ENGINEERING MECHANICS Statics and Dynamics IRVING H. SHAMES Professor and Chairman, Department of Engineering Science Pratt Institute PRENTICE-HALL OF INDIA (PRIVATE) LIMITED NEW DELHI 1959Preface This book is a vector treatment of mechanics. I have endeavored to write a fundamental and rigorous text designed to give the student a background that will enable him to deal with the novel and challenging situations con- fronting present-day engineers. At the same time, I have tried to present material that will help the student develop a reasonable facility for discharging the more routine but ever-present problems in mechanics, and, by including in this first course certain introductory and common material for other ensuing courses in mechanies, I have attempted to present a broader perspective of the usual undergradu- ate aspects of the subject. The student is not expected to know vector algebra or vector calculus. Elements of these topics are included as part of the text. This material should cause no net loss of time for the student, for once he has mastered these operations he will be able to move much faster. And, as 8 side benefit, the mathematics department will gain stu- dents who have a grasp of this area of mathematics that. comes only from constantly using it to represent physical situations. The student, then, has more time for other important work—to everyone’s profit. ‘The usual divisions of statics, kinematics, aud dynamics have been preserved in this book. I am convinced, after teaching mechanics a number of years, that in apbroach- ing reaultants ape #quilibritim equations in statics we need not start with simple systems (such as concurrent and co- planar systems) and go on to increasingly more general cases. Instead, once the vector operations and certain vector quantities have been carefully defined and once thew PREFACE equivalence of force systems has been understond, the general case should be presented immediately and certain characteristics of the more special cases deduced from this."Such an approach enriches the deductive powers of the student, since each problem he undertakes must be classified and studied in terms of the general laws and nt simply on the basis of what chapter or section he happens to be reading. When forced to operate in this manner, I believe the student tends to retain greater proficiency in dealing with staties problems after he completes the course. This text, therefore, stresses analysis of situations from a broad viewpoint rather than speed in routine problem-solving by simpler specialized formulations. No graphical methods have been included, because I feel that once the student comprehends the analytical methods he can, if he desires, pick up the graphical procedures himself. I might add, parenthetically, that graph- ical techniques seem to be the first skills lost after the course is completed, regardless of the amount of drill. The concept of the tensor being a result of transformation relations is introduced gently in Chapter 8, where properties of surfaces are discussed, and then immediately in Chapter 9 the stress tensor is presented and re- lated to the properties of surfaces. These studies will help prepare the student for the more mature handling of the inertin tensor needed in dynamics. ‘The study of statics ends with the introduction of variational principles in mechanics; the method of virtual work and the principle of stationary potential energy are set forth as alternative techniques of solving certain classes of problems. This presentation is rigorous enough to serve as a possible foundation for more advanced studies of mechanics. A rather extensive treatment of the kinematics of particles and rigid bodies for single and multiple references is presented. I have found that after the student has constantly used vector methods in statics he is gener- ally very effective in employing them in kinematics. We begin the study of the dynamics of particles by analyzing the recti- linear motion of a body under the action of a variety of forces. The motion of several bodies (which are connected in various ways) under rectilinear translation is then examined, and this investigation leads us to the concepts of natural modes of motion, resonances, etc. The central force problem is taken up, leading to Kepler’s laws, and is followed by a discussion of space mechanics, where we consider problems involving earth satellites and space vehicles. Next a study is made of the general motion of a particle. Applica- tions are made to the ballistics of shells and of charged particles moving --through electric and magnetic fields. Employing the mass center, we make simple conclusions about the motion of any system of particles for a general motion. Energy methods, linear momentum, and moment of momentum are then developed for a particle and a system of particles. Turning toPREFACE wil rigid bodies, we introduce, the inertia tensor so we can effectively develop the Euler equations of motion. Here the student attacks tisual snd not so usual problems from the general equations, and is again forced to classify, simplify, and analyze from the general to the particular. Energy methods are presented for rigid bodies. Euler angles are defined, and the motion of a rapidly rotating body about a fixed point is examined. This study leads us to the gyroscopic equations. The motion of a deformable medium is presented next. The concept of the control volume paralleling the idea of the free-body diagram is carefully set forth. Momentum and continuity equations ure formulated in a general way, and applications to rockets, jets, nozzles, etc., are made from this study. Clearly, this text encompasses more than can be thoroughly covered by the average sophomore in six hours, but the instructor may readily tailor the material to fit his time schedule and the caliber of his students. Many students probably will, with some encouragement, read some or all of the material not covered directly in class. In fact, the extent to which this addi- tional work is done may be an indication of the success of the course. J wish to thank my colleagues of the Department of Engineering Science at Pratt Institute for their assistance in this undertaking. In particular, Dr. A. Finkelstein has read the entire manuscript with care and has made numerous helpful suggestions. Dr. N. Perrone and Dr. R. P. Shaw have taught from the early notes of this book, and Dr. E. Liban and Mr. F. Cozzarelli have criticized portions of the manuscript. Dr. R. Cook, Dean of Engineering, and all my fellow chairmen at Pratt Institute have extended me their conifidence and support throughout the development of the book and the accompanying course. Professor 8. Rehyle of Stevens Institute of Technology was the principal reviewer; for his aid I fecl most fortunate. Dr. C. K. Chu of New York University and Dr. Warren Wilson of Harvey Mudd College read and advised on parts of the manuscript. Talso wish to thank the members of Pratt’s first class (1960) in engineer- ing science, who have pioneered the new program: Michael S. Ralch Lim N. Lee Robert J. Ravera David R. Barbour Carl J. Meshenberg —=Richard D. Kea Michael H. Bulkin Harry L. Hong Moo Robert J. Whitesell Richard J. Grassi ‘Rinaldo Prisco Don Ngew Wong Stephen J. Kramer They have been a continual source of amazement and gratification to their teachers and of no small help to me. Finally, I must note my indebtedness to Miss Betty Capria, who typed the several versions of the manuscript. IRVING H. SHAMESContents Fundamentals of Mechanics, 1 ss Ll Introduction, 1. 1.2 Basic Dimensions and Unile of Mechanica, 2. 1.3 Secondary Dimensional Quantities, 6. 1.4 Law of Dimensional Homogeneity, 6. 1.8 Dimensional Relation between Force and Mase, 7. 1.6 Unita of Mass, 8 1.7 Idealizations af Mechanics, 10. 1.8 Vectors and Scalar Quantities, 12. 