ISOMORPHISM THEOREM

A Project Report

by
Bhumika Ray
(S03921MTH021)
Under the guidance of
(SANJUKTA BEHERA)

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
MUNICIPAL COLLEGE, ROURKELA
ROURKELA -769012

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 APPROVAL OF THE VIVA- VOICE BOARD

Certified that the Project report entitled Isomorphism theorem submitted by

BHUMIKA RAY to the Municipal college, Rourkela for the award of the degree
Bachelor of science has been accepted by the Internal Examiner and the
student has successfully defended the Project report in the viva-voce
examination.

(Supervisor)

(Internalexaminer-I) (Internalexaminer-II)

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 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled Isomorphism thereom submitted
by Bhumika Ray (Roll No.-S03921MTH021) to department of mathematics,
municipal college, Rourkela towards the requirement of the course, is a record
of bonafide research work under my supervision and I consider it worthy of
consideration for the award of the degree of bachelor of science of the institute.

June,2022. Ms Sanjukta Behera

Rourkela (project supervisor)
Municipal college
Rourkela -769012

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 ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to analyse the concept of isomorphism theorem.
Isomorphism is a very useful concept in our daily life. Isomorphism concepts
are found in various fields of mathematics. A classic example of isomorphism is
isomorphism between two groups where the structure of the groups is preserved
despite their elements being different. Isomorphism used to map a complicated
set onto a simpler set in order to establish the original set properties. These
contribute to the literature on isomorphism by providing a comprehensive and
systematic review of the topic as well as proposing some new methods and
example for finding and using isomorphism.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Doing this project work is one of the most wonderful experience for me. It is not
only about writing a report and presenting it but also about learning, discussing
and accepting suggestions to improve foremost. I would like to express my
sincere gratitude and respect to my project supervisor Ms. Sanjukta Behera for
his guidance, inspiration and continuous encouragement she has been the
guiding spirit of this project and I thank her from bottom of my heart for being a
wonderful advisor. I would like to express my sincere thanks to all the faculty
members for their moral cooperation

June 2024
ROURKELA. (Sanjukta Behera)

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.

Contents

Introduction
Chapter 1- Group and Subgroup
▪ Group
▪ Subgroup
▪ Centre and centralizer of a group
Chapter 2- Coset and factor group
▪ Coset
▪ Factor group
Chapter 3 -Group Homomorphism
▪ 3.1 Homomorphism
▪ 3.2 Properties of Homomorphism
▪ 3.3 Isomorphism
▪ 3.4 Isomorphism theorem
Conclusion
Bibliography

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 Chapter -1
INTRODUCTION

Isomorphism in group theory refers to a one-to-one correspondence between

two groups that preserves the group structure. If there exists a bijective
function between two groups that respects the group operation, those groups
are considered isomorphic. In simple terms, isomorphic groups share the
same structural properties, even if their elements may be labelled differently.

In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra the Isomorphism theorem are

theorems that describe the relationship between quotients homomorphism
and subobjects.version of the theorem exist for group,rings,vectorspaces,
modules .Lie algebras ,and various other algebraic structures. In universal
algebra, the Isomorphism theorems can be generalized to the context of
algebras and congruence.

1.Group & Subgroup

Basics
Definition: A group is a non-empty set G together with a rule that assigns to each
pair g,h of elements of G an element g ∗h such that
• g ∗h∈G. We say that G is closed under ∗.
• g ∗(h∗k) =(g ∗h)∗k for all g,h,k ∈ G. We say that ∗ is associative.

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• There exists an identity element e ∈ G such e ∗ g = g ∗e = g for all g ∈ G.
• Every element g ∈ G has an inverse g−1 such that g ∗g−1 = g−1 ∗g = e.
First examples of groups
Groups are one of the basic building blocks of pure mathematics. One of the main
reasons they are so important is that they appear often, and in many different
contexts. You already know lots of examples of groups.
1. The integers Z under addition is a group with g ∗h
:= g +h. The identity is 0 and the inverse of x is −x.
• Similarly with Q,R and C (or indeed any other field) under addition.
2. For all n ∈ N, the integers mod n, which we denote Zn, forms a group under
addition. The the identity is 0, and the inverse of x is −x. (Strictly of course
elements of Zn are equivalence classes, but we are expressing things in terms of
representatives.)
3. Every vector space V is a group under addition of vectors, with identity the
zero vector. When we think of a vector space in this way we are forgetting the
extra structure of scalar multiplication that a vector space has.
4. The non-zero real numbers R∗ form a group under multiplication (by which we
mean x∗y := xy) with identity 1 and the inverse of x being 1/x. Similarly the non-
zero elements of any field form a group under multiplication. For example, the
non-zero elements Z∗ p (where p is prime) of Zp form a field under multiplication
with identity 1 and inverse 1/x.
5. Let k be a field and choose n ∈ N. Then G = GL(n,k) is defined to be the set of
all invertible n ×n matrices with entries in k. This is a group with g ∗h given by
matrix multiplication. (One can regard it as the symmetries of the vector space kn
)
Symmetries give groups
Roughly speaking, a symmetry of an object is a bijection (i.e. one-to-one
correspondence) from the object to itself that preserves its structure. This is not a
mathematical
Definition, it just gives you the theme of the next few sections. I will make this
more precise in some examples . As a slogan, ‘symmetries give groups’.
Symmetries of graphs
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Definition. A graph is a finite set of vertices joined by edges. We will assume that
there is at most one edge joining two given vertices and no edge joins a vertex to
itself. The valency of a vertex is the number of edges emerging from it.
Examples:

