A Report on

Effect of Pavement Albedo on surface heating in

urban canyons in hot and humid climate of Nepal
Project Development II/I

Submitted By:
Supriya Thapa (078/MSEEB/019)

Submitted To:
Ar. Yam Prasad Rai
Project Supervisor

Tribhuvan University
Institute of Engineering

M.Sc. in Energy Efficient Buildings (MSEEB)

Department of Architecture and Urban Planning
Central Campus, Pulchowk

13th March, 2023

Abstract

The comfort of pedestrians is substantially impacted by the pavement and sidewalk materials
used in urban areas. Dark substances absorb solar energy during the day and emit it again at
night. On the other hand, cool materials are frequently suggested for reducing UHI effects due to
their high albedo. Microclimatic advantages of light colored pavement are significantly high over
dark pavement materials. As a result, the thermal comfort of pedestrians can actually be affected.
This study quantifies and compares the local warming effects caused by the materials used in
Birgunj's hot and humid climate Street Canyon. It focuses on the impact of various materials on
outdoor thermal comfort in a prominent hot and humid climatic zone of Nepal. The study is
carried out in three phases of literature review, data collection and numerical validation at the
street level. In general, it was discovered that increasing the albedo by 0.1 resulted in a decrease
in surface temperature of close to 2.3°C. The study concludes that by increasing the albedo of
pavement material from 0.2 to 0.35 alone, a thermally comfortable street space could be created.

Keywords: Urban canyon, albedo, Surface temperature, ambient temperature

Acknowledgement

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my project supervisor Ar.
Yam Prasad Rai and for providing me the opportunity of carrying out research in the context of
the pavement material for pedestrian comfort in Nepal. I am also grateful to Dr. Sanjaya Uprety
for the valuable comments and guidance during the research process. The making of this report
has been one of the significant challenges I have faced and without their constant support and
guidance, the task wouldn’t have been completed on the allocated time.

Also, I would also like to thank Department of Architecture, Pulchowk Campus for providing
this opportunity to help me devote time to this report. I are indebted to have this opportunity to
work on the report where I was encouraged and guided thoroughly and provided untiring,
preserving, and unflinching help by my respected teachers. This report also helped us to improve
my critical thinking ability and data analysis ability. I am also thankful to my friends and seniors
for guiding me and helping me directly or indirectly to complete this Project Report.
Table of Contents

1 Introduction............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background.......................................................................................................................1
1.2 Need of the study..............................................................................................................2
1.3 Importance of the study.....................................................................................................4
1.4 Problem statement.............................................................................................................4
1.5 Objectives of the Research................................................................................................4
1.6 Methodology.....................................................................................................................5
1.7 Expected Outputs..............................................................................................................5
2 Literature Review..................................................................................................................6
2.1 Road Types in Nepal.........................................................................................................6
2.2 Outdoor thermal comfort..................................................................................................8
2.3 Variables determining the pavement surface temperature................................................9
2.3.1 Urban canyon, solar irradiance and microclimate.....................................................9
2.3.2 Urban canyon albedo...............................................................................................10
2.3.3 Albedo and surface temperature..............................................................................11
2.3.4 Cool pavements.......................................................................................................12
2.4 Research Findings...........................................................................................................13
2.5 Reflective Paints and Pavements....................................................................................18
3 Case Study............................................................................................................................20
3.1 A case of Phoenix, Arizona.............................................................................................20
3.2 A case of Nangal, Punjab................................................................................................22
4 Introduction to Case area...................................................................................................24
5 Climate Analysis..................................................................................................................25
5.1 Temperature....................................................................................................................25
5.2 Relative Humidity...........................................................................................................27
5.3 Rainfall and Precipitation................................................................................................28
5.4 Wind Speed.....................................................................................................................29
5.5 Psychrometric chart.........................................................................................................30
6 Site Study..............................................................................................................................31
6.1 Deep canyon Analysis.....................................................................................................32
 6.2 Shallow canyon Analysis................................................................................................33
6.3 Surface temperature Analysis.........................................................................................34
7 Improvement Strategies......................................................................................................35
8 Numerical Validation..........................................................................................................36
9 Discussion and Conclusion..................................................................................................37
References......................................................................................................................................38

List of Figures

Figure 1 Pavement type selection process.......................................................................................3

Figure 2 Relationship between the thermal comfort and surrounding environmental settings.......8
Figure 4 Illustration of Sky view factor in a street canyon..............................................................9
Figure 4 Skyline graph and sky view factor....................................................................................9
Figure 5 Illustration of Sky view factor in a street canyon............................................................10
Figure 6 Interconnections between surface albedo, urban canyon albedo, outdoor thermal
comfort and building indoor thermal environment........................................................................11
Figure 7 the albedo of various urban surface materials.................................................................11
Figure 8 Relationship between albedo and surface temperature...................................................12
Figure 9 Thermal infrared and visible images of a road with light and dark segments................12
Figure 10 Cool pavement and surface temperature reduction.......................................................13
Figure 11 Working of Reflective coating on asphalt pavement....................................................13
Figure 12 The difference between the predicted air temperature in each of the urban canyon
scenarios and the measured temperature at the respective reference weather stations, at 12:00
(Erell E. , Pearlmutter, Kutiel, & Bar, 2013).................................................................................14
Figure 13 Streets experimented with cool pavement.....................................................................20
Figure 14 Cool pavement in the streets of Phoenix.......................................................................21
Figure 15 Concrete surface as cool pavement...............................................................................22
Figure 16 Concrete surface as cool pavement...............................................................................22
Figure 17 Average temperature and precipitation in Nangal, Punjab...........................................23
Figure 18 Maximum temperatures in Nangal, Punjab...................................................................23
Figure 19 Map of Birgunj metropolitan City.................................................................................24
Figure 20 Map of Nepal showing Birgunj.....................................................................................24
Figure 21 Gravel topped street......................................................................................................24
Figure 22 Asphalt street.................................................................................................................25
Figure 23 Concrete street...............................................................................................................25
Figure 24 Earthen street.................................................................................................................25
Figure 25 Asphalt street with concrete blocks in sidewalks..........................................................25
Figure 26 Average temperature graph...........................................................................................26
Figure 27 Maximum temperature graph........................................................................................26
Figure 28 Average temperature graph...........................................................................................27
Figure 29 Relative humidity chart.................................................................................................27
Figure 30 Relative humidity chart.................................................................................................28
Figure 31 Cloudy, sunny and precipitation days graph.................................................................28
Figure 32 Precipitation amount graph...........................................................................................29
Figure 33 Wind speed chart...........................................................................................................29
Figure 34 Wind speed chart...........................................................................................................30
Figure 35 Windrose diagram.........................................................................................................30
Figure 36 PsychrometricChart.......................................................................................................31
Figure 40 Street 1...........................................................................................................................32
Figure 40 Street 3...........................................................................................................................32
Figure 40 Street 4...........................................................................................................................32
Figure 40 Street 2...........................................................................................................................32
Figure 43 Street 2...........................................................................................................................33
Figure 43 Street 1...........................................................................................................................33
Figure 43 Street 3...........................................................................................................................33
Figure 44ambient and surface temperature graph.........................................................................34
Figure 45 Classification of cool asphalt pavement technologies...................................................35

