Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chem Bonding - Part-I and II
Chem Bonding - Part-I and II
b) photoelectric effect
Characteristics:
i) Photoelectric current (I) ∞ the intensity
of the incident beam of certain ν .
ii) ν≥ threshold frequency (νo).
iii) Emax dependent of ν (indepandent of
intensity) and metal plate.
Stopping potential: The minimum required retarding potential to stop the photoelectric
current is called the stopping potential (Vs).
KEmax=(½)mu2=eVs
Saturation current: A certain positive value of the potential , there will be no further
increase of current. This is called saturation current.
Einstein’Theory of Photoelectic Effect
•Classical electromagnetic theory of light fails to explain (Characteristics: ii & iii)
•Explained the phenomenon by quantum theory of radiations.
•Proves this the particle nature of light.
• Vs = (hν/e)- (h νo/e)
Vs
tanθ=h/e
θ From the slope, h can be obtained from
h νo/e ν the known value of charge of the electron.
Millikan determined the value of Planck constant in this method and it was in
good agreement with the result obtained from other sources.
This verification validate the Einstein’s equation.
-34
h=6.631x10 J. sec
Work Function (ω) and Ionisation potential (IP)
The electrons at the outermost shell of the atom residing at the surface for a particular
metal are having minimum binding energy. For the same type of electrons within the bulk,
binding energy is higher.
Both the process deal with minimum amount of energy to knock out the most loosely bound
electron, in case of photoelectric effect the metal is in solid state , while in case of ionisation
potential, metal atom is in gaseous and isolated condition.
• E = mc2
Einstein’s law of mass energy equivalence
• E = hν
Planck Equation
• mc2 = hν
(1892-1987)
p=mc = h/λ { since ν = c/λ}
De Broglie extended this idea to all the other particles travelling with a
finite velocity.
Wavelength of a particle of mass m moving with the velocity u is given
by
λ = h/mc = h/p
p = momentum of electron
The wave is called matter wave
λ = de Broglie wavelength
The de Broglie Wavelength
Macroscopic and Microscopic Bodies
Q1 An electron in hydrogen atom to move with a velocity , u=2.3x10-6 ms-1. Calculate the
value of wavelength (λ)? me=9.1x10-31 kg.
Q2 A marble ball of mass 1g to move with velocity, u=2 ms-1. Calculate the corresponding
λ?
λ= 3.312 x10-29 cm
E=6x105 J.
λ is associated with a tremendously high energy wave which is unbelievable in our sense.
1887-1961
• It is impossible to specify the exact position and velocity (momentum) of a
subatomic particle simultaneously.
• Uncertainty Principle.
• ∆x ∆p ≥ h/4π where h is Plank’s Constant, a fundamental constant with
the value 6.626×10-34 J s.
Application of Uncertainty Principle
In case of large particles
A ball of mass 2 g whose uncertainly in position is equal to 10-8 cm. Calculate the
corresponding uncertainly in the velocity?
Expected velocity of the electron from Bohr’s theory is found to be 2.2 x106 ms-1.
Photoelectric effect
Ψ -Amplitude of the matter associated with the particle at various points defined
by x,y,z space coordinates w.r.t . a certain reference frame.
Representation of Schrӧdinger Wave Equation
The equation for a standing sine wave in a vibrating sting fixed at two ends
Total energy
E=T+V
Kinetic energy of a moving particle
2
T=P /2m
From the de Broglie relation, we get
Schrodinger’s wave equation with respect to space for a particle moving in one direction,
(∂2 Ψ /∂x2 + ∂2 Ψ /∂y2 + ∂2 Ψ /∂z2) + (8π2m/h2)( E-V) Ψ = 0
2
∇ Laplacian operator
Significance of operator K
Schrӧdinger Wave Equation is a wave mechanical analogue to the classical eqn. of energy
Eigen values and Eigen Function
i. Ψ must be continuous
ii. Ψ Must be finite
iii. Ψ Must be single valued at a particular point , there can not be more than one
vaule of for Ψ.
iv. The first order derivatives of Ψ w. r. to its variables (∂/∂x, ∂/∂y, ∂/∂z) must
be continuous w.r.to x, y, z respectively. There must not be any sudden change in Ψ
when its variables are changed.
v. The probability of finding the particle over the whole space must be unity.
∫ Ψ2 dτ=1 (small volume element given by dx. dy.dz)
vi. For the bound states, Ψ must vanish at infinity and in case of complex wave
function Ψ Ψ* vanishes at infinity.
