Liquefied petroleum gases

LPG Cylinders and Associated Equipment

Domestic and Commercial Utilization of LPG
LPG as an Automotive Fuel

Prepared by: DSc PhD Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)

Sarajevo 2024
Liquefied petroleum gases
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Contents:
Chapter 9 LPG Cylinders and Associated Equipment
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 CYLINDERS FOR PROPANE AND BUTANE [1-5]
9.3 PRESSURE REDUCTION AND FLOW CONTROL
9.3.1. Pressure Regulators
9.3.2 Cylinder Valves
9.3.3 Miscellaneous
9.4 FILLING LPG CYLINDERS
9.4.1 Filling Machines
9.4.2 Ancillary Equipment
9.5 REGULATIONS AND SAFETY [3, 4, 6, 8, 9]

Chapter 10 Domestic and Commercial Utilization of LPG

10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS
10.2.1 Domestic Cooking [4-7, 25, 26]
10.2.2 Domestic Space Heating and Hot Water Supply [8-14]
10.2.3 Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Miscellaneous
Domestic Uses. [17-22]
10.3 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS [23]
10.3.1 Hotels and Restaurants
10.3.2 Baking and Confectionery
10.3.3 Laundries and Dry Cleaning
10.3.4 Public Baths and Swimming Pools
10.3.5 Miscellaneous Commercial Applications
DOMESTIC USES
FARM AND RANCH APPLICATIONS
INDUSTRIAL USES
AUTOMOTIVE
UTILITY GAS USE
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Liquefied petroleum gases
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Chapter 11 LPG as an Automotive Fuel

11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.1.1 Advantages of LPG for Automotive Fuelling [1]
11.1.2 Alternative Ways of Using LPG
11.2 LPG AS A SPARK IGNITION FUEL
11.2.1 Engine Aspects
11.2.2 Air Pollution—Spark Ignition Engines
11.2.3 Conversion of Gasoline Engines to LPG [2]
The Fuel Tank
The Vaporizer
The Carburetor

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 LPG Cylinders and Associated Equipment

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In spite of substantial quantities of LPG sold in bulk to industrial, agricultural,
commercial and automotive customers, a large proportion of propane and
butane sales around the world is in portable cylinders for domestic use,
camping and similar purposes.

The equipment used for this outlet differs from that used for bulk sales not
only in size but also in complexity. Since housewives, campers and other
laymen use LPG cylinders and their associated equipment, it is essential that
all the material should be robust and inherently safe. Wherever it is
necessary to make or break connections, and this should be avoided as far
as possible, leakage should be minimal and closure of valves automatic. On
the rare occasions when equipment fails, it should do so in the safe or closed
position.

The items of LPG equipment to be discussed in this chapter include portable

containers for LPG distribution; ancillary equipment such as valves,
regulators, pressure and liquid level gauges and connectors; and finally
cylinder-filling plant and the cylinder-testing and maintenance facilities
normally associated with it.

9.2 CYLINDERS FOR PROPANE AND BUTANE [1-5]

Portable containers for LPG range in capacity from 1 Ib (500 grammes)
throwaway packages to 120 Ib (55 kg) refillable cylinders, the filled weight of
which is 220 Ib (101 kg) (see Table 9.1). The maximum vapour pressure
encountered when storing butane is about 4 atm; propane, on the other
hand, has a vapour pressure at summer temperatures of 30°C of about 11
atm. While propane containers, thus, can be used for butane or mixed LPG,
this is not the case for butane cylinders. In most countries, therefore, butane
and propane cylinders differ in colour and shape, and ancillary equipment is
designed to fit only one type of container.

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 Table 9.1 Typical Bottled Gas Capacities and Dimensions

To ensure that LPG containers meet all performance requirements they are
manufactured according to strict rules from steel meeting certain well-defined
specifications. In the U.S.A., for example, cylinders have to meet
specifications set out by the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC 4B 240
and ICC 4BA 240), and each container has to be marked with manufacturer's
and owner's name and address, water capacity, tare weight, ICC Spec. No.,
cylinder number, date of manufacture and of retesting. All cylinders have to
be retested at least once every five years after an initial period of twelve
years. Similar standards of manufacture and testing apply in other countries,
and Table 9.2 shows some of the specifications pertaining to LPG cylinders
in other areas. [6]

Table 9.2 Manufacture/Testing Standards for LPG Containers

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The design pressure of a cylinder will clearly have to be somewhat higher
than the maximum anticipated vapour pressure of its content and the ASME
code in the U.S.A. as well as most European codes, specify a minimum of
25%. Since the actual bursting strength is usually over twice the design
pressure, and vessels are tested at 1-5 times their design pressure, the
danger of accidental bursting of cylinders can generally be discounted.