List of Tables

Table 1 albedo of common urban surface materials......................................................................12

Table 2 Summary of Research findings.........................................................................................15
Table 3 Summary of Research findings.........................................................................................17
Table 4 Summary of Reflective paints..........................................................................................18
Table 5 Summary of reflective pavements....................................................................................19
Table 6 Deep canyon Analysis......................................................................................................32
Table 7 Shallow canyon Analysis..................................................................................................33
Table 8 Cooling Power thermal comfort index.............................................................................36
1 Introduction

1.1 Background

The spaces around us in which we take shelter and those which we interact with are part of our
everyday social reality. Outdoor spaces are important to a sustainable city as they are the spaces
that link the public with the urban built context while accommodating daily pedestrian traffic and
various outdoor activities. Outdoor space is often referred to as a space among the building
entities where human and nature exchange information, materials and energy. It is as important
as the indoor living spaces as it allows the people to interact with nature through day to day
physical, socio- cultural or economic activities.

The inevitable linkage of the human to its outdoor environment is held by the comfort created
between one another. In the recent years, urbanization has taken over a huge portion of the land
along with the degradation of its environment. The changes in the micro climate is one of its
major effects where we can clearly feel the alteration in climatic factors like air temperature,
humidity and rainfall. Out of all the effects, the urban heat island still prevails as one of the most
prominent problems that we can see in the hot and humid streets in Nepal. Due to the
unavailability of the land, the building designs have taken the vertical expansion as a matter of
accommodation. The phenomenon of vertical residential design forms a building cliff called
urban canyon phenomenon (Firdausah & Wonorahardjo, 2018). An urban canyon (also known as
a street canyon) is a place where the street is flanked by buildings on either sides creating a
canyon-like environment. For larger areas of a city the thermal response is a function of the
aggregation of urban canyon units (Offerle, Eliasson, & Grimmond, 2007). 30% of solar thermal
energy is absorbed and stored by canyon material and released at night with the result increasing
the ambient temperature. The increasing of the air temperature in the urban at night and the
temperature difference between urban and peri urban is an indication of heat island phenomenon
(Nunez & Oke, 1977)).

(Santamouris, Papanikolaou, Koronaki, & Livada, 1999) found a high intensity of the heat island
with an increase in air temperature of 13°C around the canyon at night due to anthropogenic heat

1
and the use of heat absorbing material. The air temperature in urban area have been found to be
greater than their surrounding areas. The urban heat island is an urban area that is lot warmer
than the rural areas surrounding it, which is a reflection of the micro climatic changes brought on
by human modification to urban surface. Thus a biophilic and a bioclimatic planning approach
can help in mitigation of all the unfavorable outdoor climatic conditions. (Speak & Salbitano,
2022) mentioned local physical characteristics of the sites : Sky View Factor (SVF), tree shade,
ground surface cover, and canyon effect, can affect human exposure to potentially uncomfortable
thermal conditions during a typical summer. (Akbari, Kurn, Bretz, & W., 1997) reported that the
UHI measured at the canopy layer may exhibit high spatial and temporal variation as a result of
the variable thermal properties of the urban construction materials that in combination with the
three-dimensional geometry of built-up surfaces modifies neighboring air temperatures.

Out of the material properties, albedo is the most important with regards to how pavements
interact thermally with the environment when exposed to sunlight. Thermal emittance, thermal
conductivity, and specific heat capacity of the materials are second order factors (Li, Harvey,
Holland, & Kayhanian, 2013). The thermal behavior of pavements and other ground surfaces, as
well as the effects that this thermal behavior has on people and the environment, are significantly
influenced by albedo (or solar reflectance). The direction of sensible heat flux is upward when
the temperature of the ground surface is higher than that of the near-surface air above it, which
causes the temperature of the canopy layer air to rise. Contrary to many rural locations, where
vegetation cover and soil moisture evaporation may reduce the increase in surface temperature
that results from the absorption of solar radiation, a sizable component of urban regions is made
up of dry impermeable materials, such as pavement or buildings. Several researchers have
recommended that to reduce the heating of such surfaces, wherever possible, they should have a
high albedo.

1.2 Need of the study

Thermally comfortable streets promote walkability and sustainability. Urban forms significantly
affects urban climate, which has an impact on street-level outdoor thermal comfort. Thus, it is a
promising place for raising the temperature of the outdoors. In order to reduce discomfort from

2
heat at the pedestrian level, street design is a crucial factor in bioclimatic urban development. As
far as the ambient environment allows, it is necessary to keep urban streets comfortable in order
to build and maintain walkability. Street design is an important issue in bioclimatic urban
development to mitigate thermal discomfort in pedestrian level. Since, the temperature ranges
between 22°C to 41°C in Subtropical region of Nepal, it is difficult to carry out outdoor activities
during daytime.