1.9 Equality and Equivalence of Vectora, 14. 1.10 Laws of Mechanics, 16. 1.11 Summary, 18. Elements of Vector Algebra, #2 2.1 Introduction, #2, 2.2 Magnitule and Multiplication of o Vector by a Scalar, #8, 2.3 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors, 24. 2.4 Resolution of Vectors; Scalar Components, 26, 2.5 Unit Vectors, £8. 2.6 Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectore, $0. 2.7 Cross Product of Two Vectors, $2. 2.8 A Note on Vector Nolation, 34. 2.9 Summary, 36. Important Vector Quantities, 39 3.1 Position Vector, $9. 3.2 Moment of a Force about a Point, 40. 3.3 Mo- ment of a Force about an Aris, 48. 3.4 The Couple and Couple-Moment, 46. 3.5 The Couple-Moment as a Pree Veclor, 48. 3.6 The Addition and Sub- traction of Couples, 49. 3.7 A Note on the Scalar Components of a Couple Moment, 61, 3.8 Summary, 52. : witCONTENTS ix Equivalent Force Systems, 55 41 Introduction, 55, 4.2 Translation of a Furee to a Parallel Position, 56. 4.8 The Wrench, 59. 4.4 Resultont of a Force System, 64. 4.5 Resullonte of Special Force Systems, 66, 4.6 Distributed Force Systems, 70, 4.7 Sum- mary, 74. Equations of Equilibrium, 30 5.1 Free-Body Diagram, 80. 5.2 Free Bodies Involving Interior Sections, 83. 5.3 Equations of Equilibrium, 86. 5.4 Special Coses of Equilibrium, 89. 5.5 Problems of Equilibrium, 91. 8.6 Some Simple Conclusions from Equilib- rium, 100. 5.1 Statie Indeterminacy, 105. 5.8 Complete Constraint of a Rigid Body, 108. 5.9 Summary, 110, Introduction to Structural Mechanics, 118 PartaA. TRUSSES, 118 6.1 The Structural Model, 118. 6.2 Statically Determinate Truses, 119. 6.8 The Simple Truss, 120. 6.4 Solution of Simple Trusses, 122. Pert. BEAMS, 129 65 Analysts of Beams, 129. 6.6 Shear Bending-Moment Diagrams, 183. 6.7 Relations between Distributed Loads, Shear, and Bending Moments, 187. Part C. CHAINS AND CABLES, 1/4 6.8 Introduction, 144. 6.9 Coplanar Cables, 144. 6.10 Summary, 149. Frictional Forces, 156 7.1 Introduction, 156. 7.2 Laws of Coulomb Friction, 157, 7.3 Problems Involving Dry Friction, 161. 7.4 Special Applications, 188. 7.5 Rolling Friction, 174. 1.6 Summary, 176.CONTENTS Properties of Surfaces, 184 8.1 Introduction, {87> 8.2 First Moment of an Area and the Centroid, 186. 8.8 Second Moments and the Product of Inertia of a Plane Area, 187, 8.4 Transfer Theorems, 188. 8.5 Computations Involving Moments and Products of Inertxa, 190. 8.6 Relations between Moments and Products of Inertia, 193. 8.7 Polar Moment of Inertia, 196. 8.8 Principal Azes, 196. 8.9 Summary, a Introduction to Continuum Mechanics, soz Part A. BASIC DEFINITIONS, 202 9.1 Introductory Concepte—Stress, 202, 9.2 Stress Notation, 204. 9.3 A Few General Remarks, 206. Part B. STRESS RELATIONS, 207 9.4 Stress at a Pornl, 207. 9.5 Some Important Properties of the Strese Tensor, 210. Part C. HYDROSTATICS AND AEROSTATICS, 2/4 9.6 Introductory Commenis, 214. 9.7 The Gradient, 214 9.8 Pressure Var- tation wn an Incompressble State Fluid, 217. 9.9 General Procedure for a Static Compressible Fluid, 219. 9.10 Examples of Pressure Variatons for Static Compressible Fluds, £21. 9.11 Effect of Surface Force on a Flind Con- fined So As To Remain State, 222, 9.12 Hydrostatic Forces on Submeryed Surfaces, 228. 9.13 Buoyancy, 228. Part D. VISCOUS FRICTION, 230 9.14 Viscous Friction, £30, Introduction to Variational Mechanics, 248 © 10.1 Introduction, 243. Part A. METHOD OF VIRTUAL WORK, 244 10.2 Principle of Vartual Work for a Particle, 244. 10.8 Principle of Virtual Work for a Rigid Body, 246. 10.4 Pranciple of Virtual Work for a System of Ideally Connected Ragrd Bodies, 248, 10.8 Degrees of Freedom, 249. 10.6 Problema with Ideal Constraints, 261. 10.7 Ezlensions of the Principle of Virtual Work, 255,CONTENTS xt Part S. METHOD OF MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY, 258 10.8 Conservatire Systems, £68, 10.9 Condstion of Equilibrium yor a Con servative System, 260. 10.10 Stability, 263. Elements of Kinematics, #78 1.1 Introduction, £78. Part A. ELEMENTS OF VECTOR CALCULUS, 274 11.2 Differentiation of a Vector with Respect o Time, #74. 11.8 Integration of a Vector with Respect to Time, 277. Part ©. DERIVATIVES OF VECTORS FIXED IN RIGID BODIES, 279 11.4 Concepts of Translation and Rotation of Rigid Bods, 279, 11.5 Dyf- Jerentiation of a Vector Fized in Esther a Translating or Rotating Rigid Body, 281 11.6 A Vector Ficed in a Rigid Body of General Motion, 287. 1.7 Mo- tuom of a Particle ina Regud Body, 288, Part C. GENERAL EVALUATION OF DERIVATIVES, 2:17 11.8 Introductory Remarks, 297. 11.9 Velocity and Acceleration sn Terma of the Angular Motion and Flongation of the Position Vector, 297, 11.10 Velocity and Acceleration in Terma of Path Variables, 300, 1.11 Cylsndrveal Coord nates, $04. Pert D. THE RELATIONSHIP OF MOTIONS FOR DIFFERENT REFERENCES, 3/2 11.12 The Relationshep between Derivatives of a Vector for Different References, B12 N13 The Relaionshsp between Veloctres of a Particle for Different References, 315. MLb The Accelerutioggof a Particle for Different References, 319, Part E. SOLUTION OF FORCES ON A PARTICLE HAVING A KNOWN MOTION, 330 11.15 Analysts of the Problem, $80, 11.16 The Coriohe Force, 332, 11.17 Summary, 337. Integration of Newton's Law for Rectilinear Translation, 340 py Part A. SINGLE PARTICLE, 340 12.1 Introduction, 340, 12.2 Force Is Constant, 341. 12.3 Force Is a Funo- thon of Time, $42. 12.4 Linear Renoring Force, $43. 12.8 Linear Restoring Porce and a Force Varying Sinusotdally with Time, 349. 12.6 Lenear Restori.g Force with Viscous Damping, $64. 12.7 Linear Restoring Force, Viscous Damping with a Sinusoidal Disturbance, $57. 12.8 Summary of Part A, 368.it CONTENTS Pert B, MOTION OF SEVERAL INTERACTING FARTICLES, 559 229 Iniroduciory Nole, $60, 12.10 D’Alembert's Prinexple, $60 12.11 Os- cillatory Systema with Mult-Degrees of Freedom, 362. Pert C. ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALOGUE FOR A MECHANICAL SYSTEM, 366 12,12 Introductory Camgments, 368, 2.13 Eleciral and Mechanscal Counler- parts, 367. Central-Force’Motion, 877 Part A. GENERAL THEORY, 377 13,1 Introduction, $77 13.2 General Central-Force Motion, $78 13.3 Grar- tatsonal Central-Force Motion, %81 13.4 General Tuo-Body Problem, $83 Port B. SPACE MECHANICS, 58/ 13.5 Earth Satellsies Launched Parallel to the Earth's Surface, $85 13.6 Satelites Launched with an Initial Radial Velocety Component, $89 13.7 Re- mew of Conse Sections, 293, General Motion of a Particle, 399 14.1 Introducton, $99 Part A. BALLISTICS OF SHELLS, 400 14.2 Introduction to Ballsstxes of Shells, 400 Part B. MOTION GF CHARGED PARTICLES, 407 14.3 Opening Remarks, 40? 14.4 Electr and Magnette Forces, 408 14.8 Motion of Charged Parttclea, 411 Port C. A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES, 4/7 14.6 The General Motion of a System of Parlules, 417 14.7 Summary, 419 Energy Methods, 426 Port A. ANALYSIS FOR A SINGLE PARTICLE, 426 15.1 Introduction, 486. 15.2 Conservative Systema, 429. 15.8 Conservation of Mechanscal Energy, 481. 15.4 Alternate Form of Work-Energy Equation, 484.CONTENTS ill ‘Port 8. SYSTEMS (OF PARTICLES, 435 18.5 Work-Energy Equations, 485. 15.6 Kinetic Energy Expression Based on Center of Masa, 438. 15.7 Work-Kinetic Energy Expressions Based on Center of Mass, 440. Methods of Momentum, 447 Ce Port A. LINEAR MOMENTUM, 447 16.1 Introduction, 447. 16.2 Linear Momentum of a System of Particles, 449. 16.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum-Impact, 451. 16.4 A Note on Energy Loss, 458. Part B. MOMENT OF MOMENTUM, 460 16.5 Moment of Momentum Equation for a Single Particle, 460. 16.6 Moment of Momentum Equation for a System of Particles, 461. 16.7 Summary, 467. The Inertia Tensor, 475 ITAL Introduction, 476. 17.2 Formal Definition of Inertia Quantities, 476. 17.3 Transformation Properties of the Inertia Terma, 477. 