Definition. A symmetry of a graph is a permutation of the vertices that preserves

the edges. More precisely, let V denote the set of vertices of a graph. Then a
symmetry is a bijection f : V →V such that f(v1) and f(v2) are joined by an edge
if and only if v1 and v2 are joined by an edge.
Note that symmetries must preserve the valency of a vertex, hence if v1 has
valency three, then f (v1) must also have valency three.
Example. Consider the graph

For convenience, number the vertices

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so V, the set of vertices, is V = {1,2,3,4,5}. Let f : V → V be a symmetry of the
graph. Since 5 is the only vertex with valency two, f (5) = 5. Since 2 and 3 are the
only vertices that have valency three, necessarily f (2) = 2 or 3, and f (3) = 3 or 2.
Suppose that f (2) = 2. Since f is a bijection, f (3)= 2 and so f (3) = 3. Thus 2, 3
and 5 are all fixed by f. This then forces f(1) = 1 (since f(1) must be joined to f
(2) = 2, and it can’t be 5 since f (5) = 5) and similarly f(4) = 4. This means that f
is the identity.
On the other hand, suppose f (2) = 3. This forces f (3) = 2. We already know that
f (5) = 5. Since 1 has valency one, either f(1) = 1 or 4. Since f(1) must be joined
to f (2) = 3, necessarily f (1) = 4. Similarly f (4) = 1.
Thus there are precisely two symmetries of the graph, namely the identity and the
reflection

Theorem:The symmetries of a graph forms a group.

Proof. If f : V → V and g : V →V we define the group operation f ∗g to be their

composition (as maps), so f ∗ g := f ◦ g, i.e. do g first, then f. The composition of

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symmetries is clearly a symmetry, so the operation is closed. Since the
composition of maps is associative
(f ∗g) ∗h := (f ◦g)◦h = f ◦(g ◦h) := f ∗(g ∗h)
for all symmetries f ,g,h. The identity map e which sends every vertex to itself is
a symmetry, and obviously e ◦ f = f ◦ e = f for all symmetries f. Lastly, if f : V →V
is a symmetry then it is bijective, so it inverse f −1 exists and is also a symmetry.
It is characterized by f ◦ f −1 = f−1 ◦f = e.
First Properties of Groups
From now on we assume only the group axiom.
First basic properties
Lemma. Let g,h ∈ G be given. Then there is one and only one element k ∈ G
such that k ∗ g = h. Similarly, there is one and only one l ∈ G such that g ∗l = h.
Proof. Let k := h ∗g−1. Then
k ∗g =(h∗g−1)∗g =h∗(g−1∗g) =h∗e =h,
which proves existence. Now suppose that k′ ∗ g = h. Then
k =h∗g−1 =(k′∗g)∗g−1 = k′ ∗(g ∗g−1) = k′ ∗e = k
′ and so k is unique. The case for g ∗ l = h is similar.
Remark. Note how every equality is either an appeal to something we have
already defined, or is justified by one of the axioms.
Corollaries.
1. In a group you can always cancel: if g ∗ s = g ∗ t then s = t. Similarly, if s ∗g
=t∗g then s =t. Proof. Let h := g ∗ s. Then also h = g ∗ t, so by uniqueness in

2. Fix g ∈ G. Then left multiplication by g defines a map Lg : G →G where Lg(k)

= g ∗k. The map Lg is a bijection (i.e. it permutes the elements of G). Similarly
for right-multiplication. Proof. Let h ∈ G, then by §2.1.1 there is one element k
for which g ∗ k = h, and so Lg is surjective. Since there is only one such k (also
by §2.1.1), Lg is injective.