In the context of Nepal, there are not many research done to reduce the surface temperature to
make the streets walkable in hot summer days. The pavement type selection process, as stated by
the Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport Department of Roads, includes primary and
the secondary factors. The primary factors include the traffic, soil characteristics, weather,
construction considerations, recycling and the cost construction. Whereas the secondary factors
include the performance of the similar pavement in the area, adjacent existing pavement,
conservation of material and energy, availability of local materials, traffic safety, carrying out the
experiments, promotions of competition and preferences f local industries. Both the factors do
not cover the area of heat reflectance property of the pavement material and pedestrian level
thermal comfort. Thus it is of utmost importance to have a thorough study of the pavement
properties in order to create a thermally comfortable streets in the hot and humid climate of
Nepal.

3
 Figure 1 Pavement type selection process

Source: Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport Department of Roads

1.3 Importance of the study

The research aims to find out the surface reflectance of various pavement materials for hot and
humid climate of Nepal and that will help to lower the thermal structure , both air and surface
temperature, during hot season. Hence, this research will help urban planner, energy efficient
planner, policy makers, and designers to create thermally comfortable streets in hot and humid
region of Nepal. This research will also help local authority to consider the pavement material
for the new urban development project. Ultimately, this research aims to help the common
people to walk and conduct business activities in a thermally comfortable street This research
will help urban planners, policy makers, designers to create framework for high performing
street in hot and humid region of Nepal.

1.4 Problem statement

Climate change is unavoidable and its effects will be higher in coming days. The most affected
area by climate change is urban outdoor areas as indoor spaces can be conditioned through
mechanical means. The amount and the intensity of outdoor activities are affected by the level of
the discomfort experienced by the inhabitants when they are exposed to the climatic conditions
in these outdoor spaces (E.Wilson, F.N.col, L.N.nayakkara, & A.U.berjahn-tritta, 2008).

During the summertime, elevated surface and air temperatures can have a number of undesirable
health and environmental impacts causing increased human and ecosystem discomfort, UHI
would exacerbate heat waves, which can lead to serious health issues. The UHI can worsen air

quality by promoting ground-level ozone formation. Despite the problem, designers are more
attracted to the impact of environmental forces on indoor climate of the buildings, design
strategies, and passive solar gains rather than outdoor thermal comfort (Shafaghat, Manteghi,
Keyvanfar, & Lamit, 2016).

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1.5 Objectives of the Research
The major objective of the study is:

• To investigate the thermal structure (air and surface temperature) of various pavement on
regular street canyons and examine the pedestrian thermal comfort.

Secondary objectives of the study are:

• To study the surface reflectance property of various pavement materials.

• To develop the improvement strategies for both old and new street constructions in
order to lower the heat stored in an urban canyon.

1.6 Methodology

The research will be carried out in three phases basically, starting from liter ature review which
includes a general description of street design and its relationship with albedo, microclimate,
aspect ratio and solar access. The second phase deals with the field study of including the
pavement material, Sky View Factor and aspect ratio calculation, pavement temperature and the
market availability of the pavement materials from existing urban configuration. The third phase
includes a numerical validation and the results will be evaluated and concluded.

Literature Review Qualitative data

Site Study Quantitative data

Field study of existing:

• Pavement material Secondary data
• Aspect ratio/SVF
calculation
Methods • Market availability
Results Conclusion
Numerical Validation

1.7 Expected Outputs

The expected output from the study includes:

5
 • Cool pavement materials providing the maximum reflectance of the solar radiation.
• Strategies to improve thermal structure of streets by providing potential material
properties in future use in the urban development and urban planning processes.

2 Literature Review
2.1 Road Types in Nepal
According to Nepal Urban Road Standard 2076, the urban roads are classified as follows:

 Arterial Roads (Path)

 Sub-arterials Roads (Sadak)
 Collector Roads (Marg)
 Local Roads (Upa-Marg)
Arterial Roads (Path): These are the roads generally meant for through traffic usually on a
continuous route.

Sub-arterial Roads (Sadak): These are the roads of the somewhat lower levels of travel mobility
than the arterial roads.

Collector Roads (Marg): A collector road is one intended for collecting & distributing traffic to
and from local roads & also providing the access to arterial/sub-arterial roads.

Local Roads (Upa-Marg): A local road is one primarily intended for access to the residence,
business, and other abutting property.

6
7
A local road is one primarily intended for access to residence, business or other abutting
property. Such a road normally does not carry large volume of traffic. A local road may be
residential, commercial or industrial, depending upon the prominent use of the adjoining land.
Such roads are taken for the study which may pr may not have pedestrian sidewalks.

2.2 Outdoor thermal comfort

Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55). Thermal
comfort is a difficult notion to evaluate in either an indoor or outdoor setting since it
encompasses physical, physiological, or psychological factors.

Six main variables that directly affect thermal comfort can be divided into two categories:
personal variables, which are occupant characteristics, and environmental variables, which are
features of the thermal environment. Metabolic rate and level of clothing are the former two,
while air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air speed, and humidity are the latter two.
Standards typically relate to a constant state to study even if all of these variables may change
over time.

Figure 2 Relationship between the thermal comfort and surrounding environmental settings.

(Wai' & Tan, 2021) 8

The concept of thermally comfortable outdoor environment has been constantly challenged by
the unavoidable climate change. The climate of city is quite different than its surroundings
because of the ever increasing concrete jungle. These climatic conditions are generally classified
as urban climate. One of the most prominent problems that we can see in some of the biggest
metropolitan cities is the problem of urban heat island. Outdoor space can be considered
thermally comfortable if the occupants are satisfied with the present thermal condition and do not
desire for any kind of modification to it. If outdoor spaces could be made thermally comfortable,
there is a huge chance that people will spend most of their free time on outdoor environment
which improve the mental health of people as well. It is challenging to determine the ideal
temperature for everyone in a given location because there are significant differences between
people in terms of physiological and psychological satisfaction.