114 Tensor Nola- tion for Transformatons, 481. 17.8 The Inertsa Ellipsoid and Principal Mo- ments of Inertia, 483. 17.6 Computation of Principal Moments of Inertia, 485. VU.T Translation of Coordinale Axes, 487. 11.8 The Relation of Mase Inertia Terms to Area Inertia Terms, 489. 11.9 Summary, 490. Euler's Equations of Motion, 49 18.1 Introduction, 496. 18.2 Development of Euler’s Equations for the Center of Mass, 497. 18.3 Euler's Equations for Points Other Than the Mass Center; 501. 18.4 Application of Euler's Equations, 602, 18.5 Balancing, 61.:. 18.6 Simplifications of Euler's Equations, 623, 18.7 D'Alembert's Principle Sor Rigid Bodies, 681. 18.8 Summary, 535.xv CONIENTS Energy Considerations,for Rigid Bodies, 546 19.1 Kinetic Energi ta Rigid Body, 545% 19.2 Kinetic Energy of a Body in Pure Rotation, 648. 19.3 Energy Formulations for Conservative Systeme, 549. 19.4 Work-Energy Relations, 654. Motion of a Body about Fixed Point, “ses 20.1 Introduction, 664. 20.2 Euler Angles, 565. 20.3 Physical Interpreta- tion of the Euler Angles, 667, 20.4 Euler’s Equaons, 568. Pert A. TORQUE-FREE MOTION, 569 20.5 Torque-Free Motion of a Body of Revolution, 569. Part 8, THE SPINNING ToP, 576 20.6 Symmetric Spinning Top under the Acton of Gravity, 576, 20.7 An Examsnation of Expected Nutaton Velocity, 679 20.8 The Precession and Spin of the Top, 688. 20.9 Approximate Analysts of a “Dropped” Fast Top, 584. 20.10 Case of Constant Torques, 588. 20.11 The Gyro-Compass, 689, Momentum Equations for Deformable Media, 497 21.1 Introduction, 597. 21.2 The Velocity Field, 598, 21.3 Two Viewpoints, 600, 21.4 Acceleration of a Flow Particle, 601, 21.8 Basie Laws for Con- tinuous Medta, 602. 21.6 Systems and Control Volumes, 603, 21.7 One- and Two-Dimensional Flows, 604. 21.8 Continuity Equation, 605, 21.9 Momen- tum Equations for a Control Volume, 608, 21.10 Analysts of Problems, 612. 21.11 Moment of Momentum for a Control Volume, 619, 21.12 Summary, Appendix, 632 Answers to Problems, 640 Index, 668ENGINEERING MECHANICS Statics and DynamicsFundamentals of Mechanics 1.1 inrropuction Mechanics is the physical science concerned with the dynamical behavior (as opposed to chemical and ther- mal behavior) of bodies that are acted on by mechanical disturbances. Since such behavior is involved in virtually all the situations that confront an engineer, mechanice lies at the core of much engincering analysis. In fact, no physical science plays a greater role in engineering than2 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $12 does mechanics, and it is the oldest of all the physical sciences. The writings of Archimedes covering buoyancy and the lever were recorded before 200 3.c. Our modern kaowledge of gravity and motion was established by Isaac Newton (1642-1727), whose laws founded Newtonian mechanics, the subject matter of this text. In 1905, Einstein placed limitations on Newton’s formulations with his theory of relativity and thus set the stage for the development of rela- tivistic mechanics. The newer theories, however, give results which depart from those of Newton’s formulations only when the speed of a body ap- proaches the’speed of light (186,000 miles/sec). Although these speeds are encountered in the large-scale phenomena of dynamical astronomy and the small-scale phenomena involving sub-atomic particles, it is nevertheless true that in the great bulk of engineering problems Newtonian mechanics still applies. 1,2 BASIC DIMENSIONS AND UNITS OF MECHANICS In mechanics, we wish to examine quantitatively certain aspects of the mechanical actions of bodies and then to communicate our findings clearly. To do this, we must establish abstractions to describe those manifestations of the body that we are interested in. These artificial con- cepts are called dimensions. The dimensions that we first pick, which are independent of all other dimensions, are termed primary or basic dimen- sions, and the ones that are then developed in terms of the basic dimensions we call secondary dimensions. Of the many possible sets of basic dimensions that we could use in our study of mechanics, we will, at present, confine ourselves to one of the two most convenient ones. This set iricludes the dimensions of length, time, and mass. The other convenient set will be examined later. Length—a concept for describing size quantitatively. In order to determine the size of an object we must place a second object of known size next to it. Thus, in pictures of machinery, a man often appears standing disinterest- edly beside the apparatus. Without him we would be unable to gauge the size of the unfamiliar machine. Although the man has served as some sort of standard measure, we can, of course, only get an approximate idea of the machine's size. Men’s heights vary, and, what is even worse, the shape of a mtan is too complicated to be of much help in acquiring a precise measurement of the machine. What we need, obviously, is an object that is constant in shape and simple enough in form to enable us to use mathe- matical formulations in measuring a body’s size. A straight line scratched on a metal bar that is kept at uniform thermal and physical conditions (as, for example, the meter bar kept at Savres, France) serves as this simple, invariant standard. We can now readily calculate and communicate the§12 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 3 length* along a certain dixection of an object by counting the number of standards and fractions thereof that can be marked off along this direction. Other aspects of size, such as volume and area, can then be formulated in terms of the standard by the methods of plane, spherical, and solid geom- etry. Each such accepted stangard is called a unit of the dimension length. Many types of units are actually empioyed around the world, but we shall use the system in which the foot is the unit of meusure for length. At the end of this chapter, a summary of common systems of units is presented. Time—a concept for ordering the flow of events. In observing the picture of the machine with the man standing close by, we can sometimes tell approximutely when the pietifre was take by the style of clothes the man is wearing. But how do we determine this? We may say to ourselves: “When I was in high school, people wore the type of straw hat that the fellow in the picture is wearing.” In other words, the “when” is tied to certain events that are experienced by the observer. For a more accurate description of “when,” we must fd an action which appears to be com- pletely repeatable. Then we can order the events under study by counting the number of these repeatable actions and fractions thereof that occur while the events transpire. The rotation of the carth serves as u good measure of time, but we need smaller units in most of our work in engi- neering and thus gencrally tie events to the second, which is an action repeatable 86,400 times a day. Mass—a property of matter. The student ordinarily has no trouble under- standing the concepts of length and time because he is constantly aware of the size of things through his senses of sight and touch, and is always cohscious of time by ob- serving the flow of events in his daily life. The concept of mass, however, is not as easily grasped since it docs not impinge as di- rectly on our daily experience. Mass is 4 property of matter that can be determined from two different actions of bodies. To study the first action, suppose ‘ we consider two hard bodies of : entirely different composition, size, shape, color, etc. If we attach the bodies to identical springs, as shown in Fig. 1.1, each spring will extend some distance as a result of the attraction of gravity for the bodies: By grinding off some of the material on the body that causes the greater ‘The word “length” here is simply the layman’s connotation of a certain aspect of ‘size