Field Methods in Psychology

Research Ideas & Hypothesis primary source – first hand report of

observation or research results
A Topic Area secondary source – a description or
summary of another person’s work
 first – identify a general topic area that is
interesting to you tertiary source – collection of primary and
 second – explore previous research in that secondary source (search engines)
topic area to discover a specific research
idea or question The Purpose of a Literature
Common Sources of Review
Research Topics 1. to gain with the current research in your
specific area of interest
o personal interest and curiosities - 2. to find small set of research studies that
look for research topics based on your will serve as the basis for your own
own interests and concerns. research idea
o casual observation - any behavior that
attracts your attention and arouses your How Research Grows Out
curiosity can become a good research
topic
o reports of others’ observation - The
reports of observations made by other
people are another good source of
research ideas.
o practical problems or questions –
practical problems or questions you
encounter in your daily life
 Basic research – focuses on
formulating principles and theories
to explain concepts or
phenomenon of Old
 Applied research – focuses on
searching for solution to specific
problems.
Screening Articles During
o behavioral theories - theories that offer a Literature Research
explanations for behavior or try to explain
1. use the title of the article as your first
why different environmental factors lead
basis for screening.
to different behaviors.
2. use the abstract of the article as your
second screening device.
Primary and Secondary 3. look for full-text article
Sources 4. read the article carefully and/or make a
copy for your personal use.
 Field Methods in Psychology
5. use the references from the articles that
you found
Conducting a Literature
Search
o narrow down your general idea to a
specific research question
o find all the published information
documenting and supporting the question
o start with a recently published secondary
source in the area of your idea
Using Online Databases
 full text- each record is a complete, word-
for-word copy of the original publication.
 non full text- provides more complete
coverage of a topic area
- PsycINFO
- PsycARTICLES
- ERIC (Education Resources Information
Center)
- MEDLINE
Characteristics of a Good
Hypothesis
1. logical - A good hypothesis is usually
founded in established theories or
developed from the results of previous
research
2. testable - it must be possible to observe
and measure all of the variables involved
3. refutable - it must be possible to obtain
research results that are contrary to the
hypothesis.
4. positive – the existence of a relationship,
the existence of a difference, or the
existence of a treatment effect.
Defining & Measuring
Variables
Construct & Operational
Definition
Theories – set of statement about the
mechanisms underlying a particular behavior
Construct / Hypothetical Construct –
hypothetical attributes or mechanism that help
explain and predict behavior in theory
(intangible elements)
Operational Definition - A procedure for
indirectly measuring and defining a variable
that cannot be observed or measured directly
(operationalizing a construct)
- it also can be used to define variables to
be manipulated.
Limitations of Operational
Definition
Primary limitation is that there is not a one-to-
one relationship between the variable that is
being measured and the actual measurements
produced by the operational definition
1. It is easy for operational definitions to
leave out important components of a
construct.
2. They often include extra components that
are not part of the construct being
measured.
Using Operational
Definitions
 Field Methods in Psychology
 whenever the variables in a research study
are hypothetical constructs
 this does not mean creating your own
operational definition.
 the best method of determining how a
variable should be measured is to consult
previous research involving the same
variable.
Validity and Reliability of
Measurement
Validity of Measurement
the degree to which the measurement process
measures the variable that it claims to
measure
1. Face Validity - unscientific form of
validity demonstrated when a
measurement procedure superficially
appears to measure what it claims to
measure. (non-scientific, superficial idea)
2. Concurrent Validity- demonstrated
when scores obtained from a new measure
are directly related to scores obtained
from an established measure of the same
variable. (f the self-made test is the same
result as the established test)
3. Predictive Validity-demonstrated when
scores obtained from a measure accurately
predict behavior according to a theory.
(predicts what will be the future behavior
or action of the participants)
- Low predictive validity – when the
results doesn’t represent the participant’s
ideals
4. Construct Validity- requires that the
scores obtained from a measurement
procedure behave exactly the same as the
variable itself. It is based on many
research studies that use the same
measurement procedure and grows
gradually as each new study contributes
more evidence. (intangible element, focal
points of your study)
5. Convergent and Divergent Validity
a. Convergent validity-
demonstrated by a strong
relationship between the scores
obtained from two (or more)
different methods of measuring the
same construct. (two different
test/methods that measure the same
conduct)
b. Divergent validity-
demonstrated by showing little or no
relationship between the
measurements of two different
constructs. (little to no relationship
between the measurements of two
different construct)
Reliability of Measurement
the stability or consistency of the
measurement. If the same individuals are
measured under the same conditions, a
reliable measurement procedure produces
identical (or nearly identical) measurements.
 The inconsistency in a measurement
comes from error.