2.3 Variables determining the pavement surface temperature

2.3.1 Urban canyon, solar irradiance and microclimate

The urban canyons are flanked by the buildings on either sides and forms a canyon like
environment which in fact is a space of heat collection and dissipation. The amount of heat
absorbed in a canyon is directly related to the incident solar radiation on the surface and this
amount of solar radiation is determined by a factor called Sky View factor. The sky view factor
(SVF) is the ratio of the visible sky area of a point in space to the total sky area.

Figure 3 Illustration of Sky view factor in a street canyon Figure 4 Skyline graph and sky view factor

(Dirksen, Ronda, Theeuwes, & Pagani, (Park & Lee, 2017)

2019)
The limits of this ratio range between 0, which
9
refers to an entirely obstructed sky, and a value of 1, which represents a totally unobstructed sky
(Lin, Tsai, & Matzarakis, 2012).

The higher the SVF the more solar radiation will potentially be received by a horizontal surface,
and studies have reported a positive correlation between moderate to high sky view factor (SVF)
values and land surface temperature (LST).

In a canyon with higher SVF, the ambient air remains heated up and the surface temperature of
the street along with the temperature of the building envelope material increases significantly
creating a hot and uncomfortable walking condition for the pedestrian in a hot summer day. On
the contrary, a canyon with a lower SVF will have a cool and comfortable thermal condition.
Thus a microclimate of an urban is a correlational to the solar radiance and its Sky View Factor.

2.3.2 Urban canyon albedo

The albedo quantifies the reflecting power of a surface on a scale from 0 to 1. In urban
climatology, the albedo can be quantified at different scales: at the local-urban scale for the
whole urban surface (i.e. urban fabric) or at the scale of individual facets (i.e. roads, façades,
roofs (Salvati A. , Kolokotroni, Watkins, & Richard, 2022). The reflecting power of individual
facets is expressed in terms of surface albedo – or solar reflectance (SR) – given by the ratio of
the reflected to the incident solar radiation over a horizontal plane. Measured SR can reach
values up to 0.95 for advanced ultra-white materials or be as low as 0.05 for dark materials such
as fresh asphalt (Salvati A. , Kolokotroni, Watkins, & Richard, 2022).

10
Figure 6 Interconnections between surface albedo, urban canyon albedo, outdoor thermal comfort and building indoor thermal
environment

(Salvati A. , Kolokotroni, Watkins, & Richard, 2022)

2.3.3 Albedo and surface temperature

Every surface present in the environment hold its

own albedo. Higher the value of albedo, higher is
the solar reflectance and vice versa. The albedo
and ground temperature is found to be positively
correlated as shown in the graph below.

Albedo only comes into effect under the solar

radiation. Thus, high albedo is important in
reducing a material's temperature during the
daytime.
Figure 7 the albedo of various urban surface materials

Source: http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/urban-climates.html

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The table 1 shows the albedo value of various pavement materials. This indicates that the albedo
increases on increasing the light coloured pigment on the materials.

2.3.4

Table 1 albedo of common urban surface materials

(Taleghani & Berardi, 2017)

Cool pavements

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) defines cool pavement as paving materials
that reflect more solar energy, enhance water evaporation, or are otherwise modified to remain
cooler than conventional pavement to mitigate the UHI effect. Solar reflective "cool" pavements
stay cooler in the sun than conventional pavements. Existing pavements could be made "cool" by
many techniques.

Conventional asphalt pavements, can be

modified with high solar reflectance (SR)
materials, colored asphalt by pigments or
sealant, applying light-colored coating,
or chip seals, white topping, ultra-thin
white topping (UTW) and micro Figure 9 Thermal infrared and visible images of a road with light
and dark segments.
surfacing with light-colored aggregate
Source: https://heatisland.lbl.gov/coolscience/cool-pavements
and/or emulsified polymer resin for
maintenance(Tran, et al, 2008).The concrete pavement generally has a higher reflectance than
asphalt pavement. It can be modified to increase the reflectance by using white cement, or

12
cement blended with light color slag. Other reflective pavements using reflective coats on
already existing Pavements.

Figure 10 Working of Reflective coating on asphalt pavement Figure 11 Cool pavement and surface temperature reduction

(Zhu & Mai, 2019) Source: https://twitter.com/s3research/status/1506377527689986051

Figure 10 shows the working of reflective coating on asphalt pavement where by the application
of high albedo dark colored paint coating on pavement surface has a high reflection of the infra-
red radiations. The traditional asphalt with a temperature of 121°C can be reduced as low as
106°C by the application of solar reflective cool pavement as shown in Figure 11.

2.4 Research Findings

(Erell E. , Pearlmutter, Kutiel, & Bar, 2013), did a simulation to find out the changes in the
ambient temperature with relation to the pavement albedo of canyons with various aspect ratios.
The simulation included the weather stations of four cities, Eilat, Singapore, Adelaide and
Goteborg in East- West and North- South orientation. On increasing the albedo from 0.2 to 0.7,
all the cities experienced a lowered air temperature on both orientation of the streets. This shows
that the surface and the air temperature reduction is not affected by the orientation of the street

13
but is affected by the albedo of the pavement surfaces. Also the albedo comes into effect for
cities with temperate to hot climates.

Figure 12 The difference between the predicted air temperature in each of the urban canyon scenarios and the measured
temperature at the respective reference weather stations, at 12:00 (Erell E. , Pearlmutter, Kutiel, & Bar, 2013)

The research papers of last thirty years were reviewed that discussed about the changes in
ambient temperature and pavement temperature on altering the albedo. (Kusuda, 1975), stated
that just by changing the albedo only by applying of white paint on dark asphalt, a reduction of
maximum daily surface temperature over 7°C could be done.

