Modern History HSC Notes

Conflict in the Pacific 1937-1951

Strategic and political reasons for the bombing of Pearl Harbour, and the US response:

Strategic Reasons:
- Destroying the US Pacific fleet, knocking out of war – With Britain, France and
Netherlands weakened because of the war in Europe the only obstacle to Japanese
expansion was America.
- Theoretical 12 months of US rebuild
- Time to widen the defence perimeter
- Japan needed oil after the US oil embargo (August 1941). Colonisation is the
answer
- ‘Hull note’ handed to Japan from the US (25 November 1941). Japan refused
because the demands were unreasonable
- Japan's plan didn't work but destroyed 2403 troops, 11 naval ships and 8 battleships

Political Reasons:
- Greater-East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
- Colonising like the west
- Colonisation is successful if Japan occupies Pearl Harbour
- Internal pressure from militant government members
- Historian Joseph C Grew “[Americans are unaware of] the political intensity of
Japanese nationalistic fanaticism”
- Admiral Yamamoto Commander of the First Fleet from 1939 strategist behind the
plan.
- Tojo submits plan to attack (6 September 1941)
- Needed it to be quick because Japan needed oil and other resources from new
colonies
- The oil gained can be used to better defend from a US attack
- Japanese mentality ‘attack them before they attack us’
- Imperial ambitions/ strong nationalism

The Attack - Need a paragraph with some details about the attack itself
- Japanese fleet left based on Kurile islands on 26th November 1941 under command
of Admiral Nagumo.
- Consisted of 6 aircraft carries, 423 planes and large number of escort ships
- Remained undetected in its voyage across the Pacific Ocean
 - 2nd December; Nagumo receives a coded message that the planned attack was to go
ahead after a decision at the Imperial Conference.
- Fleet maintains radio silence and heads for Pearl Harbor
- Achieved surprise attack and as such inflicted heavy damage, 8 US battleships
damaged, 11 warships sunk or damaged, 164 aircraft US aircraft destroyed, and
2300 Americans died.
US Response:
- Abandoned its isolationist foreign policy
- Isolationist: not supplying war materials to countries in war
- Broke the rule (March 1941) with the lend-lease Act to Britain
- This proves that the US wanted to be involved in the war but wasn't approved by the
population
- The surprise attack on Pearl Harbour was seen to be disrespectable and wanted
people to go to war President Roosevelt described the day as “date that will live on in
infamy.”
- The US declared war (8 December 1941) after Pearl Harbour surprise attack (7
December 1941)
- The plan backfired because despite being a surprise attack and successful, the US
with its enormous production and economic capacity now declare war on Japan and
are determined to defeat them. Also brought US allies into war e.g., Britain, Australia,
New Zealand all declare war on Japan 8th December.

Japanese Advance 1941-1942 and the impact of the fall of the Philippines, Singapore,
Burma and the Dutch East Indies:

Philippines: (9 April 1942)

- Japan attacked northern US air bases hours after Pearl Harbour where most of the
Far East Air Force (FEAF) was
- At the same time, Iba was attacked
- In 1 week, they destroyed FEAF
Land Invasion: Battan Island
- Landed 2500 troops (14 December 1941)
- Mindanao was attacked (21 December 1941)
- Landed at Lingayen Gulf (22 December 1941)
- US/Philippian troops were ordered out of Manila (24 December 1941)
- US General Douglas Macarthur orders troops to Bataan Peninsula
- The same day, manila declared an “open city”, but Japan kept attacking
- US General King Jr surrenders
US: General Macarthur
Japanese: General Homma
Significance:
- Neutralise a lot of the US military – Bataan death March; surrender of 70,000
American and Filipino soldiers – 10,000 died.
- Helps in further advances such as the Dutch East Indies
- Secured communications with SE Asia and Japan
- Roosevelt wants revenge through the Doolittle raid (18 April 1942)
Singapore: (15 February 1942)
- Japan landed in northwest Malaya (Mid-December 1941)
- British forces crippled
- The US lost the Battle of Jitra and retreated (12 December 1941)
- Japan takes Kuala Lumpur (11 January 1942)
- Japan takes Johore (14 January 1942)
- British and Australian troops withdraw, separating Mayla from Singapore (31
January 1942)
- The US puts troops on a thin 110Km strip
- Japan crossed the Johor Strait in air attacks, wiping out the allies
- 23000 Japanese headed towards Singapore
- Singapore surrenders on 15th Feb 1942 – massive blow to allies in region
Japanese: General Yamashita
Significance:
- Sunk the British Prince of Wales and the Repulse, capture naval bases resulting in
Japan being a temporary powerhouse
- Embarrassment for Britain – 130,000 British empire troops taken as POW
- Winston Churchill “the worst disaster and largest capitulation in British history”

Dutch East Indies: (March 8, 1942)

- Japan enters Borneo (16 December 1941) DEA surrenders Java on 8th March
- Japan enters Sumatra (14 February 1942)
- Battle of Java Sea (End of February 1942)
Japanese: Admiral Takagi and Admiral Nishimura
Allies: Admiral Doorman. American/British/Dutch/Australian fleet (ABDA)
Significance:
- Oil for Japan – achieved one of their key strategic goals
- ABDA lost 2 light cruisers, 3 destroyers and 2300 troops

Burma: (2 May 1942)

- Japanese air raids on Rangoon
- Japan invaded Burma (mid-December 1941)
- Rangoon was captured (8 March 1942)
- Britain mostly pushed out of Burma (20 March 1942)
Significance:
- Further humiliation for the British after Singapore
- Britain was no longer going to be the big attacker against Japan (it's mainly up to the
US)
- Capturing Burma protected Japan’s position in Malaya
- After, Japan closed the Burma Road which supplied Chinese nationalist forces and
thus aided the Japanese push in China
Whilst the Japanese advance was extremely successful from 1941-1942 it did overstretch their
perimeter leading to supply issues and communication issues which contributed to their defeat.
Turning points in the war: Battle of the Coral Sea, Battle of Midway, Battle of Guadalcanal,
New Guinea:

Midway: (Most important) (4-7 June 1942)

 - Japan wanted to extend their defensive perimeter and Admiral Yamamoto wanted a
‘decisive battle’.
- Stage 1: air attack with Japan 4 biggest aircraft carriers (Akagi, Kaga, Hiryu and
Soryn)
- Stage 2: land invasion of ship/soldiers led by Vice Admiral Kondo
- Stage 3: Nagumo forces with Yamamoto's fleet (didn't happen)
- Cryptologists knew plan 3 and used a counter plan – US General Nimitz led this plan.
Significance:
- The battle indicated the Japanese defeat
- Victory = defeated largest Western power = minimal resistance
- Loss = When will Japan lose
- Japan lost 4 aircraft carriers, a heavy cruiser, 300 aircraft and 3000 troops
- The US losses were not as significant, only lost Yorktown, USS Hamman, 145
aircraft and 300 troops
- As a result of the losses Japanese carriers and their inability to replace these
resources quickly meant that US now had naval air superiority in the Pacific not
Japan. Key reason it is a turning point.