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3. Inverses are unique: given g ∈ G then there is one and only one element h ∈
G such that g ∗ h = e. In particular, e−1 = e and (g−1)−1 = g. Proof. The first
statement is immediate from §2.1.1. Since e∗e = e (by group axiom 3) and e
∗(e−1) = e (by group axiom 4), the second statement follows from the first. Also,
since g−1 ∗ (g−1)−1 = e and (g−1) ∗ g = e, it follows that (g−1)−1 = g.
4. A group has only one identity: if g ∗ h = h (even just for one particular h) then
g = e.
Proof. We have g ∗h = h = e ∗h, so by cancelling h on the right (using part 1), g =
e.
Commutativity
If G is a group and g,h ∈ G, if g ∗ h = h ∗g we say that g and h commute. If g ∗h
=h∗g for all g,h ∈ G, then we say G is an abelian group.
Remark. It is very important to understand that not all groups are abelian.
Examples.
1. Any field, or indeed any vector space, is an abelian group under addition.
2. Zn is an abelian group.
3. GL(2,R) is not an abelian group.
4. D3 is not an abelian group, since g ◦h= h ◦g (where g and h are defined in
§1.5.1).
5. In §1.9 the group of orientation–preserving symmetries of L is an example of
an abelian group, since Tk ◦ Tl = Tk+l = Tl ◦Tk for all k,l ∈ Z.
6. In §1.9 the group of all symmetries of L is an example of a group which is not
abelian, since M0 ◦ T1= T1 ◦M0 (check!).
Some basic definitions
Definition. (order of a group) A finite group is one with only a finite number of
elements. The order of a finite group, written |G|, is the number of elements in G.
(Note that if X is a set, we also often write |X| to be the number of elements in
X.)

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Definition. (order of an element) Let g ∈ G. Then the order o(g) of g is the l east
natural number n such that g ∗ ... ∗ g n = e. If no such n exists, we say that g has
infinite order.
Theorem. In a finite group, every element has finite order. Proof. Let g ∈ G.
Consider the infinite sequence g,g2,g3,.... If G is finite, then there must be
repetitions in this infinite sequence. Hence there exists m,n ∈ N with m>nsuch
that gm = gn. By cancelation (§2.1.3 part 1), gm−n = e.
Corollary. Let g be an element of a finite group G. Then there exists k ∈ N such
that gk = g−1.
Proof. By theorem there exists t ∈ N such that gt = e. Applying g−1 to both sides
gives gt−1 = g−1.
1.1Group
A non empty set G along with one or more binary operations is called algebraic
structure (or system).
It be e binary operations on G,then(G,*) is an algebraic structure.
For example,(N,+),(R,+),(Z,+) are all algebraic structures.in the section,we study
some basic properties of an algebraic system,called group.This algebraic system
consists of a set with a binary operations which satisfies certain properties, that
we have defined in section -1.
Definition
Let G be a nonempty set together with a binary operation (usually called
multiplication) that assign to each ordered pair (a, b) of elements of G, an element
in G, denoted by ab (i.e.(a,b)→ab).
We say that G is a group under this operation of the following properties are
satisfied.
1. Associativity: For all a,b,c€ G,(a,b)c= a(bc) i.e., the operation is
associative.
2. Identity: There is an element e in G such that for all a€ G, ae=ea=a.
e is called identity element for the operation (multiplication).
3. Inverses: For each element a in G, there is an element b in G such that
ab= ba=e.

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 The element b is called inverse of a .
Hence, we can say that a group is set together with an associative operation such
that there is an identity, every element has an inverse and any pair or elements
can be combined to produce an element inside the set.
The latter condition is called closure property i.e., for all a,b € G,ab €G.
Thus, inorder to show that a set G is a group under * , closure property must be
verified.
Note that, if a is an inverse of b, then b is an inverse of a.
We give some example of groups:

Example
The set Z, Q and R are all groups under ordinary addition. In each case, the
Identity is 0 and inverse of a € Z (or Q or R) is – a.
Example
The set Z of integers under ordinary multiplication is not a group. Inverse
property falls i.e., for a = 2, there is no integer b such that 2b=1 ,where 1 is the
Identity.
Similarly, the set Z+ under multiplication is not a group. There is an identity 1,but
no inverse for 5, i. e.,there is no b € Z + such that 5b=1.

1.2. Subgroups
Definition. A subset H ⊆ G is a subgroup of G if

• H is not empty.

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• If h,k ∈ H then hk ∈ H
• If h ∈ H then h−1 ∈ H.

We write H ≤ G if H is a subgroup of G. If also H= G, we say that H is a proper

subgroup and write H < G.
Notes.
1. If H is any subgroup, the axioms ensure that H is a group in its own right. Make
sure that you can prove this.
2. If G is finite, then there is a slightly easier test for a subgroup.
Examples:
1. G is a subgroup of itself. Also, {e} is a subgroup of G, called the trivial
subgroup.
2. Z<Q<R<C(all abelian groups under addition).
3. Consider G = S3. Let H denote all the permutations that send 1 to itself. (There
are two of them, the identity and the one that swaps 2 and 3.) Then H <G.
4. Let G =Z8 (under addition) and let H = {0,2,4,6}. Then H < G.
5. More generally let G = Zn where n = kl with k,l > 1. Then H < G where
H ={0,k,2k,...,(l – 1)k}.
6. Let k be a field and let G = GL(2,k). Let H be all the upper-triangular elements
of G. Then H < G.