and not the more general definition.4 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $12 extension, we can make the deflections that are induced on both springs equal. Even if we raise the springs to » new height above the earth’s sur- face, thus lessening the deformation of the springs, the extensions induced by the pull of gravity will be the same for both bodies. And since they are, we can conclude that the bodies have an equivalent innate property. This property of each body that manifests itself in the amount of gravitational attraction we call mass. The equivalence of these same bodies can be indicated in yet a second action. If we move both bodies an equal distance downward, by stretching each spring, and then release them at the same time, they will begin to move in an identical manner (except for smail variations due to differences in wind friction and local deformations of the bodies). We have imposed, in effect, the same mechanical disturbance on euch body and we have elicited the same dynamical response. Hence, despite many obvious differ- ences, the two bodies again show an equivalence. The property of mass, then, characterizes a body both in the actions of gravitational attraction and in the response to a mechantcal disturbance. To communicate this property quantitatively, we may choose some con- venient body and compare other bodies to it in the two above-mentioned actions. For example, we can find the mass of a body by comparing the extension of a spring it causes with that of a given body at the same loca- tion on the earth. The two units commonly used in American engineering practice to measure mass are the slug, which 1s defined in terms of the dynamical response of a standard body to a mechanical disturbance, and the pound mass, which is defined in terms of the attraction of gravity for a standard body at a standard location. They will be further discussed in a subsequent section. We have now estublished three basic independent dimensions to describe certain physical phenomena. It is convenient to identify these dimensions in the following manner: length —(L) time @ mass (M) These formal expressions of identification for basic dimensions and the more complicated groupings to be presented in the next section for sec- ondary dimensions are called “dimensional representations.” Often there are occasions when we want to change units during compu- tations. For'instance, we may wish to change feet into inches or centi- meters. In such a case, we must replace the unit in question by a physically equivalent number of new units. Thus, a foot is replaced by 12 inches or 30.5 centimeters. A table of equivalences in basic dimensions is given at413 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 5 the end of the chapter (Table B). Such relations between units will be expressed in this way: 1 ft = 12 in. = 30.5 em* These are not to be taken as algebraic relations but simply as indications of physical equivalences. Hert is another way of expressing the above relations: ( 1 ft ) =1 1 ft. =1 12 in. 30.5 cm, 12 zn) 1 (3 em\ _y lft } lft The unity on the right side of these relations indicates that the numerator and denominator on the left side are physically equivalent and thus have a 1 to 1 relation. This notation will prove convenient when we consider the change of units for secondary dimensions in the next section. 1.3 SECONDARY DIMENSIONAL QUANTITIES When physical manifestations are described in terms of basic dimensions by the use of suitable definitions (for instance, velocity is defined* as a distance divided by a time interval), such quantities are called secondary dimensional quantities. In the next section, we will see that these quantities may also be established as a consequence of natural laws. The dimensivnal representation of secondary quantities is given in terms of the basic dimensions that enter into the formulation of the con- cept. For example, the dimensional representation of velocity is: velocity = (L)/(t) The units for a secondary quantity are then given in terms of the units of the constituent basic dimensions. Thus: velocity units = (ft)/(sec) To change the units of one system into another usually involves a change in the scale of measure of the dependent quantities involved in the prob- lem. Thus, one scale unit of velocity in the English system is one foot per second, while in the metric system it is one centimeter per second. How may these scale units be correctly related for complicated secondary quantities? In our simple case, how many centimeters per second are equivalent to one foot per second? The formal expressions of dimensiona! representation may be put to good use for such an evaluation. The pro-, cedure is this: express the dependent quantity dimensionally; substitute * A more precise definition will be made in tre chapters on dynamice,6 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $1.4 existing units for the basic dimensions; change these units to the equiv- alent numbers of units in the new system using Table B on p. 19. The result is an equation giving the number of scale units of the dependent quantity in the new system of units which is equivalent to one scale unit of the quantity in the old system. Performing these operations for velocity, we would thus have: 1 ft/sec = 30.5 cm/sec which means that 30.5 scale units of velocity in the metric system are equivalent to one scale unit in the English system. Another way of changing units when secqudary dimensions are present is to make use of the formalism illustrated in relations 1.1. To change a unit in an expression, multiply this unit by a ratio physically equivalent to unity, as we discussed earler, so that the old unit 1s cancelled out leav- ing the desired unit with the proper numerical coefficients. In the example of velocity used above, we may replace feet by centimeters in the follow- ing manner: Lit _ 16 (305 em/1 #) _ 30.5em sec sec gee It should be clear that when we multiply by such ratios to accomplish a change of units as shown above, we do not alter the actual physical quan- tity represented by the expression. The student is strongly urged to employ this technique in his work, for the use of less formal methods is generally an invitation to error. 1.4. LAW OF DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY Now that we can describe certain aspects of nature in a quanti- tative manner through basic and secoudary dimensions, we may by careful observation and experimentation learn to relate certain of the quantities in the form of equations. In this regard there is an important law which imposes a restriction on the formulation of such equations. This law states that analytically derived equatrons representing a physical phenomenon must be valid for all systems of untts. Thus the equation for the period of a pen- dulum, t = 2xVL/g, must. be valid for all systems of units, because natural phenomena proceed with no regard for man-made units. Since equations representing such actions must be true regardless of the system of units employed, the fundamental equations of physics are dimensionally homo- geneous. Hence, all equations derived analytically from these fundamental laws must also be dimensionally homogencous. What restriction does this condition place on an equation? To answer this, let us examine the following arbitrary equation:$15 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 7 = = (yd) +k For this equation to be dimensionally homogeneous, the numerical ¢quality between both sides of the equation must be maintained for all systems of units. To accomplish this, the change in the scale of measure of each group of terms must be the same for gll systems of units. That is, if the numerical measure of one group such as ydg is doubled for a new system of units, so must that of the quantities z and k. For this to occur under all systems of units, it is necessary that every grouping in the equation have the same dimen- stonal representation. As a further illustration, consider the dimensional representation of an equation that is not dimensiofially homogeneous: ) = (+ © When we change units from the English to the metric system, the units of fect give way to units of centimeters, but there is no change in the unit of time, and it becomes clear that the numerical value of the left side of the equation changes while that of the right side does not. The equation, then, becomes invalid in the new system of units and hence is not derived from the basic laws of physics. Throughout this book we shall invariably be concerned with dimensionally homogeneous equations. 