Guadalcanal: (7 August 1942 - 9 February 1945)

- US Marine division land on the island of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands
- No clear victor (the US overall benefits from the battle)
- US intelligence knew Japan had intentions of building an airstrip at Runga Point
- The airstrip would significantly impact the US and Australian communication
- The attrition warfare resulted in large casualties
- February 1943 the Japanese troops eventually withdraw their forces
Significance:
- Japanese losses: 30000 troops, 38 naval vessels, hundreds of aircraft and elite naval
aviators
- The US losses: 7100 troops
- A US capture would make possible an attack on Rabal (Japanese base)
- Sea and air routes between US and Australia remained secure now
- The US strong economy means they were able to bounce back from their losses
- Japan couldn't recover from their losses because its resources were stretched, and
its economy couldn't catch up – Japan also lost significant manpower e.g., highly
trained pilots.

Coral Sea: (4-8 May 1942)

- No clear winner. Not a decisive battle.
- Japanese fleet bound for Port Moresby intercepted by US fleet.
- Japanese aims: inflict significant damage to the US and extend their perimeter
Significance:
- US losses: the Lexington, damaged Yorktown, 1 tanker, 1 destroyer, 66 aircraft and
543 troops
- Japanese losses: carrier, damaged carrier, destroyer, 3 small vessels, 77 aircraft and
1071 troops
- Japanese advance southwards stopped = moral boost in the allies
 - Communication between the US and Australia was saved
- Failed to take Port Moresby = Japan cannot attack Australian ports/airfields

New Guinea: (23 January 1942 - August 1945)

- Japanese aim was to control Port Moresby which would dominate the battle of Coral
Sea and cut communications with Australia and the US.
- On 22nd July Japanese forces land to try to take Port Moresby after crossing Kokoda
track.
- August 1942 – Japanese land at Milne Bay; Australian troops fight back, and Japan
withdraws September.
- Japanese advance down Kokoda track is pushed back by Aus troops and 9th
December 1942 they secure the beaches the Japanese landed at.
Significance:
- Australians had a fear of invasion (but historians say that Japanese aims never
involved capturing Australia)
- Ended their campaign in Papua and halted Japanese southwest expansion in Pacific
- US success promoted Macarthur's strategy of island hopping
- Japan lost 202,100 troops
- The US lost 15,000

Strategies used by allied forces 1942-1945:

Island-hopping: (MOST EFFECTIVE)

- US strategy involved only attacking islands with strategic importance and ignoring
those that didn't seek a strategic benefit (General MacArthur's idea)
- This made the US advance to Japan quicker with fewer resources used
- Battle of Guadalcanal was the first island in the campaign
- Hopped to Iwo Jima (19 February - 26 March 1945)
- The battle was significant because its victory meant that the US was close enough to
Japan's mainland for B-29s to bomb Japan
-

Sea Battles:
- The US had naval superiority
- The US could make 16 naval craft in the time 1 naval craft was made by the
Japanese
- The US used new techniques such as code breaking that worked effectively (Battle
of Midway)
- The attack on Midway was planned in 3 stages by the Japanese. The US knew the
3ed plan (attack using Nagumo forces with Yamamoto's fleet) from cryptologist

Air attacks:
- Some air attacks would be significant against Japanese aggression, other times it
doesn't achieve much
 - The Doolittle raid didn't affect Japanese aggression. What it did achieve was to boost
the US morale and brought the conflict to Japan which raised fears among the
Japanese (18 April 1942)
- Tokyo firebombing was very effective in damaging Japan (9-10 March 1945)
- It was called “Operation Meetinghouse” and had the intention of pushing Japan to
surrender
- 100,000 Japanese dead. It was called “Night of the black snow”
- After the raids, Japan didn't surrender so the US used atomic bombs. “The Little Boy”
in Hiroshima (6 August 1945) and “fat boy” in Nagasaki (9 August 1945)
- The use of the atomic bomb was able to make Japan surrender and therefore was
successful in its aims
- Overall air attacks are the most effective in 1945

Japanese strategy: Suprise attack/ Kamikaze

- The surprise attack was very uncommon in the Western world (you would normally
declare war on a country before attacking) but proved to be effective (short term) for
the Japanese in the attack on Pearl Harbour
- In the long term, the battle was unsuccessful in its aim (removing the US from the
Pacific theatre temporarily) but was able to destroy 2403 troops, 11 naval ships and 8
battleships
- The strategy of Kamikaze was used as a last desperate attempt to defeat the US
- 3,500 Kamikaze (suicide) pilots were used in the Battle of Okinawa

Social, political and economic effects on civilians in occupied territories in South-East Asia/ Life
under occupation: Collaboration and resistance, the use of slave labour

Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere

- November 1938 Japan launches new concept of new world order in East Asia
- Envisaged East Asia free of Western domination but under Japanese leadership
- Japan used this as a front for imperialism
- Japanese occupation brought widespread destruction of transport and infrastructure and the
redirection of economic activity towards the Japanese war effort and exploitation of civilians.