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Subgroup test
While doing E1, you would have checked four conditions in each case – whether
∗ is binary on , H and G1 ′,G2 ′ ,G3′ of Unit 2. Is there a shorter way to decide
on whether a subset is a subgroup or not? It turns out that there is. Here is a result
which appears to cut down our work a bit.
Theorem 1: A non-empty subset H of a group (G, ∗ )is a subgroup of G if and
only if
i)∗ is a binary operation on H;
ii)e∈H, where e is the identity w.r.t. ∗ in G;
iii)∀ h∈H, the inverse of h in H is the same as the inverse of h in G .
Proof: First let us prove that if , H ≤ Gthen these 3 conditions hold.
Now, if , H≤G then the condition (i) is true, by definition of a subgroup.
Regarding (ii), if (H ,∗) is a subgroup of (G , ∗) can the identity element in (H,
∗) be different from the identity element in (G , ∗)? In all the examples you have
studied so far, they are the same. But is this only a coincidence? Let us see.
If h is the identity of (H ,∗), then for any a∈ H, h∗a=a
However a ∈ H⊆G.Thus, =a where e is the identity in G w.r.t. ∗.
Therefore, h ∗a = e∗a in G.
By right cancellation in (G , ∗ )we get h=e.
Thus, whenever (H , ∗ )is a subgroup of ( G , ),e∈H .
Regarding (iii), let h ∈H .Can it’s inverse in (H,∗) be different from its inverse in
( G,∗)? Let’s see.
Let x be the inverse in H . and y be the inverse in G,of h∈H.
Since y=h-¹ in G, hy=e in G .
Also hx = e , by (ii).
Hence,hx= hy, i.e., x=h=h-¹.Hence, h-¹∈ H, and (iii)holds .

Now ,let us prove the converse,i.e., if (i) ,(ii) and (iii) hold then H ≤G.

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Firstly,by (i), ∗ is a binary operations on H.
Secondly,since∗ is associative on G.and the operation the same on H,it remains
associative on H.Thus, H satisfies G1′ .(ii) and (iii) say that ( H, ∗ ) satisfies G2′
and G3′
Thus ,( H,∗) is a group.
Since H ⊆G.(H,∗) ≤ (G,∗).

The three conditions in the test above , can be actually abbreviated further to only
one condition. Consider the criterion given in the following result.

Theorem 2 (subgroup test ): Let H be a non empty subset of a group G.Then the
following are equivalent:
i) H is a subgroup of G.
ii) Whenever a,b ∈H,ab-¹∈H.
Proof: To prove that the statement (i) and (ii) are equivalent, we need to prove
that (i)⇒(ii) and ( ii)⇒ (i).
(i)⇒(ii) : Let us assume that H≤ G,Then, for any a,b ∈H,a,b-¹∈H , by
Theorem 1(iii).
Hence, ab ∈H, by Theorem 1(i).

(ii)⇒(i): since H ≠∅, there exists a∈H.But then,aa-¹= e∈H, by (ii).

Again,for any a∈H, since e∈H, we get ea=a ∈H,by (ii).
Finally, if a,b ∈ H, then a, b ∈H.Thus,a(b)=ab∈H, i.e.,H is closed w.r.t the binary
operation of G.
Therefore,by Theorem 1,H is a subgroup of G.

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1.3. Center and centralizer of a group
Center of a group
Definition:
The center of a group G is the subset in G,that commute with every element of
G.it is denoted by Z(G).
In short,Z(G)={a∈G| ax=xa for all x∈G}

Theorem
The center of a group G is subgroup G is subgroup of G.
Proof: Since ex= xa ,e ∈ Z(G), therefore,Z(G) is non empty.
Let a,b ∈ Z(G)
Then , (ab)x = a(xb)= (ax) b
=(xa) b
= x (ab), ∀ x ∈ G
Hence, ab ∈ Z(G)
Now .it remains to show that if a ∈ Z(G)
Assume a ∈ Z(G)
Then, we have ax=xa ∀x ∈ G
⟹ a-1 (ax)a-1=a-1(xa)a-1 [multiplying on the left and right by a-1]
⟹(a-1a) xa-1=a-1(xa)aa-1
⟹exa-1=a-1x
So, a-1 ∈ Z(G), Whenever a ∈ Z(G)
Thus, the center of a group G is a subgroup of G.

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Centralizer of a group
Definition: Let a be a fixed element of a group G. The centralizer of a in G, is
the set of all elements in G which commute with a.
Symbolically, we write C(a)= {ga = ag}
C(a) is called centralizer of a in G.
THEOREM
For each a in a group G, the centralizer of a is a subgroup of G.
Proof: We have, C(a)= {g ∈G:ga=ag}
Let g1,g2, ∈ C(a)
Then, g1a=ag1 and g2a=ag2
To show that g2-1∈ C(a) and g1g2-1∈ C(a)
We have, ag2=g2a
⟹g2-1(ag2) g2-1=g2-1(g2a) g2-1
⟹ g2-1a=a g2-1
⟹ g2-1 ∈ C(a)
Further, a(g1g2-1) =(ag1) g2-1 =(g1a) g2-1=g1(ag2-1)
= g1(g2-1) a
= (g1g2-1) a
.:. g1g2-1 ∈ C(a)
Thus,g1,g2 ∈ C(a) ⟹ g1g2-1 ∈ C(a)
Hence C(a) is a subgroup of G.