1.5 DIMENSIONAL RELATION BETWEEN FORCE AND MASS We shall now employ the law of dimensional homogeneity to establish a new secondary dimension. A superficial use of Newton’s law will be employed for this purpose. In a later section, this law will be pre- sented in greater detail, but it will suffice at this time to state that the acceleration of a particle is inversely proportional to its mass for a given disturbance. Mathematically, this becomes: acl/m 12 where « is the proportionality symbol. Inserting the constant of propor- tionality, F, we have on rearranging the equation: F=ma 13 The mechanical disturbance, represented by F and called force, must have the following dimensional representation according to the law of — sional homogeneity: (L) ( The type of disturbance for which relation 1.2 is valid is usually the action of one body on another by direct contact. However, other actions such as (F) = () 7 4® FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $16 magnetic, electrostatic, and gravitational actiqns of one body on another also create mechanical effects that are valid in Newton’s equation. We could have initiated the study of mechanics by considering force as basic dimension, the manifestation of which can be measured by the elongation of some standard spring at a prescribed temperature. Experi- ment would then indicate that for a given body the acceleration is directly proportional to the applied force. Mathematically: Foa “ P=ma from which we see that the proportionality constant now represents the property of mass. Here, mass is a secondary quantity whose dimensional representation is determined from Newton’s law: an =) & Ls As was mentioned earlier, we thus have a choice between the MLt or the FLt system of basic units. Physicists prefer the former while engineers usually prefer the latter. 1.6 UNITS OF mass As we have already seen, the concept of mass arose from two types of actions—namely, those of motion and gravitational attraction. In en- gineering practice, units of mass are based on both actions, and this some- times leads to confusion. Let us consider the FLt system of basic dimensions for the following discussion. The unit of force may be taken to be the pound, which is defined as a force that extends a standard spring a certain distance. Using Newton’s law, we define the slug as the amount of mass that a 1-pound force will cause to accelerate at the rate of 1 foot per second per second. On the other hand, another unit of mass that is independent of the slug can be stipulated if we use the gravitational effect as a criterion Here the pound mass (Ibm) is defined as the amount of matter that is drawn by gravity toward the earth by a force of 1 pound (Ibf) at a specified position ‘on the earth’s surface. We have formulated two units of mass by two dif- ferent actions, and to relate these units we must subject them to the same action. Thus we can take the pound mass and see what fraction or multiple of it will accelerate 1 ft per sec? under the action of 1 pound of force. This fraction or multiple will then represent the number of units of pound mass that are equivalent to 1 slug. It turns out that this coefficient is go, where go has the value corresponding to the acceleration of gravity at a position on the earth’s surface where the pound mass was standardized. To three significant figures the value of gy is 32.2. We may then make the statement, of equivalence that:$16 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 9 1 slpg = 32.2 pounds mass Let W represent mass in units of pound mass. To use this unit in Newton’s law it is necessary to divide by go to form units of mass that have been derived from Newton’s law. Thus, F = (W/go)a. Having properly introduced into Newton’s law the pound-mass unit from the viewpoint of physical equivalence, let us now consider the dimensional homogeneity of the resulting equation. The right side of the above equa- tion must have the dimensional representation of F and, since the unit here for F is the pound force, the right side must then have this unit. Examination of the units on the right side of the equation then indicates that the units of go must be: * _ (Ibm) (ft) (G0) = bA) (eee)? i Thus, for use in Newton’s law, m in slugs is related to W in pounds mass by the following equation: W (pounds mass) go where go is a constant 32.2 having the units as given in 1.6. How does weight fit into this picture? Weight is defined as the force of gravity on a body. Its value will depend on the position of the body relative to the earth’s surface, as was indicated in the discussion of mass. At a location on the carth’s surface where the pound mass is standardized, a mass of 1 pound (Ibm) has the weight of 1 pound (Ibf), but with increasing altitude the weight will become smaller than 1 pound (Ibf). The mass, however, remains at all times a 1-pound mass (Ibm). If the altitude is not exceedingly large, the measure of weight, in Ibf, will practically equal the measure of mass, in Ibm. Therefore, it 1s unfortunately the practice in engineering erroncously to think of weight at positions other than on the earth’s surface as the measure of mass, und consequently to use the symbol W to represent either Ibm or Ibf. In this age of rockets and missiles, it behooves us to be careful about the proper usage of units of mass and weight throughout the entire teat. If we know the weight of a body at some point, we can determine its mass in slugs very easily, provided we know the acceleration of gravity, g, at that point. Thus, according to Newton’s law: W (ibf) = m (slugs) X g (ft/sec*) 2 mg) = OD 1s Note that the units ore properly related in light of the definition of the slug made earlier. m (slugs) = Lz10 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $17 This last formulation must not be confused with Eq. 1.7. The former relates two units of mass, namely the pound mass and the slug, while the latter relates a unit of mass and a unit of force. 