Philippines: (May 1942)

- President Quezon and local government officials collaborated but overall, the Japanese were
not seen as liberators as the US allowed Philippines to self-govern anyway
- 1943 a puppet government is established by the Japanese and led by Jose Laurel – declares
war on US.
- For peace, the government joined the Kalibapi (1 government party)
 - civilians treated inhumanely
- Make occupied territories more Japanese
- Censorship ended American influence onto society
- Lack of freedom of speech/ press
- Crops were prioritised to the Japanese military leading to starvation of thousands
- Famine (1944)
- Slave labour and comfort women
- Mistreatment of Pows (The Battan death march, 16,000 dead)
- Resistance: Guerrilla groups, mainly from the countryside
- One of the largest groups, the Hawks, was a communist group that aimed to encourage a
nationwide uprising, although it was not successful 250,000 fighters in guerilla group. They
fed intelligence to Douglas MacArthur.
- any civilians suspected of resisting would be tied to a pole in the sun and left to starve
- Hostages were taken and killed
- Disrespect towards Japanese officials would result in them being tortured or hanged

Burma: (treatment the worst) (1942):

- Burma collaborated with Japan as they believed that it would end imperialism rule and lead to
Burma's independence
- Aung Sun marched with Japan (1942) and led the Burma National Army with them
- Burma was granted nominal independence in 1943
- By 1945 civilians and political leaders such as Aung Sun, Than Tun and Ba Maw resisted
against their occupation
- resisting through rife battles
- The impact of the battles was that it impacted rice fields, oil wells, mines, factories and more
were destroyed
- Poor treatment of Pows and civilians (Thai-Burma railway, constructed between July 1942
and October 1943 70,000 deaths)
- ethnic minority group (the Karens) were targeted and tortured or put on the railway
- Burma achieves independence in 1948

Dutch East Indies: (March 1942):

- The removal of Dutch influence in the Dutch East Indies gave way for Indonesian national
identity
- Welcomed by Indonesian nationalist leaders Sukarno and Hatta who co-operated with the
Japanese
- Allowed to sing the new national anthem and flag
- Dutch language was replaced with Japanese and Indonesian
- 170,000 Dutch people were placed into Internment camps (because of the negative Dutch
sentiment) which gave way for Indonesian people in government (Most important jobs were
Japanese)
- 10s of thousands were forced into slave labour and the Kempetai used terror tactics to ensure
civilian support
- In Java, around 10 million people were forced to work on Japanese defence projects
 - 1944: Indonesian independence promised but Japan loses war.
- 17th August 1945: Sukarno declares Indonesian independence
-

The effect of the war on the home fronts in Japan and Australia:
Australia
1939 National Security Act:
- Significant impact as a result of enormous new government power - It gave the government
extra power, introducing widespread censorship to Australian media
- Extensive propaganda to boost morale for the war effort.
- Conscription introduced in 1939. Feb 1943 Curtin changes the law so that Australian
conscripts could be sent to fight anywhere in Southwest Pacific.
- Australia declared war on Japan 8 December 1941 after Pearl Harbor
Attack on Australia
- Darwin bombed in May 1942, killing 35 people and injuring 40 people.
- 30 other attacks on Australia between 1942-1943. This was minimal compared to bombing on
Japanese home front.
Economy
- Increased taxes in Australia to fund the war effort
- Australian production of goods for the war effort increased to be self-sufficient.
- By 1943 Australia had over 100 firms producing machine tools
- Australian rationing: Introduced in 1942 after the Battle of the Coral Sea
- Australian radio, Imports, Tea, sugar, butter and meat because of the decrease in imports and
increase in service demands
Other Australian wartime measures:
- Other measures were put in place included internment camps, women in war work and a
denial of indigenous people serving in the war if they weren't European enough
Social changes that benefited women:
- 200,000 women in work
- Australian women played a role in the war effort but less so than Japanese women
- Introduction of WRANS (Women's Royal Australian Naval Service)
- Introduction to WAS (Women's Army Service) (25,000)
- Introduction of WAAF (Women's Auxiliary, Australian Air Force) (27,000)
Japan
Politics of wartime Japan
- Japan under dictatorship of Hideki Tojo and the Imperial rule of Hirohito.
- 1940 Cabinet Information Bureau introduced to manage censorship to ensure that no
negative news reached Japanese home front, Japanese people believed they were winning the
war until surrender broadcast on 15th August 1945
- No defeats e.g., Battle of Midway were broadcast to public
- Conscription compulsory in Japan from 1935 for males aged 17-49
- Historian A.J Wilkner argued: Japan’s totalitarian state significantly exacerbated the effects
of control through propaganda and conscription.”
Economy
- Japan was at war since second Sino-Japanese war (1937) therefore drained resources
- Economic mobilisation law (1938) created with military in control of economy
 - Rationing essential due to limited food supply especially as war progressed
- 1937-1945 rice production fell by 35%
- Imports of rice fell 85% - led to significant hunger of population and 50,000 deaths
Women
- 55% of Japanese women directly working for war effort on Homefront (much more than
Australia). They were even trained as a backup army.
- Womens volunteer groups formed and by 1944 almost 4 million women working in munitions
and pharmaceuticals to replace men who were fighting
Attacks
- 1941-1942 Homefront not impacted due to success of Japanese advance except for the small
Doolittle raid April 1942
- Regular firebombing and B-29 bombing of Japanese mainland after success of allied island-
hopping campaign led to complete devastation
- Atomic bomb on 6th August and 9th August also led to total devastation of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki: 200,000 died as a result

Reasons for the

use of the A-
bomb:

Use of the A-
bomb
- Manhattan project began in 1941 aimed at developing atomic bomb to use in Europe
- 16th July 1945 the US tests the atomic bomb
- 6th August 1945 US drops atomic bomb ‘Little Boy’ on Hiroshima destroying the city and
killing 80,000 people instantly.
- 9th August 1945 US drops second atomic bomb ‘fat boy’ on Nagasaki killing 40,000 instantly

Force Japanese surrender:

- The Potsdam Declaration attended by Stalin, Prime Minister Churchill and President Truman
(26 July 1945) was issued to try and pursue for peace with Japan
- Emperor Hirohito didn't agree with the unconditional surrender (because he wanted to
guarantee his position)
- Japanese militants in the government wanted to pursue war until close to extinction
- Kamikaze strategy implemented in the Battle Iwo Jima proved how desperate Japan is and the
US believed that a war of attrition would occur if they did not drop the bomb
- After 100,000 deaths on the Tokyo raids, Japan continues to fight which makes the US think
that only weapons of mass destruction would make Japan surrender
- President Truman “I imagine the bomb caused them to accept the terms”
- Militaristic government of General Tojo is replaced with Admiral Suzuki who tries to
negotiate with Soviet Union.
- Soviet Union declare war on Japan 8th August 1945
- 9-14 August 1945 Emperor Hirohito insists on surrender. 14th August this is sent to the allies.
- 15 August Hirohito broadcasts the surrender across Japan
 - 2nd September formal surrender onboard the USS Missouri is signed in Tokyo Bay.