The solutions, i.e. wave functions, which satisfy the above conditions are
called eigen functions and the energies corresponding to eigen functions are
called eigen values.
Physical Significance of the wave function (Ψ)
The sign of the wave function has not direct physical significance:
the positive and negative regions of this wave function both
corresponds to the same probability distribution. Positive and
negative regions of the wave function may corresponds to a high
probability of finding a particle in a region.
Characteristics of Wave Function
ψ = ψ *ψ
2
Probability density
• ∫Ψ2 dτ = 1 Normalized wave function
• If Ψ is complex then replace Ψ2 by ΨΨ*
• N2 ∫Ψ2 dτ = 1
• N is termed as Normalization constant
Q. A free particle of energy mass m is allowed to move freely without
any restriction in a field. Find out the energy values (E) and wave
function of the particle.
How to write Hamiltonian for different
systems?
{(-h2/8π2m)∇2 + V} Ψ = E Ψ
-e
• Hydrogen atom:
2 2
r
• KE = ½ m (vx + vy + vz2)
• PE = -e2/r (in CGS system), or PE = -e2/4πε0r ( in SI system)
• r = distance between the electron and the nucleus) +Ze
• H = {(-h2/8π2m) ∇2 –e2/r}
• ∇2 Ψ + (8π2 m/h2)(E+e2/r) Ψ = 0
• If the effective nuclear charge is Ze
• H = {(-h2/8π2m )∇2 –Ze2/r}
+
H2 Molecule
e (x,y,z)
ra rb
A RAB B
Internuclear repulsion
Chemical Bonding
• Two existing theories,
• Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT)
• Valence Bond Theory (VBT)
Molecular Orbital Theory
• MOT starts with the idea that the quantum
mechanical principles applied to atoms
may be applied equally well to the
molecules.
Linear combination of atomic orbitals
* Pauli principle
* Aufbau principle
* Hund’s rule
A B
ψA ψB
EA + β
Eigen functions (ψ): No physical significance
ψ2 : bears a meaningful significance 2
∫Ψ dτ = 1
Schrӧdinger Equation in polar coordinates (Atkins)
Solutions to ψ: Born Oppenheimer Principle
Variation Theorem (Atkins)
Constructive interference
. + .
+. +.
ψg bonding
cA = cB = 1
ψg = N [ψA + ψB]
Amplitudes of wave
functions added
node
+. -. +. .-
cA = +1, cB = -1 ψu
antibonding
ψu = N [ψA - ψB]
Destructive interference
Nodal plane perpendicular to the
H-H bond axis (en density = 0)
Energy of the en in this orbital is
higher.
ΨA-ΨB
Amplitudes of wave
functions
subtracted.
H2
11.4 eV
LCAO of n A.O ⇒ n M.O.
109 nm
Location of
Bonding orbital
4.5 eV
The overlap integral
S = ∫ ψ A ψ B dτ
*
S > 0 Bonding S < 0 anti
2-
Cl4Re ReCl4
g- identical B
under inversion
A
u- not identical
Place labels g or u in this diagram
σ∗u
π∗g
πu
σg
First period diatomic molecules
H H2 H σ1s2
σu*
Bond order: 1
Energy
1s 1s
σg
Bond order =
½ (bonding electrons – antibonding electrons)
Diatomic molecules: The bonding in He2
He He2 He
σ1s2, σ*1s2
σu*
Bond order: 0
Energy
1s 1s
σg
2s 2s
Energy
2σg
1σu*
1s 1s
1σg
Diatomic molecules: Homonuclear Molecules of the Second Period
Be Be2 Be
2σu*
2σg
Bond order: 0
1σu*
1s 1s
1σg
Simplified
Simplified
MO diagram for B2
3σu*
1πg*
1πu
3σg
Diamagnetic??
Contradicts the theoretical
Prediction from simple
Molecular orbital diagram
2σu*
2σg
Same symmetry, energy mix-the one with higher energy moves higher
and the one with lower energy moves lower
MO diagram for B2
B B2 B
3σu*
3σu*
1πg*
1πg*
2p (px,py)
1πu
3σg 2p
LUMO 3σg
2σu*
2s 2s
2σg
2σg
X
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic
C2
3σ g*
1πu*
2p
3σ g
1πu
3σ g
2σ u *
2s
2σg
X
Paramagnetic ? Diamagnetic
N2
Bond lengths in diatomic molecules
Filling antibonding
orbitals
NO+ is readily stabilised in many compounds such as NO+HSO4- -Explain