In order to eliminate the possibility of weakening of the material by corrosive

attack, local standards often demand particular forms of finish. In the U.S.A.
and some European countries, cylinders must be galvanized; in other
markets stoved enamel paint is acceptable. A new type of coating based on
nylon 11 resins, which can be applied by spraying or fluid bed immersion,
has been developed in France and appears to be more resistant to
mechanical damage and corrosion than galvanizing followed by spraying.

Cylinders are frequently protected by collars, rings or caps in places where

mechanical damage is most likely to occur. A combination of a circular stand
round the base (foot ring) and a collar round the filling valve protects the
latter and permits stacking of cylinders in an upright position during transport.
The use of screw-on caps to cover the valve and protect it from impact, dirt
and corrosion, is standard practice; caps can be either of the solid-domed
steel cover type, or merely screw on to the valve itself; these latter are made,
as a rule, of hard plastic (nylon, Delrin or polypropylene). Since the metal
covers afford protection against impact, they are sometimes used in addition
to plastic valve caps.

For easy handling collars and foot rings often have hand holes, and heavy
cylinders, which may be moved by rolling, have a stand with reinforced
bottom edge. Cylinders without collars may have hand grips welded on to
them.

Cylinders can be used individually, i.e. one cylinder will serve one or more
appliances; alternatively two or more cylinders can be attached to a manifold
and used simultaneously or successively to supply fuel to a domestic or
commercial LPG distribution system.

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9.3 PRESSURE REDUCTION AND FLOW CONTROL
Pressurized gases in cylinders, before use in domestic combustion
equipment, must be let down to almost atmospheric pressure. This involves
one or two steps of pressure reduction, regulation of flow either by simple
taps or valves, or by means of excess flow valves, and the measurement of
pressures and relief of excess pressure. There must also be provision for the
filling of gas containers; and while larger containers are recharged through
separate filling valves, cylinder valves should be designed to allow a
moderate outward flow of gas and a rapid inward flow of liquid.

9.3.1. Pressure Regulators

The design of cylinder valves is normally such that a single pressure
regulator is capable of reducing the emergent LPG from cylinder pressure to
between 10 and 20 in (250 and 500 mm) water gauge. The principle used in
all pressure regulators (see Figure 9.1) are that of a pressure-sensitive
diaphragm, attached to which there is a lever, which in turn opens and closes
a small inlet valve. The diaphragm is supported by a spring, the pressure of
which can be adjusted. Thus, the valve can be made to close at different
downstream pressures; but once set for a given delivery pressure the
regulator will maintain this pressure constant notwithstanding changes in
upstream pressure or downstream gas consumption, both over a relatively
wide range.

1. Orifice;
2. Case;
3. Diaphragm;
4. Lever arm;
5. Valve seat;
6. Regulator spring;
7. Diaphragm spindle;
8. Relief valve spring;
9. Diaphragm support;
10. Vent to atmosphere

Figure 9.1 Pressure Regulators (Svenska Esso)

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Although the principle of regulator design is quite uniform, there are a
number of systems of cylinder valves and regulators in use around the world
which are not mutually interchangeable. Regulators can either be attached
directly to the cylinder valve, frequently by some form of bayonet, or snap-on
coupling, or they can have a threaded inlet which can be either male or
female and which generally fits the outlet of an external regulating valve.

High-pressure regulators should carry a pressure gauge, and to counter wide

fluctuations in cylinder pressure, the diaphragm spring may have to be
adjusted from time to time to ensure a fairly constant downstream pressure.
Pressure regulators can also be used to switch from an empty cylinder to a
full container when downstream pressure can no longer be maintained, an
arrangement referred to as an automatic manifold. Examples of the three
types of regulators are shown in Figure 9.2.

A simple safety device for regulators used in conjunction with LPG cylinders
is a projection on the regulator which opens the cylinder check valve, either
when the regulator is in position, or when a lever on the regulator itself is set
to 'open'. A widely used type of LPG regulator, for example, has a lever with
three positions: one for placing the regulator on the cylinder, a second for
attaching it to the valve and a third for admitting gas into the regulator as
soon as all the downstream connections have been made. Other systems
have on-off valves on the regulator, or operate in conjunction with adjustable
service line valves.

Figure 9.2 Pressure Regulators (LP Gas Equipment)

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Regulators may also be equipped with an integral pressure relief (safety)
valve which opens if, due to malfunctioning of the regulator, downstream
pressure exceeds the set regulator pressure by more than a given amount.
Recommended settings for LPG relief valves in accordance with U.S.
standards are as in Table 9.3.

Percentages refer to set regulator pressure.