Minimal US deaths:
- The alternate would have been Operation Downfall lasting around 6-12 months (land invasion
of Japan) (it didn't happen)
- Invasion zones were on the beaches of Kyushu and Kanto
- The operation was split into 2 operations. Operation Olympic the attack on Kyushu and
operation coronet in Tokyo
- The Japanese would outnumber 3:1 (operation Olympic)
- The US victory in Tokyo would result in the Japanese unconditional surrender
- Estimated allied deaths 1.7-4 million
- Estimated Japanese deaths 5-10 million
- These are much more deaths than the 2 atomic bombs (≈110,000)

Demonstrate the US military power/revenge:

- Suprise attack on Pearl Harbour = disrespectable
- The Japanese began the war from the air at Pearl Harbor. They have been repaid many fold
… Speech Truman gave on August 6 regarding the bomb.
- The Bataan Death March = REALLY bad
- The treatment of POW’s was terrible. They were forced into slave labour (Thai-Burma
railway), wasn't fed much and treated them as less than human (Unit 731 - lethal scientific
experiments on POW’s)
- All of that can be included as a reason for revenge
- Growing tensions between the US and Russia meant that the US wanted to show its
superiority and illustrate their weapon of mass destruction.
Reasons for the Japanese defeat:

Allied economic and industrial superiority:

- The Japanese were unable to match the economic or production might of US, and this become
a significant problem as the war dragged on
- The US was the largest economy at the start of the war
- The Ford plant at Wheeler Run was producing 1 bomber aircraft every 63 minutes
- because of the scale of the US economics, they developed a multi row Air Force (Its plans did
not just support the infantry but became capable of strategic bombing, large scale transport
and tactical air support)
- Estimation suggests that in 1941, Japanese war making potential was about 10% of US
- Japan's lack of resources such as oil (From the US oil embargo)
- The Japanese were increasingly starved of raw materials in the Allied blockade advanced
hastened this. Japanese factories closed in. Japanese ships did not have enough fuel to sail to
conflicts

Poor planning and war strategy/ miscalculation:

- Japan didn't have a clear intention with the Greater Co Prosperity Sphere
- In 1942, Japan didn't consolidate the territories it occupied
- Japan couldn't defend itself from the twin-pronged drive into the Central Pacific (Nimitz) and
the Southwest Pacific (Macarthur)
- The Japanese couldn't defend themselves from the island-hopping strategy
- Miscalculated the US response to Pearl Harbour (Leaving their isolationist foreign policy)
 - The Japanese plan needed the US to be neutralised so they could later negotiate for peace
- The US went straight away to war, which was unexpected (8 December 1941)
- Japan didn't expect the US to recover so quickly

Technological disadvantages:
- Japan was at a significant technological disadvantage from the outset
- Allied forces could communicate securely, but due to the Allied codebreakers decrypting
Japanese messages, they had almost complete knowledge of Japanese strategy. This proved
critical in the Battle of Midway, which was a key turning point in the war
- Allies had radar technology that proved useful at defending from the Japanese at night
- In response to Allied tanks, Japanese soldiers used hollowed out coconuts to insert full of
explosives (proving allied Technological superiority)
- Kamikaze style methods were used by placing multiple bombs in themselves so they could go
under a tank (Proving allied technological superiority)
- The US had atomic bombs. At their disposal, which they used to force the Japanese surrender
(bombs at Hiroshima and Nagasaki)

War crime tribunals and the status of the emperor (did it achieve justice?):

- 19th January 1946 General MacArthur who had been appointed Supreme Commander of the
Allied Powers in occupied Japan announced the formation of the International Military
Tribunal for the Far East to establish a process for legal proceedings against the Japanese
military and political leaders on trial for war crimes.
- The principal International Military Tribunal was to sit from 3 May 1946 to 4th November
1948.
- Three categories of trials: Class A: Charges against Japan's top leaders alleging crimes against
peace. Class B and C: Charges at Japanese of any rank covered conventional war crimes and
crimes against humanity.

How it achieved justice:

- Most significant was the 28 defendants in the Tokyo trials (May 1946 – November 1948)
- Testimony from 419 witnesses
- 4336 pieces of evidence, including depositions and affidavits from 779 individuals
- Seven sentenced to death (Hideki Tojo and Iwane Matsui) (23 December 1948) and 6 sent to
life imprisonment
- Japan's defence argument was that they committed these crimes as an act of self-defence from
the allied occupation (proved wrong)
- Other war crime tribunals were held in locations throughout Southeast Asia
- 5500 lower ranking Japanese officials were convicted

Status of the emperor/ Imperial family:

 - Major General Prince Chichibu (younger brother) (was in Nanjing from 1937 – 38)
(Historians suggest that he headed Operation Golden Lily which was when Japan
systematically looted the Occupied Territories)
- Lieutenant – general Prince Asaka (uncle in law) (partly responsible for the rape of Nanjing)
(He issued an order to kill all captives to the army, sanctioning over 300,000 Chinese deaths)
- Lieutenant-colonel Prince Takeda (1st cousin) (executive responsibility for unit 731)
- MacArthur released a statement saying that militarists in the government had betrayed
Emperor Hirohito and taken Japan into World War 2 (Despite this being false) (This was done
to water down the blame against him so he wouldn't be tried as a war criminal). The decision
to protect Emperor Hirohito was to further US aims as MacArthur and the US believed that
maintaining Hirohito as Emperor would satisfy the Japanese population and ensure peaceful
occupation and the implementation of a number of reforms.

Allied interest/ not achieving full justice:

- Only crimes after the attack on Pearl Harbour were investigated (Excluding the rape of
Nanjing in the treatment of Koreans)
- Japanese military Secret police and the Kempeitai Were never tried
- No justice for the enforced sexual slavery of comfort women
- The US gave secret immunity to the officers and scientists involved in Unit 731 in exchange
for their research
- There were most likely many Japanese officials that were guilty, but they were never found or
known, so they weren't charged with anything
- The imperial family would never serve because the US thought that they could get minimal
resistance to the occupation of Japan as the emperor was such a significant symbolic. Figure
in Japan. So, if they got rid of him, they would have. A big, large uproar. (Even through the
Imperial family was very guilty of the war crimes they committed)
- Many officials were released early from life imprisonment (A third of the sentences was
removed) (For improve relations between Japan and the US so it can become an ally against
the threat of the Soviet Union)

Allied occupation of Japan 1951 (the aims and consequences):

What were the aims:

- Occupation of Japan (1945-1951) Japanese conditions at the surrender were terrible. By 1945,
industrial and agricultural productivity had fallen to 1/3 of 1930s levels. As a result of this,
millions will homeless and were in short supply of food.
- Remove the strain of militarism and replace with a liberal democracy
- Reconstructed Japan as a peaceful, stable, an economically buoyant trading nation
- The first contingent of Allied forces arrived in Japan on 28 August 1945
- Japan under the Command of the Supreme Command of Allied Powers by General Douglas
MacArthur (SCAP). MacArthur had 5,500 non-Japanese bureaucrats working under him to
govern Japan. A significant number of Japanese ministries were kept in place to run the
 country. 40 000 were drawn from Australia, Britain, India and New Zealand, who made up
the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF).
- Make Japan westernised economic powerhouse against the new threat of communism.
- MacArthur 's seven Point plan had the intention of transforming Japan into freedom loving
Democrats. The Seven Point plan includes disarmed soldiers, giving women suffrage, sending
their soldiers harm, dismantling the war industry, holding free elections, forming labour
unions and providing open instruction in school.