 The more common sources of error are as
follows:
o Observer error: The individual
who makes the measurements can
introduce simple human error into
the measurement process,
especially when the measurement
involves a degree of human
judgment.
o Environmental changes: there
are small changes in the
environment from one
measurement to another, and these
 Field Methods in Psychology
small changes can influence the
measurements.
o Participant changes: The
participant can change between
measurements.
Types and Measures of
Reliability
1. Successive measurements (stability of
time)
 test-retest reliability: established
by comparing the scores obtained
from two successive measurements of
the same individuals and calculating a
correlation between the two sets of
scores.
 parallel-forms reliability: when
different versions of the instrument
are used for the test and the retest
2. Simultaneous measurements
when measurements are obtained by direct
observation of behaviors, it is common to
use two or more separate observers who
simultaneously record measurements.
 inter-rater reliability: the degree of
agreement between two observers
who simultaneously record
measurements of the behaviors.
3. Internal Consistency
no single item or question is sufficient to
provide a complete measure of the construct.
 Split-half reliability -obtained by
splitting the items on a questionnaire
or test in half, computing a separate
score for each half, and then
calculating the degree of consistency
between the two scores for a group of
participants.
The Relationship between
Reliability and Validity
» Reliability is a prerequisite for validity;
that is, a measurement procedure cannot
be valid unless it is reliable.
» A measure cannot be valid unless it is
reliable, but a measure can be reliable
without being valid.
Scales of Measurement
Categorical Variables
1. Nominal Scale – data is qualitative.
determine if two data are the same or
different
2. Ordinal Scale – ranking, organized in
order, series. finding direction of the
difference
Continuous Variables
3. Interval Scale – has range, no absolute
zero. finding the direction and magnitude
of difference
4. Ratio Scale – has absolute zero. finding
the direction, magnitude and the ratio of
the difference
Modalities of Measurement
1. Self-Report Measures
 most direct way to assess a construct.
 a direct question and its answer have
more face validity than measuring
some other response
 negative side, it is very easy for
participants to distort self-report
measures
2. Physiological Measures
 they are extremely objective. the
equipment provides accurate, reliable,
and well-defined measurements that
are not dependent on subjective
interpretation.
 disadvantage of such measures is that
they typically require equipment that
may be expensive or unavailable
 Field Methods in Psychology
 presence of monitoring devices creates
an unnatural situation
3. Behavioral measures
 Constructs often reveal themselves in
overt behaviors that can be observed
and measured.
 Provide researchers with a vast
number of options, making it possible
to select the behaviors that seem to be
best for defining and measuring the
construct.
Other Aspect of
Measurements
1. Multiple Measures
 One method of obtaining a more
complete measure of a construct is to
use two (or more)
 advantage of this multiple-measure
technique is that it usually provides
more confidence in the validity of the
measurements.
 One problem involves the statistical
analysis and interpretation of the
results.
 A more serious problem is that the two
measures may not behave in the same
way.
2. Sensitivity and Range Effects
 Important concern for any
measurement procedure is that the
measurements are sensitive enough to
respond to the type and magnitude of
the changes that are expected.
» Range effect-the measurement
procedure is insensitive to changes that
may occur in one direction
o ceiling effect -the clustering of
scores at the high end of a
measurement scale, allowing little or
no possibility of increases in value.
o floor effect - the clustering of scores
at the low end of a measurement scale,
allowing little or no possibility of
decreases in value.
Artifacts: Experimenter
Bias and Participant
Reactivity
artifact is an external factor that may
influence or distort the measurements.
Experimenter Bias - when the
measurements obtained in a study are
influenced by the experimenter’s expectations
or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of
the study
o Single-Blind Experimenter -
researcher does not know the
predicted outcome
o Double-Blind Experimenter - both the
researcher and the participants are
unaware of the predicted outcome
Demand Characteristics- any of the
potential cues or features of a study that:
o suggest to the participants what the
purpose and hypothesis is
o influence the participants to respond
or behave in a certain way.
Reactivity- when participants modify their
natural behavior in response to the fact that
they are participating in a research study or
the knowledge that they are being measured.
Four Different Subject
Roles
 Field Methods in Psychology
1. Good Subject Role - these participants
have identified the hypothesis of the study
and are trying to produce responses that
support the investigator’s hypothesis.
2. Apprehensive Subject Role - these
participants are overly concerned that
their performance in the study will be
used to evaluate their abilities or personal
characteristics
3. Negative Subject Role - these
participants have identified the hypothesis
of the study and are trying to act contrary
to the investigator’s hypothesis.
4. Faithful Subject Role - these
participants attempt to follow instructions
to the letter and avoid acting on any
suspicions they have about the purpose of
the study.