Table 9.3 Regulator Relief Valve Settings

In the rare instances where two-stage instead of single-stage pres- sure

regulation is used for a cylinder gas supply, the incentives to do so are
usually the lower cost and larger carrying capacity of intermediate pressure
(0.3-1 atm) lines, the ability of two stages of pressure drop to produce a more
uniform final gas pressure, and the risk of freezing due to sudden pressure
drop. But except for unusually sensitive appliances with very high gas
consumption and long supply lines, a direct reduction from cylinder to
appliance pressure will as a rule is found acceptable.

Appliance pressures and, therefore, standard regulator pressures are not

entirely uniform throughout the world. In the U.S.A., for example, most LPG
appliances for propane, butane and mixed LPG operation are designed for
11 in (275 mm) water gauge. European and Japanese practice is to
distinguish between propane and butane appliances and in most areas
butane pressure is lower (about 10 in or 250 mm) than that for propane (14 in
or 350mm). This ensures that any LPG cylinder, provided that it is fitted with
the correct regulator, will deliver gas at the same heat rate to the appliance.
However, in the case of atmospheric partial premix burners (see Chapter 7),
primary aeration of butane will be much less than that of propane, and there
will be some risk of carbon monoxide or smoke formation. For this reason in
Germany and some other LPG markets, butane regulators are set to a higher
outlet pressure (20 in or 500 mm) than propane equipment; thermal output on
butane becomes higher than on propane but satisfactory primary aeration is
ensured. Table 9.4 lists standard regulator pressure settings in a number of
countries for butane and propane.

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 Table 9.4 Regulator Pressure for LPG Supply (mm water gauge)

9.3.2 Cylinder Valves

The escape of gas from a cylinder when not in use must be prevented either
by a service line valve, which can be of the needle or ball type, or by means
of a check value. The latter is the more usual practice since it simplifies
cylinder filling, provides safety features such as little or no protruding parts
above the dished end of the cylinder and locking action unless a pressure
regulator or a service line valve with a plunger are in position (Figure 9.3).

Figure 9.3 Cylinder Valves and Regulators

(LP Gas Equipment Co. Ltd)

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Cylinder valves are screwed into the cylinder top opening by an external
thread, and, particularly, check valves are only removed from the cylinder if
they leak or are due for retesting. Both may be fitted with pressure relief
valves, generally mounted at a right angle to the check or service line valve
and set to open at a pressure some 25% higher than the highest anticipated
LPG vapour pressure (25-30 atm). Although the previously mentioned
pressure relief valves, which can be incorporated in pressure regulators, take
care of a possible pressure build-up on the low-pressure side of the regulator
and therefore to some extent reduce the necessity for pressure relief on the
cylinder, they do not ensure safe storage of cylinders when not in use or
prevent a pressure build-up between the cylinder and regulator. Combined
cylinder and pressure relief valves are therefore recommended.

Other safety features used in LPG systems are excess flow valves, which
permit the flow of LPG in either direction but close if gas flows outwards in
excess of the rated capacity of the valve occur. Excess flow valves can again
be combined with cylinder check valves or service line valves.

In certain relatively rare instances it is desirable to fill LPG containers, even

in the cylinder size range, through a separate filler valve. The characteristics
of filler valves are such that liquid flow is only possible in one direction and
that the vapour back pressure is sufficient to completely close the valve.
Complex multipurpose valves which combine the functions of service line
flow and excess flow control, pressure relief and liquid filling, are
commercially available. It is, however, not common practice to fit either
excess flow or filler valves to LPG cylinders.

9.3.3 Miscellaneous
In addition to the equipment listed so far, cylinder-based LPG systems can
be further improved by providing a degree of instrumentation.

Pressure gauges to assess cylinder and regulator pressures allow one to

change cylinders before running out of gas. A pressure gauge is essential if
the system is to be tested for leaks, if relief valves are to be checked, or if
containers are emptied prior to testing. Pressure gauges for medium and
high pressures are usually of the aneroid type, i.e. consist of metal bellows
which expand under pressure. Pressures of less than 1 Ib/in2 gauge (670 mm
FLO) can only be measured by means of liquid-filled U-tubes or special low-
pressure test gauges.

Cylinders are not usually provided with liquid level gauges; however, the
combined line service/pressure relief/excess flow/filler valve mentioned
previously can also be fitted with a fixed tube liquid level gauge. The latter
reaches into the cylinder and indicates too high an LPG level by emitting

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liquid droplets and mist rather than LPG vapour. If for some reason liquid
rather than vapour is to be withdrawn, one can either use a dip tube which
extends from the valve to the bottom of the cylinder, or one can turn the
cylinder upside down. In either case it is necessary to lock the cylinder valve
in the open position, usually by means of a liquid evacuation adaptor with a
plunger, which replaces the pressure regulator.

For safe liquid withdrawal, a liquid check valve should also be used, and
valves which communicate with the liquid space should be clearly marked to
that effect.

Gas pressure reduction results in temperature drop and, particularly, propane

can form hydrate or ice blockages in the system. The use of thermometers
in critical locations is, therefore, recommended.