Assessment of whether it achieved its aim's part 1: Political reform, demilitarisation, women and
education
- Reforms put in place to achieve MacArthur’s 7-point plan
- On 6 March 1946, a new Japanese Constitution was made known to the public. It gave
equal prominence to the emperor and to the ideals of democracy and peace. The most striking
feature of the Constitution, which came into effect on 3 May 1947, was the ‘renunciation of
war’ achieving the dismantling of war in Japan.
- Women: Articles 13 and 19 of the new constitution prevented discrimination against women.
In the first election held after the end of WWII 14 million Japanese women voted in elections.
- Educational reforms: Student’s not taught militaristic curriculum. Japanese education
system modelled on America’s. Huge explosion in university education. The Japanese were a
chosen and superior race and American hatred. Textbooks were rewritten to encourage
democratic and liberal ideas.

Assessment of whether it achieved it’s aims part 2: Trade unions, land reform and economy
- Economic reforms: Laws passed banning size of companies to dismantle the powerful
zaibatsu
- Trade unions: Labour Union Act 1946 gave workers the right to strike and bargain their
wages. Number of union members in Japan increased from 380,000 to 6 million between
1945-1950
- Although banned worker strikes after a union strike led by communist (1 February 1947)
- This didn't align with the idea of democracy. After 200,000 leading Japanese military,
political and businesses Figures were banned from public life and critics of SCAP and the
Japanese Communist Party members were banned
- On October 21st, 1946, legislation was passed allowing the Japanese government to buy up
all land owned by landlords and sold to peasants at pre inflation prices. 90% of peasant
farmers now own their land.

Japan regains full political control, and the occupation ends

- The policies change from reform to rehabilitation. This was because of the breakout of the
Cold War. The Cold War changed the Allied priorities. And included making Japan a stronger
economic country that could be a major ally to Western countries. This means that 1947
began the period in which the US was losing its hold of Japan.
- On 8 September 1951, 48 countries signed the Treaty of San Francisco formally concluded
the Allied occupation of Japan and, the following April, the treaty came into effect, restoring
full sovereignty to Japan.
 - Macarthur was revered as a God like figure because he was able to transform the Japanese
dire situation into a liveable and functional society.

Russia and the Soviet Union 1917-1941:

The impact of the Bolshevik consolidation of power, including the creation of the USSR:

The period of the Bolshevik consolidation power (1917 -1924) was the foundational period of the
Soviet Union.

One party state and early government

- 1917 October coup led by Bolsheviks created the establishment of a ‘dictatorship of the
proletariat’
- The period of the consolidation of power had a profound impact on the Bolshevik Party as the
struggle to consolidate power, and resulting civil war led to the militarisation of the party.
- Historian Eric Dorn brose: “that war and civil war brutalized the population and coarsened
public life to the point where much worse atrocities - the mass executions of the 1930s -
became all but inevitable.”
- Violent and repressive elimination of political opposition to the regime resulted in
Communist victory in the Civil war 1917-1922 and the red terror.
- After the coup the formation of SOVNARKOM which attempted to have open discussions
about future of USSR. This government was dominated by Bolsheviks from the start and
effectively became little more than a mouthpiece of the Bolshevik Party.
- Failed leading to highly centralised, hierarchical and bureaucratic party emerged that was less
democratic and open to discussion. Lenin 1921 ban on factionalism at the 10th party Congress
had long term implications in reducing ideas and leading to Stalin’s eventual dictatorship.
- Trotsky himself put it in 1923: ‘We [the Communist Party (Bolsheviks)] are the only Party
in the country, and in the era of dictatorship there can be no other way’.

Social impacts/changes
- Bolshevik party also used Red Army which numbered 5 million in 1921 to control society and
ensure political control.
- Signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk March 1918. Terms meant that Bolsheviks forced to give
up 34% of population and 32% of arable land but necessary to survive.
- The establishment of the USSR in 1922 brought together a diverse group of republics,
creating a multiethnic state that lasted until its dissolution in 1991.
- The creation of the Soviet secret police that Cheka. Led to a culture of fear and repression
which dissonance in perceived enemies of the state being arrested, exiled or executed. All
political parties remained illegal except for Bolshevik’s and critical newspapers were shut
down by the Cheka.
 - Bolshevik party also used Red Army which numbered 5 million in 1921 to control society and
ensure political control.
- The Bolshevik consolidation of power also led to the persecution of religious groups, with the
Orthodox Church in other religious organisations being suppressed. And their leaders arrested
or executed.
- Around 1.5 to 2 million Kulaks were killed or exiled (by 1941).
Economy
- The impact of the Bolshevik consolidation of power can also be seen in the sphere of
economics.
- War communism introduced during civil war led to severe famine 5 million died. This led to
Kronstadt rebellion in 1921 at naval base calling for democracy. 15,000 killed by Red Army
in suppression of the uprising – signals the use of terror later.
- New Economic Policy (NEP) introduced in 1921 at 10th Party Congress to stabilise
Russian economy and revive it after war communism. Some small businesses could
operate, grain requisitioning ended which led to rebound in agricultural production
back to pre-war output by 1924. Russia also returned to a cash economy, but state
owned the ‘commanding heights’ of banking, transport and large industry.
- Termed a ‘tactical retreat’ the NEP led to deep division in party as it was seen as ‘too
capitalist’ by many Bolsheviks. The disagreement and tension created by the NEP
became one of the lasting impacts of the Bolshevik consolidation of power.
- Death of Lenin in 1924 led to Power struggle and emergence of Stalin as leader
- The Soviet Union's rapid industrialization and military buildup during the 1930s. Turned into
a global superpower challenging and dominance of Western capitalist countries
- The First Five Year Plan (1928-1932): Industrial production more than doubled called
production increased from. 35.4 million tonnes to 64 million tonnes.
- The Third Five-year plan (1938-1941): The USSR was more focused on building out their
military, which they did
- USSR command economy and centralised government led to inefficiencies, an economic
stagnation. Resulting in shortages of basic goods and services for the Soviet citizens.