1.7 (DEALIZATIONS OF MECHANICS As we have pointed out, basic and secondary dimensions may be related in equations to represent some physical action that we are interested in. For such equations to be susceptible to mathematical manipulations, however, and even for an action to be expressible in an equation using the known laws of physics, we must invariably replace the actual physical action, and the participating bodies, with hypothetical, highly simplified substitutes. We must be sure, of course, that the results of our substitutes have some reasonable correlation with reality. All analytical physical sciences must resort to this technique, and, consequently, their computa- tions are not cut and dried but involve a considerable amount of imagina- tion, ingenuity, and insight into physical behavior. We shall at this time set forth the most fundamental idealizations of mechanics and a bit of the philosophy involved in scientific analysis. The continuum. Even the simplification of matter into molecules, atoms, electrons, etc. is too complex a picture for many problems of enginecring mechanics. In most problems, we are interested only in the average meas- urable manifestations of these elementary bodies. Pressure, density, and temperature are actually the gross effects of the actions of the many mole- cules and atoms, and they can be conveniently assumed to arise from a hypothetically continuous distribution of matter, which we shall call the continuum, instead of from a conglomeration of discrete bodies. Without such an artifice, we would have to consider the action of cach of these elementary bodies—a virtual impossibility for most problems. The rigid body. In many cases involving the action on a body by a force, we simplify the continuum concept even further. The most elemental case is that of a rigid body, which is a continuum that undergoes theoreti- cally no deformation whatever. Actually every body must deform to a certain amount, but in many cases the deformation is too small to affect the desired analysis. It is then preferable to consider the body as rigid and proceed with the simplified computations. For example, assume we are to determine the forces transmitted by a beam to the earth as the result of some load P (Fig. 1.2). If P is reasonably small, the beam will undergo —$1.7 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS = 19 little deflection and we can carry out a straightforward simple analysis as if the body were indeed rigid. If we were to attempt a’ more Sccurate analysis—even though a slight increase in accuracy is not required—we would then need to know the exact position that the load assumes relative to the earth after the beam has ceased to deform, as shown in an exag- gerated manner in Fig. 1.3. To do this accurately is a hopelessly difficult P Figure 1.3 task, especially when we consider that the support must also “give” in a certain way. Although the alternative to a rigid-body analysis here leads us to a virtually impossible calculation, situations do arise in which more realistic models must be employed to yicld the required accuracy. The guiding principle is to make such simplifications as are consistent with the required accuracy of the results. We must generally abandon the rigid-body model when the applied loads cause the body to deform to such an extent that the final orientation of these applied londs 1s not known with sufficient accuracy for the problem at hand. However, if we know the final position of the loads or can estimate them, we can sometimes utilize the rigid-body model if we take the de- formed shape as the shape of the rigid body. Clearly the supports in Fig. 1.3 have no way of knowing whether the body has been deformed to its final geometry by the loads or whether as a rigid body it always had that shape. We shall have occasion to employ the rigid-body model for such situations in the study of chains and cables in a later chapter. The particle. The particle is defined as an object that has no size but that has a mass. Perhaps this doesn’t sound like a very helpful definition for engineers to employ, but it is actually one of the most useful in me- chanics. In computing the trajectory of a planet, for example, it is the mass of the planet and not its size that is significant. Hence, we can con- sider plancts as purticles for such computations. On the other band, take a figure skater spinning on the ice, whose revolutions are controlled so beautifully by the orientation of the body. In this motion, the siee and distribution of the body are significant, and since a particle, by definition, can have no distribution, it is patently clear that a particle cannot represent the skater in this case. If, however, the skater should be billed as the “human cannon ball on skates” and be shot out of a large gun, then it would be possible to consider him as a single particle in ascertaining his trajectory, since his bodily gyrations that were significant while he was42, FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $18 spinning on the ice would have little effect op the arc traversed by the main pértion of his body. Point force. A finite farce exerted on one body by another must cause a finite amount of local deformation and always creates a finite area of con- tact between the bodies through which the force is transmitted. However, since we have formulated the concept of the rigid body, we should also be able to imagine that o finite force is transmitted through an infinitesimal area or point. This simplification of a force distribution is called a point force. In the many cases where the actual area of contact in a problem is very small but is not known exactly, the use of the concept of the point force results in little sacrifice in accuracy. In Figs. 1.2 and 1.3 we actually employed the graphical representation of the point force. Many other simplifications pervade mechanics. The perfectly elastic body, the frictionless fluid, etc. will become quite familiar to you as you study various phases of mechanics. 1.8 VECTORS AND SCALAR QUANTITIES We have now proposed sets of basic dimensions and secondary dimensions to describe certain aspects of nature, but more than just di- mensional identification and the number of units are often needed to convey adequately the desired information. For instance, to specify fully the velocity of a particle we must give: a. The magnitude of the secondary dimensions, by stating the number of scale units (feet per second, or centimeters per hour, etc.). b. The direction of the motion relative to some convenient reference. We have thus far considered only part a. To represent b we use an arrow to indicate direction and relate its length to the magnitude of the quantity involved. You will note that we have already used such arrows in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3. Fyt Fe Certain quantities having mag- nitude and direction combine their effects ina special way. Thus, the combined effect of two forces acting on a particle, as Figure 1.4 shown in Fig. 1.4, corresponds to a single force which may be shown by experiment to be equal to the diagonal of a parallelogram formed by the graphical representation of the forces. That is, the quantities add according to the parallelo- gram law. All quantities that have magnitude and direction and that Fe$18 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 13 add according to the paralelogram law are called vector quantities. Other quantities that have only magnitude, such as temperature and work, are called scalar quantities. A vector quantity will be denoted with a bold- face letter, which in the case of force becomes F. The reader may ask: don’t all quantities having magnitude and direction combine according to the parallelogram law and therefore become vector quantities? No, not all of them do. One very important example will be pointed out after we consider Fig 1.4. In the construction of the parallelogram it matters not which force is laid out first. In other words, “F, combined with F,” gives the same result as “F, combined with F;.” In short, the combination is commutative. If a combination is not commu- tative, then it cannot in general be represented by a parallelogram opera- tion and is thus not a vector. With this in mind, consider the angle of rotation of a body about some axis. We can associate a magnitude (degrees or radians) and a direction (the axis and a stipulation of clockwise or counterclockwise) with this quantity. However, the angle of rotation can- not be considered a vector because in general two rotations about different axes cannot be replaced by 2 single rotation consistent with the parallelo- gram law. The easiest way to show this is to demonstrate that the com- bination of rotations is not commutative. In Fig. 1.5a a book is to be given two rotations—a 90° rotation counterclockwise about the x aais and a 90° clockwise rotation about the z axis looking in toward the origin. In Fig. 1.5¢ the sequence