(Mattheos Santamouris & T. Karlessi, 2011) did a park renovation project in Athens, Greece,
implementing high-albedo paving that resulted in a decrease of 1.9 °C in peak temperatures. A
maximum temperature difference of 7.6 °C between conventional tiles and cool pavement’ on a
hot summer day was obtained. Also the authors concluded that the reduction of peak air
temperature is estimated at 0.57–2.3 °C for every 0.1 increase in urban albedo, equivalent to a
total effect of 1–3.5 °C.

14
The effect of changing albedo on the pedestrian thermal comfort was also studied. Studies
showed that the increment in the reflectance of the pavement materials can cause a discomfort
due to increased interreflections between surfaces. Use of high-albedo materials in canyon
surfaces may lower air temperature, the reduction is not enough to offset increased radiant loads.
As a result, pedestrian thermal comfort may in fact be compromised (Salvati A. , Kolokotroni,
Watkins, & Richard, 2022). The summarized research findings is shown in the tables below.

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Table 2 Summary of Research findings

S.N Title Author Findings

1. The effect of ground cover on earth (Kusuda, 1975) • Changing surface albedo alone, by application of
temperature. white paint to dark asphalt, was reported to have
resulted in a reduction of maximum daily surface
temperature of over 7°C.

2. Mitigation of urban heat islands: materials, (H. Rosenfeld, et al., • Application of practical changes in the albedo of
utility programs, updates. 1995) materials, could reduce summertime peak air
temperature by as much as 1.5 °C.

3. Development of a zero-dimensional meso (Bhardwaj & Golden, • Air temperature reductions could be achieved
scale thermal model for urban climate. 2009) ranging from 0.5 to 5°C, depending on assumptions
regarding the extent of high albedo surfaces.

4. Improving the microclimate in urban (Gaitani, Spanou, & • A potential air temperature reduction of 1–2 °C in a
areas: a case study in the centre of Athens Synnefa, 2011) public square through implementation of cool
paving.

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S.N Title Author Findings

5. Environmental Design of Urban Buildings: (Santamouris M. , 2012) • Cool pavements reduced the peak ambient air
An Integrated Approach. Taylor & Francis temperature by up to 1.9 °C, and the ground surface
temperature was reduced by 12 °C.

6. Using advanced cool materials in the urban (Mattheos Santamouris &
built environment to mitigate heat islands T. Karlessi, 2011)
and improve thermal comfort conditions
• A maximum temperature difference of 7.6 °C
between conventional tiles and cool pavement’ on a
hot summer day was obtained.
• A park renovation project in Athens, Greece,
implementing high-albedo paving resulted in a
decrease of 1.9 °C in peak temperatures.
• The reduction of peak air temperature is estimated
at 0.57–2.3 °C for every 0.1 increase in urban
albedo, equivalent to a total effect of 1–3.5 °C.

7. Heat mitigation strategies in winter and (Taleghani M. , • The air temperature was reduced by 1.3 °C
summer: field measurements in temperate Tenpierik, Sailor, & J., compared to a dark pavement (albedo of 0.37) in
climates. 2014) the temperate climate of Portland.

8. Comparing the effects of urban heat island (Wang & Akbari, 2016) • It would be possible to reduce the average air
mitigation strategies for Toronto, Canada temperature by up to 0.8 °C at mid-day and 0.6 °C
at mid-night during the hot summer days

S.N Title Author Findings

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 9. Urban canyon albedo and its implication (Qin, 2015) • Reflective pavements can be used only if an urban
on the use of reflective cool pavements canyon has an aspect ratio no greater than 1.0.

10. Impact of reflective materials on urban (Salvati A. , Kolokotroni, • Increasing surface reflectance in urban canyons has
Watkins, & Richard,
canyon albedo, outdoor and indoor a detrimental impact on outdoor thermal comfort,
2022)
microclimates due to increased interreflections between surfaces.

11. Effect of high-albedo materials on (Erell E. , Pearlmutter, Kutiel, & • Use of high-albedo materials in canyon surfaces
Bar, 2013)
pedestrian heat stress in urban street may lower air temperature, the reduction is not
canyons enough to offset increased radiant loads. As a
result, pedestrian thermal comfort may in fact be
compromised.

12. The effect of pavement characteristics on (Berardi, 2021) • Although the increase of reflectivity of pavement
pedestrians' thermal comfort in Toronto reduces the air temperature, it reduces the thermal
comfort at the pedestrian level.

Table 3 Summary of Research findings

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2.5 Reflective Paints and Pavements
The surfaces could be made cool by the application of reflective paints also called as cool paints.
Various cool pavement paints have been developed that has been successfully experimented and
shown to ave reduced the surface temperature. The summary of the temperature decrement is
summarized in the table below.

Table 4 Summary of Reflective paints

S. Cool Experimented Surface Climate Reference

N Pavement Location Temperature
Paint Reduction

1. PerfectCool Singapore 17° C Tropical (Wan, Hien, &

Aloysius, 2014)

2. Heat Zhejiang, China 12.2°C Humid (Yi, Jiang, Li,

Reflective subtropical Deng, & Xue,
Coat 2019)

3. Cool top Shaanxi, China 7.3° C Semi-Arid (Zheng, Lei,

Wang, & Chen,
2020)

4. Super Road Xi’an, China 7.9° C warm (Yi. et.al, 2019)

Heat- temperate
Reflective
Coating

5. Decocoat Boise, Ldaho, US 1 °C in coated semi-arid (Lu, Rahman, &

concrete continental Golrokh, 2022)
climate
and 5°C
coated asphalt.