Power struggle between Stalin, Trotsky and other leading Bolshevik figures in the 1920s/ reasons for
the emergence of Stalin as leader of the USSR by the late 1920s:

(reasons for Trotsky’s defeat in the power struggle with Stalin)

Trotsky's ideology unpopular:

- Stalin understood the social climate and people's desire for peace. Citizens wanted peace after
the bloody Civil War (10 million casualties)
- The theory of permanent revolution: In order for Russia to become a socialist state, they
would need international support from other socialist states in order to prevent a capitalist
overthrow.
- Socialism in One country: The USSR would turn into a socialist state without the need for
external assistance. It was not dependent on international revolution, but on the concept of
self-sufficiency.
- Stalin used the cult of Lennon to make it sound like Lennon would approve even though he
would of most likely supported Trotsky
 - Stalin frequently misquoted Lenin to depict him as in favour of his ideology.
- Socialism in one country was portrayed as the more nationalistic approach to socialism.
- Historian E.H Carr” Socialism in one country was a powerful appeal to national patriotism.
Indisputably, it put Russia first”

Unfavourable personality and flaws in his mentality:

- Trotsky didn’t form any alliances within the Politburo.
- Trotsky Was perceived by opponents within the Politburo as the biggest threat due to his
popularity.
- Trotsky stated that “In the eye of Lenin, Stalin's value was wholly in the sphere of party
administration and machine manoeuvring” new line Stalin was viewed as a grey blue.
- Stalin was underestimated.
- Stalin had a lot of power (Commits all nationalities, commits all the workers and peasant's
inspectorate and general secretary of the Communist Party)
- Trotsky was respected for his contributions to the Civil War, but not as a person because he
was arrogant and rude towards others.
- This meant that Zinoviev and Kamenev who supported Trotsky's ideology didn’t align with
him because they saw him as an unfit leader
- Trotsky didn't think he needed allies.

Trotsky willingness to conceal Lenin’s will/ lack of strategic and political alliances:
- Lennon 's Will says that Stalin is rude and suggests that he is remove.
- Stalin understood that if the public knew distant, he would never be able to win the power
struggle.
- Allowing the will to be concealed meant that Stalin would be able to get to power without
accusations of disloyalty.
- Biggest mess up from Trotsky
- Trotsky assumed that he was going to be the later in thought that he didn't need alliances.
- Stalin told Trotsky Wrong date to Lennon 's funeral (Made him look arrogant and disloyal)
- Stalin formed a triumvirate with Zinoviev and Kamenev (Despite ideological differences)
(Aim was to eliminate Trotsky's position) (1924)
- Solomon said that Zinoviev, Kamenev and Trotsky formed a “united opposition” She claimed
was factionalism (Which was banned in 1921 and then they were expelled from the party)
- Stalin used others to form alliances, betray others through false information. And took
advantage of his undermined position to eliminate political opposition within the Politburo to
become the leader of the USSR

Totalitarianism vs Stalinism:

1. An elaborate guiding ideology:

- Marxism-Leninism
- ‘Socialism in one country’

2. A single mass party, usually led by a charismatic dictator

- The Soviet Communist Party.
- led by Stalin only.
 3. A system of terror, often featuring secret police.
- NKVD: Eliminating counter revolutionaries.
- Purges (The Great Purge)
- Show trials.
- Terrorising farmers.
- Dekulakisation

4. Total control of the armed forces.

- Purges were done within the military ranks to remove anyone deemed as a potential threat.
- Political indoctrination.
- The NKVD created a climate of fear.
- There was a centralised command and Stalin had full control over any decision.

5. Total control over communication and the media

- Censorship allowed for anything deemed critical of the government or Soviet ideology to be
prohibited.
- Propaganda was used extensively to control the narrative and promote the ideology.
- State owned media ensured that everything aligned with the government.

6. Total control of the economy

- Collectivisation taking the form of farmers and making it state owned.
- The three five-year plans: Industrialization. Where large economic gains were seen. This also
introduced the internal possible system in which an extensive process would have been
undergone to change your job.
Paragraph 1 Centralisation of economy
- Collectivisation began 1930 taking the land of farmers and making it state owned ‘kolkoz’
and state run
- Peasant backlash with 100 million animals slaughtered and crops destroyed but Stalin used
terror to force them into submission. By 1941 he had complete control over agricultural
industries 98% of farms owned by state
- “The soviet’s achieved the level of control over the countryside the Tsarist government had at
its height.”
- The three five-year plans: Industrialization. First plan began 1928 dramatic increase in steel
production e.g., Magnitogorsk went from a population of 1200 in 1929 to over 100,000 in
1933. Second and third-five year plans complete and successful by 1941 he had complete
control over industry and agriculture.

Paragraph 2 Political control via purges and use of terror

- USSR became a police terror state under Stalin: Great terror began 1937
- NKVD powers were expanded following Kirov decrees of 1934, and the show trials were
used as a form of propaganda to force submission to his dictatorship
- Transformation of the Bolshevik Party under his leadership as a result of culture of
denunciation. Purged half of the party members and replaced them in 1934. Party became
highly centralised and bureaucratic with 2 million members in 1939.
 - Only two-party congresses were held by Stalin between 1927 and 1953 reflecting his
dictatorship of the USSR
- 1937 Stalin purged 9/10 of his army generals demonstrating his control over Red Army
- Up to 1941 700,000 people were shot by the Cheka and 1.5 million arrested
- Use of gulag prison labour camp system used to control society
- “It was a time where no one could not afford to love Stalin.” De Jonge

Paragraph 3 Cultural change as a result of censorship & propaganda

- Cult of Stalin came to dominate everyday life in USSR referred to as ‘father of the nation’
driven by propaganda.
- Images of him dominated and every classroom had a portrait of him. History books were
rewritten to focus on Stalin’s achievements and downplay Trotsky’s.
- Transformation of art to adhere to his ideology of ‘socialist realism’ focus on Soviet advances
and Stalin as the ‘great helmsman’
- Ideology supplanted religion and Stalin closed 400,000 churches and 25,000 mosques.
- State owned media ensured that everything aligned with the government and promoted Stalin
as a positive figure.