of combination is reversed from that in Fig. 1.5b and z Los @14 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $19 you can,see how it alters the final orientation of he book. Angular rotation, therefore, is not a vector quantity, since the parallelogram law is not valid for such a combination. * 1.9 QUALITY AND EQUIVALENCE OF VECTORS* We shall avoid many pitfalls in the study of mechanics if we clearly make a distinction between the equality and the equivalence of vectors. Two vectors are equal if they have the same dimensions, magnitude, and direction. In Fig. 1.6 the three velocity vectors have equal length, are \dentically inclined toward the reference zyz, and have z the same sense. Although they are different lines of action, they are nevertheless equal “A7 Ve according to the definition. Vs Two vectors are equivalent in y ae a certain cupacity if each pro- duces the same effect in this capacity. If the criterion in the above diagram is change Figure 1.6 of elevation or total distance traveled, all three vectors give the same result. They are, in addition to being equal, also equivalent for these capacities. If the absolute height above the zy plane is the question in point, these vectors will not be equivalent despite their equality. Thus, it must be emphasized that equal vectors need not always be equivalent; it depends en- tirely on the situation at hand. Furthermore, vectors that are not equal may still be equivalent in some capacity. Thus, in the beam in Fig. 1.7 forces x Fa 4 20 Ib 110 Ib 1, __| \F, and F; are unequal since their magnitudes are 10 lb and 20 lb respec- tively. However, it is clear from elementary physics that their moments about the base of the beam are equal and so the forces have the same “twisting” action at the fixed end of the beam. In that capacity, the forces Figure 1.7$19 : FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 15 are equivalent. If, howevery we are interested in the deflection of the free end of the beam resulting from each force, there is no longer an equivalence between the forces, since each will give a different’deflection. To sum up, the equality of two vectors is determined by the vectors themselves, and the equivalence, between two vectors is determined by the situation at hand.* In problems of mechanics, we can profitably delineate three classes of situations concerning equivalence of vectors: a, Situations in which vectors may be positioned anywhere in space without loss or change of meaning provided magnitude and direction are kept intact. Under such circumstances the vectors are called free vectors.t For example, the velocity vectors in Fig. 1.6 are free vectors as far as total distance traveled is concerned. b. Situations in which vectors may be moved along a direction colinear with the vector itself without loss or change of meaning provided magnitude and direction are kept intact. Under such circumstances the vectors are called transmissible vectors. For example, in towing the object in Fig. 18, we may apply the force anywhere along the rope AB or may OS B push at point C. The resulting motion is the same in all cases, so the force is a transmissible vector for this purpose. c. Situations in which the vectors must be equal and must be applied at definite points. The point may be represented as the tail or head of the arrow in the graphical representation. For this case no other Position of application leads to equivalence. Under such circumstances the vector is culled a bound vector. For example, if we are interested in the deformation induced by forces in the body in Fig. 1.8, we must, be more selective in our actions than we were when all we wanted to know was the motion of the body. Clearly force F will cause a differ- ent deformation when applied at point C than it will when applied at Point A. The force is thus a bound vector for this problem. , fe shall be concerned throughout this text with considerations of equality equivalence, Figure 1.8 3 * A basic equivalence, however, that is always valid in mechanics existe between the ‘sum of concurrent vectors and the system of component vectors. In Chapter 3 another basic equivalence will be set forth when it is shown that thee moment of a couple is always a free vector.16 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $1.10 1.10 Laws OF MECHANICS The entire structure of mechanics rests on relatively few basic laws. Nevertheless, for the student to comprehend these laws sufficiently to undertake novel and varied problems much study will be required. We shall now discuss briefly the following laws that are considered to be the foundation of mechanics: a. Newton’s first and second laws of motion. b. Newton’s third law. c. The gravitational law of attraction. ' d. The parallelogram law. a. . Newton’s first and second laws of motion. These laws were first stated by Newton in these words: Every body continues in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces imposed on it. The change of motion is proportional to the natural force impressed and ts made in a direction of the straight line in which the force is impressed. Notice that the words “rest,” “uniform motion,” and “change of motion” appear in the above statements. For such information to be meaningful we must have some frame of reference relative to which these states of motion can be described. We may then ask: relative to what reference in space docs every body remain at “rest or move uniformly along a straight line” in the absence of any forces?* Or, in the case of a force acting on the body, relative to what reference in space is the “change in motion proportional to the force’? Experiment indicates that the fixed stars act as a reference for which the first and second laws of Newton are highly accurate. Later we will see that any other system that moves uniformly and without rotation relative to the fixed stars may be used as a reference with equal accuracy. All such references are called inertial references. The earth’s surface is usually employed as a reference in engineering work. Because of the rota- tion of the carth and the variations in its motion around the sun, it is not strictly speaking an inertial reference. However, the departure is so small for most situations (an exception is the motion of long-range rockets and missiles) that the error incurred is very slight. We shall, therefore, usually consider the earth’s surface as an inertial reference, but will keep in mind the somewhat approximate nature of this step. , _ Asa result of the preceding discussion, we may define equilibrium as that state of a body in which it is at rest or moving untformly along a straight line relative to an inertial reference. The converse of Newton’s first law then * Some authors (for example, Sommerfeld, Mechanics, Academic Press) consider the first law as the definition of » reference in space for which the second law is then valid.