Length and angle

Vectors are determined by two properties:

1. the length (distance between A and B)

2. the direction (the angle between AB and the x-axis)

y
B

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 y
B

Fact: Vectors of the same length and direction are the same. So, every vector
can be thought of initiating from the origin.

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a
Recall Scalar Multiplication: Let ~u = be a vector in R2 and c a scalar [c is
b
 
ca
a number in R], then c ·~u = .
cb
 
3
Example: Let ~u = . Then
5
     
6 −3 0
2~u = ⇒ ~u = ⇒ 0~u = = ~0
10 −5 0

Fact: Let ~u be a vector in R2 and c a scalar. Then:

⇒ c~u has the same direction as ~u provided c > 0.

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 ⇒ c~u has opposite direction as ~u provided c < 0.

⇒ the length of c~u = |c| times length of ~u.

 
1
Example: Let ~u = . Draw −~u, 2~u.
2

2~u
4
~u

x
2

(length of ~u)2 = (hypotneuse)2

⇒ 12 + 22 = 5
√
⇒ length of ~u = ||~u|| = 5

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−1
−~u = , where c=-1
−1
 
2
2~u = , where c=2
4

Using the fact, we have: ||c~u|| = |c| ||~u||

√
c = 2 ⇒ ||2~u|| = |2| ||~u|| = 2 5

On the other hand:

2 2 2
√ √
(length of 2u) = 2 + 4 = 20 ⇒ length of 2~u = ||2~u|| = 20 = 2 5

Definition: Vectors ~u and ~v are called parallel if one is a scalar multiple of the
other one. That is, there exists scalar c so that ~u = c~v.

In particular, if c > 0, then ~u and ~v have the same direction and if c < 0, then
~u and ~v have opposite directions.
 
0
Remark: length of the origin = is just zero, origin has no direction.
0

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Rescaling to find a unit vector
Recall: Let ~v be a vector in Rn and c an scalar. Then ||c~v|| = |c| ||~v|| .

 
ca p p p
||c~v|| = = (ca ) + (cb ) = c a + c b = c2 · (a2 + b2)
2 2 2 2 2 2
cb
√ p
= c2 a2 + b2
√ √ √ √ √ √
Notice: xy = x y But x + y 6= x + y.

1
Note: Let ~v 6= 0 be a vector in Rn, then the vector ||v||~v has the same direction as ~v
but with a unit length.
   
1 1
Example: Let A = 2 and B = 1. Find a point between A and B with distance
3 1
√
3 from A.

 
a
~u C = b
c

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 Example: Take the same A and B as in the previous example. Find a point
between A and B and two units away from B.

B
~u

C
 
A 0
~ = 1
BA
2

~
Find the unit vector on BA

 
0
1 ~ 1
~ BA = 5 1
~u = ||BA|| √  

~ where C is a point two units away from B. So, 2~u = C − B ⇒ C =

2~u = BC,
2~u + B.

 
   
0 1 1
2 
C = √25 1 + 1 =  √ + 1
 5 
2 1 4
√ +1
5

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Angle between two vectors
y
~v

~u
x

   
a b
Suppose ~u = 1 ,~v = 1 . We would like to calculate β − α in terms of
a2 b2
a1, a2, b1, b2.

Let’s assume for now that ~u and ~v are of length 1.

   
b1 cos β
=
b2 sin β

~v    
a1 cos α
=
~u a2 sin α
O

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 We have:
cos(β − α) = cosβ cosα + sinβ sinα
= b1 a1 + a2 b2
⇒ β − α = cos−1(a1b1 + a2b2)
In general:

 
1 1 a1
~u =
||u|| ||~u|| a2
 
1 1 b1
~v =
||v|| ||~v|| b2

1 1 1 1
cos(β − α) = a1 b1 + a2 b2
||u|| ||v|| ||u|| ||v||
1 1
⇒ cos(β − α) = (a1b1 + a2b2)
||u|| ||v||

   
a1 b1
a  b 
   
Definition: Let ~u =  ..2 ,~v =  ..2. Then
. .
an bn

~u ·~v = a1b1 + a2b2 + · · · + anbn.

|{z}
dot product

Note: Let θ be the angle between ~u and ~v. We have

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 cos(θ ) = ||~u||~u·~||~
v
v||

   
1 −2
Example: Let ~u = ,~v = . Find the angle between ~u and ~v.
2 3
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ~u and ~v

So,

~u ·~v −2 + (2)(3)
cosθ = =√ √
||~u|| ||~v|| 1+4 4+9
4 −1
 4 
cosθ = √ √ ⇒ θ = cos √
5 13 65

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