Counter argument:

So far, it looks like Stalinism definitely was totalitarianism, but there are some interesting arguments
against the sort of classification, too. The main thing to consider is that Italian state relies on the
complete control of the people. Try as he might to achieve this level of control, Stalin ultimately
couldn't. There were two main reasons for this. First up, the USSR was massive. Even though
industrialization had improved transportation and communication, sending a message from Moscow
to the far corners of Siberia was no easy feat. Passing down decisions in the urban country was one
thing but enforcing them in rural communities was something else entirely. Plus, no matter how
controlling the Communist Party was, it couldn't infiltrate the thoughts of the Soviet people. This
meant that there was always room for someone, somewhere to quietly rebel against the state.

Economic transformation under Stalin and its impact on Soviet society, including collectivization and
the Five-Year Plans:

Collectivization/ First five-year plan: (1928-1932):

Aims:
- Industrialization: Rapidly industrialised Soviet economy through the development of Heavy
Industries such as coal, steel and oil.
- Agricultural: Increase agriculture production by collectivising farms and introducing
mechanisms and technologies.
- Transportation: Improved transportation infrastructure such as railroads.
- Energy: Increase energy production by developing hydroelectric power plants and increasing
coal production.
Achievements:
- Industrial production more than doubled.
- Coal production increased from 35.4 million tonnes to 64 million tonnes.
- Kolkhozy and Sovkhozy, the state-run farms and collective funds was Established.
Effect:
 - State collectivised 57% of all peasants between late 1929 and March 1931 through violence
and terror.
- The rapid growth of cities. An emergence of a new working class.
- A predominantly rule, an Agricultural Society was transformed into industrial an urbanised 1.
Evaluation of success:
- Did not meet economic targets, but they were excessively high. It did not succeed in the
collectivization of agriculture and the boosting of production, though for the economy overall,
although not as much. As being hoped for.

Second 5-year plan: (1933-1937)

Aims:
- More realistic targets than the first five-year plan.
- Prioritised heavy industry.
- Focus on boosting electricity.
- More focus on boosting transport systems.
Achievements:
- Much progress was made during the period known as the three good years. (1934-1936)
- In 1933 to 1937, steel production increased by 200%
- The Dnieper Dam Was completed and began generating electricity.
- (1935) The Moscow Metro was open.
- In 1935, a near law permitted individual peasants to have private plots. (against ideology)
- Gross agriculture production increased by just. Under 54%.
Effect:
- Improvements were made to communication networks, technology and transportation, which
benefited living conditions.
- There were several anti-religious campaigns and pieces of legislation that saw the closure of
churches to boost production.
- Stakhanovism Emerged in this. Which saw hard workers rewarded in large scale propaganda.
Evaluation of success:
- Excess FLE in boosting economic production but resulted in a decline in living conditions
apart from the momentary improvement in the three good year.

Third 5-year plan (1938-1941)

Aims:
- Heavy industry.
- Building defence capabilities.
Achievements:
- Industrial output increased by 82%. (Heavy industry.)
- The USSR was better equipped for war due to the military preparation.
Effect:
- The US saw achieved the economic goals by increasing industrial production, improving
agriculture output, developing transportation and building defence capabilities.
- Workers were more inclined to live in the city than in rural towns. By 1941, ninety 8% of
Soviet peasants had been collectivised. In this process, 23 million people moved from the
countryside to urban areas.
- Wages were increased and there were more opportunities for education.
 - 1.5 million to 2 million Kulaks had been illuminated by exile or execution by this period
Evaluation of success:
- Overall, the Third Five Year Plan was successful in its economic goals and in some aspects of
society. The USSR was able to achieve its economic goals of increasing industrial agricultural
goods supply, transportation and building defence capabilities. Rapid urbanisation, improved
living standards and changed family structure, but had a strain on social services.

Political transformation under Stalin – grown of the party, use of terror, show trials, gulags,
propaganda and censorship:

Propaganda/ growth of the party:

- Propaganda was a critical importance of Stalin's totalitarian regime and took many forms,
including posters, art and film.
- Propaganda was particularly important for cultivating Stalin's cult of personality.
- In propaganda he was often portrayed as a father like figure and children were instructed to
give thanks to Stalin for their happy lives.
- The history curriculum was rewritten to emphasise Stalin's role in the 1917 revolution and
civil war and diminish Trotsky's role.
- Propaganda also served to validate his policy, such as collectivization and industrialization.
- Most old Bolsheviks were removed from the party and in 1939 only 8% of party members
had been members in 1920.
- 75% of party members who had joined the party between 1921 and 1928 had been
illuminated.
- Stalin focused on growing the party massively and it now numbered 2 million members in
1938. It was now a young party loyal to Stalin and highly centralised and bureaucratic
resulting in more power for Stalin.

Show Trials
- Stalin responds to the murder of Kirov with the December Laws 1934 giving NKVD greater
power to arrest and execute those found guilty of crimes.
- 1935 Zinoviev and Kamenev arrested for alleged role in Kirov murder. August 1936 show
trial occurs along with 14 old Bolsheviks. All 16 found guilty and executed.

Terror:
- The great terror (1937-1938)
- Local NKVD officers were given quotas to fill.
- Under Yezhov, the terror spread to all branches of the party, the economy, the odds and
armed forces. Indeed, there was not a single area of Soviet life that was able to escape.
- By far the key target of the NKVD was party members, but thousands of. Nary people
ranging from factory workers to shop assistants were stuck into the Whirlpool of the purges.
- 55% of Central Committee from 1934 were eliminated by NKVD by 1938
- 5% of USSR population imprisoned or executed during the great terror
- (The commissar of Heavy industry) Ordzhonikidze Had a major disagreement with Stalin in
1937 and was given the choice of suicide and a state funeral. Or being shot with no funeral,
he committed suicide.
 - Media campaigns were launched making people seek out potential spies and sabotage.
- All 8 admirals were killed and 60% of USSR upper command purged
- In 1929 Only those who are considered to be Kulak was sent to the gulag while the decal
accusation. Although in the 1930s more people were sent. Those who were considered to be
counter revolutionary or general criminals were sent to the Gulag.
- Was widespread throughout the Soviet Union. Approximately throughout the gulag system,
18 million people were incarcerated, and some estimates suggest that 1.8 million people died.