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20
 Chapter-2
Coset and factor of group

2.1 coset
Definition: Let H be a subgroup of G and g ∈ G. The left coset of H containing g
is

gH:= {gh : h ∈ H} (x ∈ gH ⇐⇒ ∃h ∈H such that x=gh)

This is a subset of G. The right coset of H containing g is defined similarly:

Hg:= {hg : h ∈ H}
The identity coset H = eH = He is the left & right coset of H containing the
identity e.

H is a normal subgroup of G, written H ◁ G, if the left and right cosets containing

g are always equal H◁G ⇐⇒ ∀ g ∈ G, gH = Hg

If G is written additively, then the left and right cosets of H containing g are
instead written

g +H:={g+h: h∈ H} H+g:={h+g: h∈ H}

Example:
Let G = Z and H = [0] = 3Z. The left and right cosets of H are
precisely the elements of Z3:
3Z =0+3Z=3Z+0=[0]={...,−3,0,3,6,...}
1 +3Z=3Z+1=[1]={...,−2,1,4,7,...}
2+3Z=3Z+2=[2]={...,−1,2,5,8,...}
Since the left and right cosets are equal, H = 3Z is a normal subgroup of Z.

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2.2 Factor groups
Definition: If H is a normal subgroup of a group G, then the set
G/H ={gH : g∈G}

is a group, whose operation is defined by

(g1H) (g2H) = (g1g2) H

and g1g2 is defined by the operation of G. This group is called the factor group
of G by H, or the quotient group of G by H.
Be sure to understand the elements of this factor group. The group G/H does not
contain the elements of G. Instead, its elements are the left cosets of H in G, so
each element is actually a set of elements of G.

Example: The group Z6 = {0,1,2,3,4,5} is Abelian, so all of its subgroups are

normal. In particular, H = {0,2,4} is a normal subgroup of Z6. We’ll compute the
factor group Z6/H by finding all left cosets of H in Z6. Since 0, 2, and 4 are in H,
then
0 +H =2+H=4+H=H
So we just have to compute 1+H, 3+H, and 5+H:
1 +H ={1+0,1+2,1+4}={1,3,5}
3+H ={3+0,3+2,3+4}={3,5,1}
5 +H ={5+0,5+2,5+4}={5,1,3}
These are all equal, so we really only have two distinct left cosets (that means
H has index 2, which again tells us that it’s normal). The factor group Z6/H is
then
Z6/H ={0+H,1+H}={{0,2,4},{1,3,5}}

22
 To see how the factor group’s operation works, it may be easier to work with
the coset notation, rather than the actual sets:
(0 +H)(0+H) =(0+0)+H =0+H
(0 +H)(1+H) =(0+1)+H =1+H
(1 +H)(0+H) =(1+0)+H =1+H
(1 +H)(1+H) =(1+1)+H =2+H =0+H
Notice that we have an identity element, 0+H, and that the other element in
the group, 1+H, has order 2. Not only that, but the group is cyclic, as it is
generated by 1+H. So Z6/H is a finite cyclic group of order 2, and is therefore
isomorphic to Z2.

23
 Chapter-3
Group homomorphism

3.1 Homomorphism
Defination: Let G and G be two groups. A mapping ∅ :G→Ḡ is said to be a group
homomorphism (or simply homomorphism),
If ∅(ab) = ∅(a) ∅(b) for all a,b∈ G
∅ preserves the group operation although the group operation of G and Ḡ may be
quite different.
Before giving examples,let us define two sets related to a given homomorphism
.
Definition :
The image of an homomorphism ∅ from a group G to a group Ḡ is the set Im∅=
{(x) : x ∈ G }
Defination :
The Kernel of a homomorphism ∅ from a group G to group Ḡ is the set Ker
∅={x ∈ G: ∅(x) = e, e is the identity of Ḡ}
Note: Any isomomorphism is a homomorphism which is also one-to-one and
onto. The Kernel of an isomorphism is the identity.
Example
Let G= GL (2, R) and Let R* be the group of nonzero real numbers under
multiplication.
Is ∅ : GL (2, R) →R’ defined by ∅(A) = det A, a homomorphism ?
If so, obtain Ker ¢ and Im ¢.
Solution: Let A, B∈ GL(2, R)
∅(AB) = det (AB)

24
 =(det A) (det B)
=∅ (A) ∅(B)
.:∅ is a homomorphism.
Ker ∅= {A ∈ GL(2, R) | ∅(A) = 1}
={A∈ GL(2, R) | det A = 1}
= SL (2, R), the special linear group of order 2.
Im ∅ = {det A| A ∈ GL(2, R)} =R*,
because for any r ∈ R*, A