6. Solar Nanjing, China 8.5 °C–9.5 °C subtropical (Sha, Liu, & Li,
Reflective climate 2017)
pavement
(self
developed
paint)

19
Table 5 Summary of reflective pavements

Material Strategy Albedo Surface Reference

Temperature
Reduction

Light aggregate Replacing with wasted 0.52 4.4°C (Guntor, Din, &
tiles, sand and epoxy Iwao, 2014)
resin

Conventional Addition of a thin layer 0.35 7.5°C (Mat, 2018)

asphalt of light-yellow asphalt

black asphalt Off-white asphalt 0.45 12°C (Kappou,

with a (0.03) Souliotis,
Papaefthimiou,
& Paravantis,
2022)

black asphalt Yellow, beige, green, 0.26, 9.0, 7.0, 5.0, (Synnefa,
and red asphalt 0.31, and 4.0°C Karlessi, &
0.10, Santamouris,
and 0.11 2014)

dark granites white marbles 0.7 19°C, (Santamouris L.

D., 2004)

black coating white elastomeric 0.72 45°C (Taha & Akbari,

with an albedo coating 1992)
0.61 25°C
of 0.08
white surface
ordinary gravel
with an albedo
of 0.09

black asphalt white-painted roads 0.55 11 °C (Berg & Quinn,

1978)
(0.15)

20
 3 Case Study

3.1 A case of Phoenix, Arizona

Heat is absorbed and held in by asphalt throughout the day and released at night. Due to the heat
being trapped within the built environment, Phoenix is one of several cities that are experiencing
the urban heat island effect. According to data from the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, nighttime temperatures in heat island regions can vary by up to 22 degrees higher than
those observed outside the heat island. Increased energy demand, greenhouse gas emissions, air
pollution, and other negative impacts are brought on by higher nighttime temperatures.

With the use of cool pavement on neighborhood streets, Los Angeles has had succeeded in
lowering road surface temperatures. Phoenix aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of the cool
pavement technology and material in lowering temperatures in the city's desert environment. The
pilot program included the cool street pavement of eight different streets in a residential area in
Phoenix.

Figure 13 Streets experimented with cool pavement

Source: https://www.phoenix.gov/streets/coolpavement

21
The findings from the one year observation of the program included the temperature and comfort
data which included the following:

• Compared to conventional asphalt, cool pavement exhibited a decrease in surface

temperatures throughout the day.
• At noon and in the afternoon, the surface temperature of cool pavement was 10.5 to 12 °C
lower on average than that of typical asphalt. At daybreak, surface temperatures were
typically 2.4 °C cooler.
• The average subsurface temperature was 4.8 °C lower in places with cool pavement.
• The average nighttime air temperature at six feet above cool pavement was 0.5 °C lower
than on the untreated surfaces.
• Due to surface reflection, human heat exposure at noon and in the afternoon was 5.5 °C
greater than it would have been on a conventional concrete sidewalk.
• Over a period of ten months, the surface solar reflectance decreased throughout all eight
communities, falling from a range of 33 to 38% to a range of 19 to 30%.
• The reflectance of untreated asphalt is only 12%.

22
3.2 A case of Nangal, Punjab

Nangal is a town in Rupnagar district in Punjab, sandwiched between sub-tropical hot climate of
Punjab and Cool temperate climate of Himachal Pradesh, India. The area has a humid subtropical
and dry winter climate. The summers are extreme hot and humid whereas the winters are mid to
moderately cold in winters. The temperature goes as high as 42 °C in summer and as low as 5 °C
in winters. The study area is closely related with the climatic area of the hot humid climate of
Nepal and has many resemblances in its climatic characters.

The Punjab Government has made use of the precast concrete slabs in the streets with residential
and commercial market areas in both urban as well as rural areas. Although the use of the
concrete slabs isn’t intended to reduce the surface temperature, it is used because of its
durability. The arterial streets which is asphalt paved also consists of market areas which is less
vibrant in daytime and people often prefer walking in the evening for commercial activities in
such streets. Whereas in the streets with concrete slabs, the place is quite chaotic and hectic even
in daytime as compared to the asphalt paved streets. This shows that the concrete having more
albedo than that of the asphalt has higher reflectance of the incoming solar radiation and thus
makes the streets thermally comfortable. The hectic nature of the concrete streets shows the
comfort of the pedestrian during daytime.

Figure 15 Concrete surface as cool pavement Figure 16 Concrete surface as cool pavement

23
The climate of the Nangal is hot and humid throughout the summer. According to Meteoblue,
the average annual maximum temperature is 33.58 °C and average annual minimum
temperature is 14.58 °C. Temperature remains more than 30°C from April to October and
above 35 °C from April to September which may exceed to above 40 °C during April to July.

Figure 17 shows the average temperature and precipitation and Figure 18 shows the
maximum temperatures in Nangal.

Figure 17 Average temperature and precipitation in Nangal, Punjab

Figure 18 Maximum temperatures in Nangal, Punjab

24
4 Introduction to Case area

Birgunj is a metropolitan city in Parsa District in Madhesh Province of southern Nepal. It is

located 135 kilometers (84 miles) south of Kathmandu and is bordered by the Indian state of
Bihar to the north via Raxaul. Birgunj is referred to as the "Gateway of Nepal" since it serves as
Patna's gateway to Nepal. The "Commercial Capital of Nepal" is another name for it. Due to the
fact that most trade with India passes through Birgunj and the Indian town of Raxaul, the town is
very crucial economically for Nepal. The Tribhuvan Highway connects Birgunj with
Kathmandu, the nation's capital. The streets studied are located in Birgunj Metropolitan City.
The first ever recorded tornado in Nepal had affected Parsa district in 2019. Hence, given the
context of the streets and its bio-climatic value, pedestrian-friendly comfortable streets are
essential in Birgunj.