$1.10 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 17 stipulates that there must bg no force (or the equivalent action of no force) acting on the body. Many situations fall into this catagory. The study of bodies in equilibrium is called statics and it will pe what concerns us in this text. In addition to the reference limitations explained above, a serious limi- tation was brought to light at the turn of this cerltury. The pioneering work of Einstein revealed that the laws of Newton become increasingly more approximate as the speed of a body increases. Near the speed of light they are untenable. In the vast majority of engineering computations, the speed of a body is so small compared to the speed of light that these departures from Newtoniun mechanics, called relativistic effects, may be entirely dis- regarded with little sacrifice in accuracy. In considering the motion of high- energy elementary particles occuring in nuclear phenomena, however, we cannot ignore relativistic effects. Finally, when we get down to very small distances, such as those between the protons and neutrons in a nucleus, we find that Newtonian mechanics cannot explain many observed phenonema. In this case we must resort to quantum mechanics and let Newton’s laws give way to the Schrodinger equation as the key equation. b. Newton’s third law. Newton stated in his third law: To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction, or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal and directed to contrary points. This is illustrated graphically in Fig. 1.9 where the action and reaction between two bodies arise from direct contact. Other important actions in 1 ul a5 a which Newton’s third law holds are gravitational attractions (to be dis- cussed next) and electrostatic forces between charged particles. It should be pointed out that there are actions that do not follow this law, notably the electromagnetic forces between charged moving bodies.* * Electromagnetic forces between charged moving particles are equal and opposite but are not colinear and hence are not “directed to contrary points.” Figure 1.918 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS $444 ¢. Law of gravitational attraction. Tt has already been pointed out in Sectiori 1.6 (mass units) that there is an attraction between the earth and bodies on its surface, surh as A and Bin Fig. 1.9. This attraction is mutual and Newton’s third law applies. There is also an attraction between the two bodies themselves, but this force is extremely small. However, the mechanism for the mutual attraction between the earth and each body is the same as that for the mutual attraction between the bodies. These forces of attraction may be given by the law of gravitational atiraction, which states that two particles will be attracted toward each other along their connecting line with a force whose magnitude is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportivnal to the distance squared be- tween the particles. Avoiding vector notation for now, we may thus say: - mime F=kK ae 19 where K is called the universal gravitational constant of proportionality. In the actions involving the earth and the bodies discussed above, we may consider each body as a particle, with its entire mass concentrated at its center of gravity.* Hence, if we know the various constants in the above formula we can compute the weight of a given mass at different altitudes above the earth. d. The parallelogram law. Stevinius (1548-1620) was the first to demon- strate that forces could be combined by representing them by arrows to some suitable scale and then forming a parallelogram in which the diagonal represents the sum of the two forces. As we pvinted out, all vectors must combine in this manner. 1.11 summary In this chapter, we have introduced the basic dimensions by which we may describe in a quantitative manner certain aspects of nature. These basic and secondury dimensions may be related by dimensionally homo- geneous equations which, with suitable idealizations, muy represent certain mechanical actions in nature. The basic laws of mechanics were thus in- troduced. Since the equations of these laws relate vector quantities, we will introduce a useful and highly descriptive set of vector operations in the next chapter in order to learn to handle these laws effectively and to gain more insight into mechanics in general. These operations are generally called vector algebra. * To be studied in detail in Chapter 4.91.14 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS 9 TABLE & Common Systems of Units CES. MK. Mass = Gram Mars Kilogram Length Centimeter Length — Meter Time Second Time ‘Second Force Dyne Forse Newton English American practice Mass Pound Mass Mass —Slug or Pound Mass Length Foot Length Foot Time Second Time Second Force Poundal Force Pound Force TABLE B. Equivalence Relations between Units lin =254cem 1 slug = 322 Ibm 1ft =305¢em 1 gram = 2205 X 107? Ibm 1 ft = 0.305 meters J gram = 0685 X 10-¢ slugs 5280 ft = 1 mile 1 Ibf = 445,000 dynes 1 Ibf = 32 2 poundals 1 Ibf = 16 ounces 1 Newton = 10* dynes PROBLEMS 1. (8) Express density dimensionally. (b) How many scale units of density in the metric system of centimeters, grams, and seconds are equivalent to a scale unit in the American eyster using (1) slugs, fect, and seconds? (2) Ibm, ft, sec? 2. The escape velocities for the earth and the moon are known to be 11.2 km/sec and 2.4 km/sec, respectively. Determine these escape velocities in units of miles/hour. 3. The Newton viscosity law says that the frictional resistance, r, in a fluid, given as force per unit area, is proportional to the distance rate of change of velocity dV/dy. The proportionality constant, yu, is called the coefficient of viscosity. (a) What dinensions must it have? (b) What is the relation between thesscale units for y in the English system (slug, ft, sec) and in the metric system (gm, cm, sec)? 4, The resistance of a body moving through a fluid, such as a rocket moving through air, is sometimes expressed by the following equation: F = iCopVA20 FUNDAMENTALS OF MECHANICS where Fis the resistance Co is the coefficient of drag pis the density of the fluid V is the velocity of the object relative to the undisturbed fluid A in the crose-eectional area of the body at right angles to the motion What are the dimensions of the coefficient Of drag Co? 5. The following oe is valid for certain pipe-flow analyses: o~A[(")(5)] where Ap is the drop in pressure along a pipe p. the density of the fluid Vis the average velocity of flow D is the inside diameter of the pipe L is the length over which the pressure drop is measured nis the viscosity of the fluid The right side of the equation is to be interpreted as some function f of the variables pVD/u and L/D. Show that such an cquation is dimensionally homogencous for any function f. 6. What are the dimensions of K in Newton’s law of gravitational attraction? 7. In using the MLA system, suppose you have selected a unit of mass (for ex- ample, the pound mass). Show how you could formulate two units of force independently. How would you then ascertain the physical equivalence be- tween the force units? 8. Suppose you desired to use velocity, time, and force as a basic system of dimensions. What would the dimensional representation be for secondary quantities like length, mass, and acceleration? 9. Engineers on the Continent use kilograms as a measure of mass. However, they also consider kilograms as a measure of force. What do you think a kilo- gram of force means, and what reservations would you caution in its use? 10. Consider the earth's atmosphere. When and why would you feel obliged to drop the concept of the continuum? 11 A rocket is shot from the earth, with a high rate of spin to maintain its stability (like a football). A relay must close during part of the flight in a certain time. ‘This means that an element of the relay must be given a certain acceleration a, relative to the rocket. Can we use Newton's law in the form F = ma, to de- termine the required force? If not, why not, and what must we do? 12. What is the difference between relativistic restrictions and quantum restrictions on Newton’s law? 18. A planet moves near a fixed star. Show that the motion of the planet is in- dependent of its mass. l4. (a) If you were to kick a cannon ball on the earth and then the same ball on the moon, would it hurt more on the earth, on the moon, or both the same? (b) If you were to drop the cannon ball onto your toe from certain height, would it hurt more if you did this on the earth or on the moon? 15. Compute the product of the universal constant K and the mass of the earth. Assume that the earth has a radius of 4000 miles and that at the surface the acceleration of gravity is 32.2 ft/sec’.