Example :
Show that the mapping ∅ from R to R defined by ∅(x) = |x| is a homomorphism
with Ker ∅ = {1, -1}
Solution: For all x, y∈ R, we have
∅(xy) = |xy|= |x| |y| = ∅(x) ∅(y)
.:. is a homomorphism.
Ker ∅= {x ∈ R* | ∅(x)= {x ∈ R* | |x| = {-1,1}

Example The following are not homomorphism:

1. The function f: Z → Z defined by f(n) = n+1. In this case.
F (n +m) =n+m+1=f(n)+f(m)=n+m+2.
2. The function f: Z → Z defined by f(n) = n2. In this case,
f(n +m) =(n+m)2 =n2+2nm+m2=n2+m2,
unless one of n, m is 0. Similar examples work for Q, R, C.

3.2 Properties of homomorphism

Let ϕ be a homomorphism from a group G to a group G ̅ and let g be an element

of G. Then

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1. Φ Carries the identity of G to the identity of Ḡ
2. Φ(gn) = (ϕ(g))n for all n in ℤ
3. If |g| is finite, then | ϕ(g)| divides |g|.
4. Ker ϕ is a subgroup of G.
5. ϕ(a) = ϕ(b) if and only if aKer ϕ = bKer ϕ.
6. If ϕ(g) = g’, then ϕ−1(g’) = {x ∈ G | ϕ(x) = g’} = gKer ϕ.
Proof: Let us denote the identity in G by e and the identity in G ̅ by ℯ ̅. Then
since ℯ = ℯℯ, we have
ϕ(e)ϕ(e) = ϕ (ee) = ϕ(e) = e̅ϕ(e)
Since, ϕ(ℯ) ∈ G ̅, we have ϕ(ℯ) = ℯ̅ϕ(ℯ), as well. Thus, by cancellation, ℯ ̅ =
ϕ(ℯ). This proves property 1.
If n is negative, then −n is positive, and we have from property
1 and the observation about the positive integer case that,
e = ϕ(e) = ϕ (gn g−n) = ϕ(gn) ϕ(g−n) = ϕ(gn)(ϕ(g)) −n.
Thus, multiplying both sides on the right by (ϕ(g)) n, we have (ϕ(g)) n =
ϕ(gn). Property 1 takes care of the case n = 0.
To prove property 3, notice that properties 1 and 2 together with
gn = ℯ imply that
e = ϕ(e) = ϕ(gn) = (ϕ(g) n.
So, by previous result, we have |ϕ(g)| divides n.
By property 1 we know that Ker ϕ is not empty. So, to prove
property 4, we assume that a, b ∈ Ker ϕ and show that ab−1 ∈ Kerϕ. Since
ϕ(a) = e and ϕ(b) = e, we have
ϕ (ab-1) = ϕ(a) ϕ(b−1) = ϕ(a)(ϕ(b)) −1 = ee−1 = e. So, ab−1 ∈ Kerϕ.
Which implies Kerϕ is a subgroup.
To prove property 5, first assume that ϕ(a) = ϕ(b). Then
e = (ϕ(b)) −1 ϕ(a) = ϕ(b−1) ϕ(a) = ϕ(b−1a), so that b−1a ∈ Ker ϕ
implies bKerϕ = aKerϕ
Since aH = bH if and only if a−1b ∈ H.

To prove property 6, we must show that ϕ−1(g’) ⊆ gKer ϕ and that gKer ϕ
⊆ ϕ−1(g’).
For the first inclusion, let x ∈ ϕ−1(g’), from that we can say ϕ(x)
= g’. Then ϕ(g) = ϕ(x) and by property 5 we have gKer ϕ = xKer ϕ and

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 therefore x ∈ gKerϕ which implies ϕ−1(g’) ⊆ gKerϕ. To prove that gKer ϕ
⊆ ϕ−1(g’), suppose that k ∈ Kerϕ. Then ϕ(gk) = ϕ(g)ϕ(k) = g’e = g’ Hence,
ϕ−1(g’) = gKer ϕ. Implies that gk ∈ ϕ−1(g’).

