
 Chloride Sulfate
 pH
 Alkali

 ORGANIC CHARACTERISTICS

Laboratory Methods used to measure gross amounts of organic matter in waste water
includes:
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - is the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by
aerobic biological organisms to break down organic material present in a given water
sample at certain temperature over a specific time period.

 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) - is an indicative measure of the amount of oxygen

that can be consumed by reactions in a measured solution. It is commonly expressed in
mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution which in SI units is milligrams per
litre (mg/L).

 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) - is a measure of the total amount of carbon in organic
compounds in pure water and aqueous systems
 0

WASTE WATER TREATMENT PROCESS

1.Physical Water Treatment Operations

In the physical unit operations physical forces are utilized in some water treatment units for the
removal of solid contaminants. The physical unit water treatment operations are:

1. Water Treatment Screening

2. Water Treatment Mixing
3. Water Treatment Flocculation
4. Water Treatment Sedimentation
5. Water treatment Flotation
6. Water Treatment Filtration

2 Chemical Water treatment Processes

In chemical unit Water Treatment process the removal or conversion of some solids, is brought
about by the addition of chemicals or by other reactions. Common examples of chemical unit water
treatment process are:

 Gas transfer by aeration,

 Adsorption, and

 Disinfection

3 Biological water treatment Processes

In biological water treatment processes the removal or conversion of organic solids is brought about
by the biological activities. They remove colloidal or dissolved bio-degradable organic substances
in wastewater. Organic substances are converted into gases that can escape to the atmosphere and
as biological cell tissues that can be removed by settling.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 1

STAGES OF SEWAGE TREATMENT

Types and nature of solids present in wastewater and unit operations/processes used for their
removal

Type of solids Nature of solids Unit Operations/Process used for

removal

Floating Coarse Organic and Coarse screen

inorganic

Fine organic and Microscreens

inorganic solids and
algae

Suspended Settleble inorganic Grit chamber

Solids
Settleble organic Primary sedimentation tank

Non settleble organic Biological process followed by

secondary sedimentation tank

Dissolved solids Organic Biological process

Inorganic Reverse Osmosis

Root zone treatment with certain type of

trees and aquatic plants

The wastewater treatment is achieved in three stages; primary, secondary and tertiary treatments..
Some of the unit operations and processes are included in each stage of treatment. The process flow
diagram of a typical wastewater treatment plant is furnished.

1 Primary Sewage Treatment

The first stage of sewage treatment is known as primary treatment which also includes certain
preliminary operations such as flow equalization, communication (or grinding), grease removal,
flow measurement, etc. The unit operations in primary treatment are screening to remove larger
floating objects, grit removal for removing inert sand and inorganic particles, and settling for
removing settleable suspended organic solids. The main purpose of the primary treatment is to
produce a generally homogeneous liquid capable of being treated biologically and a sludge that can
be separately treated or processed.

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 2

2 Secondary sewage Treatment

The next stage of sewage water treatment is secondary treatment, which is designed to remove
soluble organics from the wastewater. Secondary treatment consists of a biological process and
secondary settling. Secondary treatment is designed to substantially degrade the biological content
of the sewage such as derived from human waste, food waste, soaps and detergent.

3 Types of Biological Treatment based on Process

There are two types of biological water treatment process; aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic process
means that dissolved oxygen (DO) is present for the microbes for respiration. Anaerobic process
means that the process proceeds in the absence of DO.

The effluent from primary water treatment units is further treated generally using aerobic biological
processes. For these processes to be effective, the microorganisms require both dissolved oxygen
and a substrate on which to live. Oxygen can be supplied either through natural process or artificial
mechanical means. In both cases, the bacteria and protozoa consume biodegradable soluble organic
contaminants and bind much of the less soluble fractions into floc particles. The oxidization of
organic substances can be achieved by anaerobic process also by anaerobic organisms, which don’t
need DO. They take their oxygen requirement from complex organic substances, such as sulphate
(SO4), phosphate (PO4), etc.

The end-products of aerobic and anaerobic processes are different. Under aerobic conditions, if
completely oxidized, organic matter is transformed into non-hazardous products such as CO2 and
H2O and cell tissues. But an anaerobic process, apart from CO 2 and H20 and cell tissues, can also
produce methane (CH,), which is explosive, and ammonia (NH 3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), which
are toxic. Some materials are better degraded under anaerobic conditions than under aerobic
conditions. In some cases, the combination of anaerobic and aerobic systems in a series provides
better and more economical treatment than either system could alone provide.

Classification of biological sewage treatment based on growth system

Biological sewage treatment systems are classified into systems: (a) attached growth system, and
(b) suspended growth systems. Aerobic and anaerobic biological systems are available in both
attached and suspended growth configurations. Examples are as follows:

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 3

 Aerobic attached growth systems: trickling filter and RBC;

 Aerobic suspended growth systems: activated sludge process, aerated lagoon, waste
stabilization ponds etc.

 Anaerobic attached growth systems: anaerobic filters and upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
units.

 Anaerobic suspended growth systems: septic tanks and anaerobic ponds.

 The final step in the secondary treatment stage is to settle out the biomass as biological
floc or filter material generated during biological treatment and produce sewage water
containing very low levels of organic material and suspended matter. This settled biomass
or secondary sludge is then piped to sludge-management systems, while the effluent from
SST is disposed.

Sludge treatment and disposal

The sludge accumulated in a wastewater treatment process must be treated and disposed of in a safe
and effective manner. The purpose of sludge digestion is to reduce the amount of organic matter
and the number of disease-causing microorganisms present in the solids. The most common
treatment options include anaerobic digestion, aerobic digestion, and composting. The choice of a
wastewater sludge treatment method depends on the amount of solids generated and other site-
specific conditions. However, in general, composting is most often applied to smaller-scale
applications followed by aerobic digestion and then lastly anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale
municipal applications.

4 DISINFECTION

The purpose of disinfection in the treatment of wastewater is to substantially reduce the number of
living organisms in the water to be discharged back into the environment. The effectiveness of
disinfection depends on the quality of the water being treated (e.g., TSS, pH, etc.), the type of
disinfection being used, the disinfectant dosage (concentration and time), and other environmental
variables. Turbid water will be treated less successfully since solid matter can shield organisms,
especially from ultraviolet light or if contact time is low. Generally, short contact times, low doses
and high flows are against effective disinfection. Common methods of disinfection include use of
ozone, chlorine, or UV light. Chloramine, which is used for drinking water, is not used in waste
water treatment because of its persistence. Disinfection follows secondary clarification in most
treatment plants or after tertiary treatment when the wastewater reclamation and reuse is
contemplated. Disinfection is normally accomplished with chlorine. Due to the potential
environmental impact of chlorine, most plants now dechlorinate wastewater effluents before
discharge.

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for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
 4

5 TERTIARY SEWAGE TREATMENT

Third stage waste water treatment is referred to as tertiary sewage treatment or advanced waste
water treatment. More commonly used advanced systems are adsorption to activated carbon,
filtration through sand and other media, ion exchange, various membrane processes, nitrification-
denitrification, coagulation-flocculation, and micro-screening.

This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.