Figure 19 Map of Birgunj metropolitan

City
Figure 20 Map of Nepal showing Birgunj
Source: birgunjmun.gov.np

Many existing streets are Asphalt blacktopped, concrete premix, earthen and
gravel topped. Very few streets have pedestrian sidewalks which have
concrete blocks. The streets play an important role in the daily commute of
the residents. The urban streets in Birgunj is classified into arterial and the
local ones. The streets taken for the study are the local streets which may or
may not have the pedestrian sidewalks but people use them for daily
commute and located in the residential and the commercial spaces. Streets

Figure 21 Gravel topped street

25
are analyzed on the basis of their pavement materials of the entire street section including the
pedestrian sidewalks, their aspect ratio and the sky view factors.

Figure 22 Asphalt street with concrete blocks in sidewalks Figure 23 Earthen street

Figure 24 Concrete street Figure 25 Asphalt street

Figures above show the various pavement materials in the streets of Birgunj.

5 Climate Analysis

Climate data for the Birgunj are acquired from a variety of sources. Secondary data sources
included the data from Climate consultant and Meteoblue, which are collected and analyzed. The
Department of Hydrology and Meteorology does not have data for 2014, 2015 and 2018 and also
present data is not enough for complete climate analysis. Climate has been analyzed on the basis
of its temperature, Relative Humidity, Precipitation and wind speed. The climate of Birgunj is
sub-tropical monsoon with a very hot and humid summer. People feel very warm and muggy
throughout the summer.

5.1 Temperature

26
According to Meteoblue, the average annual maximum temperature is 31.6 °C and average
annual minimum temperature is 17.9 °Temperature remains more than 30°C from July to
October and above 35 °C from April to June which may exceed to above 40 °C during April to
June. According to climate consultant, the average annual maximum temperature is 29 °C and
average annual minimum temperature is 14 °C.

Figure 26 Average temperature graph

Source: meteoblue

Figure 27 Maximum temperature graph

Source: meteoblue

27
Figure 26 shows the average temperature graph from meteoblue, Figure 27 shows the maximum
temperature graph obtained from meteoblue and Figure 28 shows the average temperature graph
obtained from climate consultant.

Figure 28 Average temperature graph

Source: Climate consultant

5.2 Relative Humidity

According to climate consultant, the Relative

humidity is between 60-80 % throughout the
year at some part of the day. It is relatively
high from May to November at Noon. RH
reaches above 80% during August to February
in the morning. Also, Birgunj experiences a
low RH from February to April at daytime. The
Relative Humidity is above 80% for 46% days
of the year whereas 33% of the days remain in
between 60-80% RH. Similarly, 17% of the
days have RH in between 40-60% and only 4%
of the year experiences RH between 20-40%.
28
Figure 29 Relative humidity chart

Source: Climate consultant

Thus the Relative Humidity of Birgunj is mostly high making it a humid place.

Figure 30 Relative humidity chart

Source: Climate consultant

5.3 Rainfall and Precipitation

According to Meteoblue, the sky is clear and sunny from October to May with a few partly
cloudy days. It is cloudy from June to September with a few days of overcast. There is
moderate rainfall in April to September. The region receives rainfall between 2-5mm rainfall
per day during July, else the region remains dry most of the year. There is no or less rainfall
from October to March

Figure 31 Cloudy, sunny and precipitation days graph

Source: meteoblue 29
Figure 32 Precipitation amount graph

Source: meteoblue
5.4 Wind Speed

The wind is calm to light breeze (less that

5 mph) throughout the year providing less
air flow. The wind speed is highest during
February to September (5-10 mph) around
noon. Wind is blowing from South-West
(SW) to North-East (NE). Due to the less
airflow, the humid hair gets stagnant in the
air and causes discomfort to the
pedestrians.

The area experiences a very calm breeze

for 48% of the days in a year with 3-5 mph
wind. For the 34% of the days, the wind
Figure 33 Wind speed chart
speed is less that 3mph and only for the
19% of the time, the wind speed is 5-10 Source: Climate consultant
mph.

30
 Figure 35 Windrose diagram

Source: meteoblue

5.5 Psychrometric chart

The bioclimatic chart is very effective tool for analyzing the comfort condition. The chart is used
to plot the average maximum and minimum temperature and the average maximum and
minimum relative humidity. Identifying a suitable strategy for a given location can be made
using bioclimatic charts based on the thermal comfort conditions of that particular location. The
Psychrometric chart was obtained from climate consultant and following data were obtained.

• Summer Comfort zone: During night time of March and April.

• Winter comfort Zone: During night time of January and February and also during
morning hours of April and May. The daytime of March also fall under winter comfort
zone.
• Air Movement must be incorporated from June- October.
• Passive Solar Heating is required from November-February and for certain period in the
month of March.

31
 • Active cooling is required from May-August.

Figure 36 PsychrometricChart

Source: Climate consultant

The winter comfort ranges from 22 °C to 26 °C and the summer comfort range from 25 °C to
28 °C.

6 Site Study
The Streets were analyzed based on their aspect ratio and sky view factors. Different streets
canyons were taken for the study that had varying aspect ratios and Sky View factors. The aspect
ratio of canyons were calculated by the formula,

Aspect ratio of canyon= height of the building/ width between the buildings

Similarly the 2D sky view factor was calculated. From a 2D perspective the SVF from a point in
the street canyon is estimated as (DeWolff, 2008) .

32
6.1 Deep canyon Analysis

Four streets were takes for the deep canyon analysis.

Figure 37 Street 1 Figure 40 Street 2 Figure 39 Street 3 Figure 38 Street 4

Table 6 Deep canyon Analysis

S.N. Street Aspect ratio Sky View factor

1. Street 1 1.8 0.26
2. Street 2 1.2 0.28
3. Street 3 2.5 0.19
4. Street 4 2.33 0.2

• Deep canyons (aspect ratio >1) have shadow effect that makes the streets cool.
• Sky view factor is less (<0.3) in deep canyons that allows less solar radiation on surface.
• High aspect ratio and less SVF allows the streets to have less surface temperature.