Examples
➢ Consider the mapping ϕ from C∗ to C∗ given by ϕ(x) = x4. Since (xy)4 =
x4 y4, ϕ is a homomorphism. Clearly, Ker ϕ = {x |x4 = 1} = {1, −1, i, −i}.
So, by property 5 of previous theorem we know that ϕ is a 4 – to – 1
mapping. Now let’s Theorem, find all elements that map to, say, 2.
Certainly, ϕ (√2 of 4) = 2. Then, by property 6 the to 2 is √2 4 Ker ϕ =
{√2 4, −√2 set 4, √2 of 4 i, −√2 all elements that map 4 i}.
Finally, we verify a specific instance of property 3 and 2 and 6 of
Theorem. Let H= <cos30° + I sin 30° >. It follows from DeMoivre’s
Theorem that,
|H|=12, ϕ(H) = < cos 120o + i sin 120o >, and | ϕ(H)|
➢ Define f∶ ℤ12 → ℤ12 by f(x)= 3x. To verify that f is a homomorphism, we
observe that in ℤ12, 3(a+b) = 3a+ 3b (since the group operation is addition
modulo 12). Direct calculations show that ker f = {0,4,8}. Thus, we know
from property 5 of Theorem that f is a 3 − to – 1 mapping. Since f (2) = 6,
we have by property 6 of Theorem that
f-1(6) = 2 + ker f = {2,6,10}. Notice also that < 2 > is cyclic and < 2 >) =
{0,6} is cyclic. Moreover, |2| = 6 and |f (2) | = |6| = 2, so |f(2)| divides |2|
in agreement with property 3 of Theorem. Letting k -= {0,6}, we see that
the subgroup f-1(k) {0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. This verifies property 7 of Theorem
in this particular case.

Theorem: A homomorphism ϕ: G → H is injective if and only if Ker ϕ =

{ℯ}.
Proof: Suppose ϕ is injective, and let x ∈ ker ϕ Then ϕ (x)= ℯ′ = ϕ ℯ).
Hence, x= ℯ. Therefore, ker ϕ ={e}.
Conversely, suppose ker ϕ = (e}. Then ϕ (x)= ϕ(y) ⟹) = ϕ(x) ϕ(y)-1 = ℯ′.
Hence, is ϕ injective.

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3.3 Isomorphism
Definition:
An isomorphism ϕ from a group G to a group Ḡ is one-to-one mapping
(or function) from G to Ḡ, which preserves the group operation i.e.,
ϕ (ab) = ϕ (a) ϕ (b) ∀ a, b ∈ G.
If there is an isomorphism from G onto Ḡ, we say that G is isomorphic to
group Ḡ and symbolically, we write G ≈ Ḡ.
Note: In the definition of isomorphism, the operation on the LHS of equal
sign is that of G and the operation on RHS is that of Ḡ.
For showing G ≈ Ḡ, we have to
1.define a function from G to Ḡ.
2.show that ϕ is one-to-one i. e., ϕ (a)= ϕ (b) a=b
3.show that ϕ is onto i.e., for any element x∈ Ḡ, there must exist an
element x ∈ Ḡ, such that ϕ (x)=x.
4.show that ϕ (ab) = ϕ (a) ϕ (b) ∀ a,b ∈ G.

Example
Find an isomorphism from the group of integers under addition to the
group of even integers under addition.
Solutions: Let G = Z be the group of integers under addition.
Let Ḡ =2Z be the group of even integers under addition.
Now to find an isomorphism from G To Ḡ.
Step-1: Define ϕ: G → Ḡ by ϕ(n)=2n, n∈Z.
[Here ϕ:(Z, +) →(2Z,+1)]
Φ is well-defined.
Step-2: ϕ(m) = ϕ (n),m,n z
=2m=2n
= m=n
.:. ϕ is one-to-one.
Step-3: ϕ is onto, since for any even integer y ∈ Ḡ, there exists an integer
x ∈ G, such that ϕ(x)=y i.e., ϕ(n) = 2n, n∈ z
Step-4: ϕ(n+m) = 2(n+m)
=2n+2m
= ϕ(n) + ϕ (m) n, m∈Z
i.e., ϕ is operation – preserving.
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3.4 Isomorphism Theorem
The First Isomorphism Theorem
1. Theorem 1
Let ϕ be a group homomorphism from G to Ḡ. Then G/Ker ϕ ≈ ϕ (G).
In particular, if ϕ is onto, then G/ Ker ϕ ≈ G.
Proof: Let Ker ϕ = H.
We have seen that ker ϕ is normal in G i.e., H is normal in G.
Let us define the function.
Ψ: G/H → ϕ(G) given by Ψ (gH) = ϕ(g) g ∈G
Looking at the construction of Ψ, it seems that the definition of Ψ
depends on the coset representative.
First, we will show that Ψ is well- defined.
Suppose xH = yH ∀x, y ∈G
⟹ y-1x ∈ H = Ker ϕ
⟹ ϕ(y-1x) = ℯ ̅, ℯ ̅is the identity of Ḡ.
But ϕ (y-1x) = [ ϕ(y-1x) = [ ϕ(y)]-1 ϕ(x)
.: ℯ ̅ = [ϕ(y)]-1 ϕ (x)
⟹ ϕ(x) = ϕ(y)
⟹ Ψ(xH)= Ψ(yH)
This proves that Ψ is a well-defined function.
Next to show that Ψ is operation – preserving.
For xH, Yh ∈ G/H, where H =Ker ϕ, we have
Ψ(Xh)(yH) = Ψ(xyH) = ϕ (xy)
= ϕ(x) ϕ(y) [.: ϕ is a homomorphism]
= Ψ (Xh) Ψ(yH)
Thus, Ψ is operation preserving.
Next, let us see whether Ψ is bijective or not.
Now Ψ (xH) = Ψ(yH), for Xh, Yh in G/H
⟹ ϕ(x) = ϕ(y)
⟹ ϕ(y-1x) = ℯ ̅
⟹ y-1x ∈Ker ϕ=H
⟹ Xh=Yh
Thus, Ψ is one-to-one.
Any elements of ϕ(G) is ϕ(g)= Ψ(gH), where g ∈G.