Censorship:
- Censorship was a common practise of the early Bolshevik regime. Under Lennon, with media
censorship to prevent bourgeoisie publications in anything critical of the revolution.
- Stalin extended the practise of censorship dramatically so that all media was state controlled
and owned.
- Censorship was used to censor the following information ideas: Reston Capitalist believes,
Trotskyite writing, criticisms of Stalin or socialism, religion information about life outside of
the USSR

Social and cultural change in the USSR under Stalin:

Broad economic policies:

- Stalinist policies of collectivization an industrialization inhibited major social and cultural
changes
- Perhaps most importantly, collectivization caused mass urbanisation and the destruction of
normal cultures. This continued the destruction of peasant and traditional societies as they
were forced to adapt to a more urban and industrial society leading to dekulakisation – 25
million people were moved onto 250,000 collective farms. 400,000 kulaks were killed during
the process and many more sent to the gulag.
- 40 million people left the countryside for urban areas due to mass industrialisation
- Five-year plans drove 4500 new enterprises leading to better living conditions and higher
rates of education

Political changes:
- Political changes in the USSR discussed in chapter Seven also contributed to important social
and cultural changes after 1928. For example, this censorship system restricted Soviet culture
in important ways, and the growth of a mass propaganda industry dominated many artistic
fields such as literature. And film. The outbreak of mass state violence in 1936 to 1938 also
contributed to a culture of fear in the USSR.
- Socialist realism was the official policy regarding culture in the USSR – all art forms were
required to adhere to the socialist realism form which emphasised a ‘work culture’

Specific social and cultural initiatives:

- In addition to these brutal developments, the Stalin regime also implemented a range of
specific social and cultural initiatives after 1928 that shaped the lives of Soviet citizens in
important ways. For example, the government continued to suppress religion, make divorce
 more difficult, and outlawed homosexuality. In many ways, these changes made Soviet
society more conservative than it was in the 1920s under the more experimental NEP.
- Stalin closed 400,000 churches and 25,000 mosques
- Women were expected to contribute to industrialisation but maintain traditional gender roles.
Stalin banned abortion in 1936 and women were paid to have more children
- Education – under Stalin education became mandatory increasing the school population from
11 million to 30 million students. Stalin said this was necessary “to be the greatest possible
service to the country.”
- 1926 the literacy rate was 56% by 1937 the literacy rate was 75%

The nature of Soviet foreign policy from 1917 to 1941 AND aims and effectiveness of Soviet foreign
policy

Early Bolsheviks/ 1920s: Lenin survival and pragmatism

- Treaty of Brest Litovsk (1918) signed to ensure the survival of the Bolsheviks. Bukharin and
Trotsky did not support Lenin’s deviation from ideology to sign it and make peace with
capitalist nation.
- Lenin establishes Comintern (1919) aimed at encouraging worldwide communist revolution
as per Trotsky’s aim of permanent revolution
- Failures of the Comintern to spark revolutions led to a shift towards foreign policy aimed at
protectionism
- Friendship Treaty signed with Finland, Estonia and Latvia (1920)
- Friendship treaty signed with Turkey, Persia and Afghanistan. (1921)
- Commercial agreements with Britain and Italy. (1921)
- Attended a European Economic Conference. (1922) clear division away from sparking
communist revolutions. Lenin stated that “trade with capitalist nations is unconditionally
necessary for us.” Example of failure of ideological aims being achieved and pragmatism
with diplomacy to ensure the Bolshevik regime survival.
- Treaty of Rapallo (With Germany to make relations better) (1922) clear example of
pragmatism over ideology

Late 1920s Stalin emerges as leader ‘socialism in one country’

- In 1927, Stalin and Trotsky fought over support for the communist revolutionaries in China.
The Chinese Communist Party was locked into a battle with the equally revolutionary
Nationalists. An alliance had been negotiated by the Comintern to support a Chinese
revolution by both groups. Stalin was supportive of this alliance and hoped that an
initial revolution would allow for a proletarian revolution later on. Trotsky claimed that
Stalin was betraying the communist cause and accused him of killing off a Chinese
revolution.
- Stalin went against ideology and argued worldwide revolution could not be achieved and
pushed his ideology ‘socialism in one country’ which focused on internal stability.
Completely contradicts Marxist and Trotsky ideological aims.
- Pushed an agenda of collective friendship as a safeguard against increasing instability and
militarism in Europe.

1930s-1940s Stalin: Collective security

 - Treaty of Friendship with Italy. (1932)
- Russia and USA formally established diplomatic relations. (1933)
- USSR joins the League of Nations. (1934) Seeking collective security they joined in the hope
it would prevent German aggression in USSR.
- Russia and France form an alliance called the Franco Soviet combination. (1935)
- Stalin strongly backed the Republican anti-fascist forces in the Spanish Civil War. (1936-39).
An example of when Stalin did adhere to ideology, and this was not a pragmatic approach.
- Nazi Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. (1939) Clear example of pragmatism to ensure USSR was
not invaded by aggressive Germany. Terms stated that neither side was to attack the other and
dissected map of Eastern Europe into Soviet and German territory. Stalin supported the
Nazi’s over the Socialist Germans.
- Hitler broke the Nazi Soviet Non-Aggression pact invading the USSR. (1941) Failure of the
policy to achieve security and ideology of sparking revolution.

The role of ideology in soviet foreign policy 1917-1941:

Early Bolshevik:
Importance of Ideology:
- Officially, there are calls for world revolution and genuine hope for outbreaks of revolution
in Germany and Western nations. Trotsky’s theory of permanent revolution the guiding force
of early Soviet foreign policy.
Importance of national interest:
- Survival is all important. (Treaty of Brest Litovsk)

1921-1929:
Importance of ideology:
- Ideology takes a backseat as national recovery takes presidents.
- The promotional revolution does not sit well with NEP
Importance of national interest:
- In 1921, Day introduced the NEP. This retreat from socialist principles is driven purely by the
need for the country to recover.
- The defeat of the left in the power struggle ensures that Soviet national economic
development has priority over ideology.

1933-1938:
Importance of ideology:
- The pursuit of ideological goals has disappeared.
Importance of national interest:
- The country is weak and vulnerable, with the country sign torn apart. By collectivization, an
industrial target often not met, Stalin realises that he has to put his nation's interest first.
- The USSR needs resources so they pursue friendship agreements and trade agreements with
Western countries.

1939-1941:
Importance of ideology:
- With a war raging in Europe, only national self-interest matters.
Importance of national interest:
- Alan's goal is simply to keep Russia out of the war. He hopes that the Nazis will get bogged
down in the West.
Bolshevik ideology in theory and practice