33
• Pedestrian feel thermally comfortable in such streets.

6.2 Shallow canyon Analysis

Three streets were takes for the deep canyon analysis.

Figure 42 Street 1 Figure 43 Street 2 Figure 41 Street 3

Table 7 Shallow canyon Analysis

S.N. Street Aspect ratio Sky View actor

1. Street 1 0.8 0.52
2. Street 2 1 0.44
3. Street 3 0.95 0.46

34
 • Shallow to regular canyons (aspect ratio ≤ 1) have very less to no shadow effect that
makes the streets hot during daytime.

• Sky view factor is higher (>0.3) in shallow canyons that allows high solar radiation on
surface.

• Less aspect ratio and high SVF allows the streets to have greater surface temperature.

• Pedestrian feel thermally uncomfortable in such streets with no shades, either from
buildings or trees.

• Thus, improvement strategies for surface temperature reduction were needed to be made
for the streets with higher SVF and less Aspect ratio.

6.3 Surface temperature Analysis

The surface temperatures of the above mentioned streets were measured and data were collected
and analyzed. The ambient and pavement surface temperature of all four types of streets were
measured. The data was taken on 9th march,2023 at 2:45 pm. There was a difference of 1.23°C
between asphalt and concrete pavement.

Figure 44 ambient and surface temperature graph

35
Asphalt shallow canyon absorbed more solar radiation. Highest recorded surface temperature
was 44.6°C. Highest ambient temperature recorded was 31.5°C. Concrete deep canyon absorbed
less solar radiation. Lowest recorded surface temperature was 37.7°C. Lowest recorded ambient
temperature was 30.27°C.

7 Improvement Strategies

Studies showed that Asphalt had the larger impact on the surface heating followed by concrete,
soil, and grass. The site study showed most of the streets in Birgunj are Asphalt. Thus the first
line of improvement is necessary for the asphalt streets. (Gong, Liu, Lv, & Wu, 2023) classified
the cool asphalt technologies that includes various measures to prevent heat from entering thr
pavement. Among them, the reflective technologies suit best in our context. Due to the
unavailability of the reflective paints, the improvement strategies incorporates the adoption of
various heat preventing technologies.

Figure 45 Classification of cool asphalt pavement technologies

(Gong, Liu, Lv, & Wu, 2023)

Thus the improvement strategies have been made on basis of the availability of the reflective
material technologies in Birgunj.

For existing pavements, pigment in coating layers such as Titanium dioxide (TiO2) increase
solar reflectance and reduce surface temperature by (10 ± 2.5) °C. The literature showed that the

36
TiO2 is the major constituent in cool paints so if only it could be used, there can be a significant
decrement in the pavement temperature. Similarly the other improvement technologies include
the following:

• Light-colored aggregate technology: spreading light colored aggregate over freshly

paved asphalt and then using a roller to press the aggregate into the pavement.

• Chip seals technology and sand seals technology: spraying asphalt cement or
emulsified asphalt on the surface of newly built asphalt pavement and embedding
aggregate.

• Shot-blasting technology: Shot-blasting process removes asphalt surface binder at high

speeds exposing the light-colored aggregate used in the asphalt mixture and improving
the reflectivity of the pavement surface.

• Colored asphalt technology: using colored asphalt, added color pigments to the asphalt
mixture to prepare thin asphalt layers of different colors.

8 Numerical Validation
To evaluate the possible improvement of thermal comfort in the considered area, the Cooling
Power Thermal Comfort Index was evaluated for the climatic conditions corresponding to the
area before and after the proposed intervention.

The CP cooling power comfort index is defined as follows

(Cena & Wojcik, 1966).

CP = (0.421 + 0.087 × v) × (36.5 − t) (mcalcm−2 /s)

Where,

t is the mean ambient temperature (°C)

v is the wind speed (m/s)

Table 8 Cooling Power thermal comfort
index
In general, it was discovered that increasing the albedo by 0.1 resulted in a decrease in
surface temperature of close to 2.3°C.

37
 Base case with Asphalt pavement (albedo 0.2)

t= 31.6°C average annual maximum temperature v= 5 mph (48% of the year)

=2.23 m/s

CP = (0.421 + 0.087 × 2.23) × (36.5 − 31.6) (mcalcm−2 /s)

= 3.01

Quite hot

Improved case with light yellow asphalt pavement (albedo 0.35)

Assuming temperature reduction by 2.3°C,

t= (31.6-2.3)°C = 29.3°C

v= 15 mph (April to September)

=6.70 m/s

CP = (0.421 + 0.087 × 6.70) × (36.5 − 29.3) (mcalcm−2 /s)

= 7.22

Comfortable

Hence by changing the albedo from 0.2 to 0.35 alone can create a quite hot streets into thermally
comfortable streets.

9 Discussion and Conclusion

Dark materials store solar radiation during the day and reradiate it overnight. Reversely, cool
materials, given their high albedo, are often proposed for mitigating UHI issues. Since, the
temperature ranges between 24°C to 39°C in Birgunj, it is difficult to carry out outdoor activities
during daytime. The streets with a higher aspect ratio and a lower sky view factor experiences
shadow effect which makes the streets cool enough for the pedestrian thermal comfort whereas
the streets with the lesser aspect ratio and higher sky view factor experiences high intensity of
solar radiation on the surface. Thus the improvement scenarios must be taken for the streets with
shallow canyons and also the strategies must be incorporated based upon the availability of the

38
reflective materials. About the pavement materials, the availability of concrete could help in cool
pavement constructions. Due to the unavailability of the reflective paints, Titanium dioxide could
be used in order to reflect maximum solar radiation. The study was carried out with the
numerical validation of key theories explained and its relation with the thermal comfort of
pedestrian was examined. Changing the albedo from 0.2 to 0.35 alone can create a thermally
comfortable streets.

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