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This proves that Ψ is onto.
Hence Ψ is bijective.
So, Ψ is an isomorphism.
Thus, G/Ker ϕ ≈ ϕ(G)
Now if, ϕ is onto, then ϕ(G)
Thus, in case, G/Ker ϕ ≈ Ḡ.

Theorem [second isomorphism theorem]

If K is a subgroup of G and N is a normal subgroup of G, then k/ (k ∩N) ≈ KN/N.
Proof: We must first verify that k/ (k ∩N) are well defined factor groups.

k⟹N is a subgroup of k.

Let k ∈ k and x ∈ k ∩ N.
-1
Thus kxk ∈ k∩N
-1
Also,kxk ∈ N, since x ∈ N and N is normal in G.
.: Kxk-1 ∈ k ∩N
⟹ K ∩N is a normal in K.
Next to show that KN is a subgroup in K.
Take to show that ϕ is onto homomorphism.
For any An, Bn ∈ G / N ∀ a, b ∈ G.
Let knk-1=n.
Then kn = n1, k ∈ NK
So, KN ⊆ NK
Again, for any nk ∈ NK, nkn-1∈ K.
Let nkn-1 =k2
Then nk = k2n∈ KN
.: nk∈ KN ∀nk ∈ NK
So, NK ⊆ KN
Thus, we have seen that NK = KN.
.: KN is a subgroup of G.
Further we claim that N is normal in KN.
Since N is a subgroup of G, therefore N is a subgroup of KN.
Also, for any a ∈ KN, a ∈ G.
Therefore, since N is normal in G, we have aNa-1= N
.: N is normal in KN.
Hence the factor groups are well -defined.
Now, we want to find an onto homomorphism ϕ: K →KN/N with Kernel
K∩N.
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Then we can apply the Fundamental Theorem of Homomorphism and get
the result. We define ϕ: K→ KN/N by ϕ (k) = kN, k ∈ K.
The mapping ϕ is well - defined, since K⊆ KN and therefore x ∈ K ⟹ x
∈ KN
Thus, k N ∈K N / N.

ϕ is a homomorphism:
For x, y ∈ K ϕ, (x, y) =xyN= (xN) (yN) = ϕ(x) ϕ(y)
Therefore, ϕ is a homomorphism.
ϕ is onto:
Im ϕ = {ϕ (k) | k ∈ K} = {kN |k∈ K}
We will show that Im ϕ = KN/N
Now, take any element kN ∈ Im ϕ.
Since k∈ K, k ∈ KN, therefore kN ∈KN/N
Im ϕ⊆ KN /N
On the other hand, any element of KN /N is knN =kN, since n ∈ N .
.: knN ∈ Im ϕ
⟹KN/N ⊆ Im ϕ
So, ϕ is onto.

Ker ϕ=K∩N
ker ϕ= {k∈k| ϕ (k)=N} ={k∈K|kN=N}
= {k∈K| k∈N}
=K∩N
Thus, applying First Isomorphism Theorem, we get K/(k∩N) ≈ (K+N)/N

Theorem: [third isomorphism theorem]

If M and N are normal subgroups of G and N is a subgroup of M,
Then (G/N) / (M/N) ≈G/M.
Proof: We will define a homomorphism from G/N onto G/M whose
kernel will turn out to be M/N.
Consider a mapping ϕ: G/N →G/M, which is given by (aN)= Am ∀ a ∈ G
Φ is well-defined, because aN=bN for a, b ∈ G.
⟹ ab-1∈ N ⊆ M
⟹ ab-1∈ M

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 ⟹aM=bM
⟹ ϕ (aN)= ϕ(bN)
Next to show that ϕ is onto homomorphism.
For any aN, bN ∈G/N ∀ a, b ∈ G
We have,
Φ(aN)(bN)= ϕ(abN)=abM
=(aM) (bM)
= ϕ(aN) ϕ(bN)
.: ϕ is a homomorphism.
Now, any element of G/M is of the form xM ∀x∈G
And xM = ϕ (xN) ∈ Im ϕ
.: Im ϕ = G/M
Lastly to show that ker ϕ=M/N.
.: Ker ϕ= {Xn ∈ G/N | ϕ(Xn)=M} = {x N ∈G/N|x M=M}
= {xN ∈ G/N|x ∈M}
=M/N
Therefore, by first isomorphism Theorem have (G/N)/Ker ϕ ≈ ϕ (G/N).
i.e. (G/N)/(M/N) ≈ (G/M).

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