9.4 FILLING LPG CYLINDERS

Filled cylinders are dispatched from, and returned empty cylinders are
checked, cleaned, refurbished if required and refilled in LPG bulk plants and
filling stations. Considerable ingenuity has gone into the design of cylinder
handling and filling equipment to ensure reliable operation, economic
handling, minimum LPG loss and safety.

9.4.1 Filling Machines

Special equipment is required to introduce liquid LPG into cylinders and a
number of designs for cylinder filling facilities of varying degrees of
automation and complexity are commercially available. Compressed liquid
gas is distributed through pressure hoses to a number of dispensing points or
filling stations. Each station is equipped with a filling head. The latter fits on to
the top of the cylinder and the check valve in the manner of the pressure
regulators and service line valves discussed in the previous section, i.e. a
plunger depresses the seal and opens the check valve when the filling head
is exactly positioned and clamped to the cylinder.

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Figure 9.4 Automatic Cylinder Filling Carousel

Figure 9.5 Single Cylinder Filling Machine

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The plunger of the filling head in addition to opening the cylinder check valve
also opens a valve inside the filler head which admits LPG supplied through
the pressure hose; the gas now flows through the filling head valve and
cylinder valve into the cylinder until the latter has been filled to a
predetermined level. To ensure that cylinders are filled with the correct
quantity of LPG it is normal to perform the filling operation on scales.

Automatic filling machines of the type illustrated in Figure 9.4 will fill each
cylinder with the accurate weight of LPG as it moves round a turntable or
carousel. Carousel filling machines may have 12 or more filling positions,
each of which can weigh a cylinder continuously; as soon as an empty
cylinder enters an empty slot the operator connects it to the filler head and
feeds the tare weight to the machine by depressing a series of buttons. As
the cylinder travels round the machine a preset weight of LPG enters, and
gas flow stops automatically when the total weight of the cylinder indicates to
the machine that the correct quantity has been charged. The filler head is
usually removed by a second operator, who also occasionally checks the
weight of the filled cylinders.

While carousel-type filling machines are suitable for cylinders up to about 40

kg, the larger sizes, and less common shapes of cylinders, are not normally
used in sufficient numbers to automate filling to the extent indicated. It is
more normal to fill such cylinders individually, although again filling takes
place w4th the cylinder on a weighing machine and the filler head locked to
the cylinder valve (see Figure 9.5). Setting of tare and filling weights can be
either manual or automatic. A similar system is used by LPG dealers who fill
their own cylinders from LPG tanks, a practice which, for obvious reasons,
should be discouraged unless accompanied by the most stringent safety
precautions.

The filling of automotive LPG tanks differs from ordinary cylinder filling in that
the tank itself has a filler valve and liquid-level gauge. Since the container
cannot be weighed, the volume charged into the tank is measured by a
positive displacement meter, as discussed in Chapter 11.

9.4.2 Ancillary Equipment

LPG cylinders on arrival at the depot or filling station are stacked in the
upright position usually on pallets. Before refilling, valve caps are removed
and cylinders inspected for damage, and repaired or scrapped if not
immediately re-usable. Conveyors carry the cylinders past inspectors who
direct them either to the repair shop or to the filling station. Minor mechanical
damage, rust or damaged paint are dealt with on the spot; for major repairs,
cylinders are generally returned to the manufacturer. Similarly cylinders

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which are due for pressure testing are separated from the rest and collected
in batches to be sent to the testing station. New and re-painted cylinders and
returned cylinders in satisfactory condition are shunted into the LPG filling
shed. [7] On leaving the filling machine they have to undergo a further series
of inspections. In particular, tight closure of the cylinder valve is checked by
submerging cylinders one at a time or in rows of six to twelve into a water
bath, so that leaks show up as a series of bubbles. Once past this hurdle,
cylinders are once more inspected, metal and/or plastic caps are mounted on
valves and the cylinders are stacked for dispatch.

Cylinder storage should be at ground level in rows of no more than four for
easy accessibility. Cylinders are stored upright and if stored for extended
periods full cylinders should be arranged in single tiers. In filling plants full
and empty cylinders should be stored separately.

9.5 REGULATIONS AND SAFETY [3, 4, 6, 8, 9]

Safety regulations pertaining to LPG cylinders do not differ basically from
those discussed in Chapter 8, with reference to larger containers and
pipework. The same standards apply to size and type of storage vessels,
distance from buildings, piping of liquid LPG and transport by road, rail and
ships.

In the present context, we also have to consider the storage of LPG cylinders
by householders and business users and the safety features of the filling
plant.

The United States with its well-established LPG industry have, over the
years, developed a set of standards and of these the National Fire
Prevention Association's NFPA No. 58 applies to the full range of
applications of liquefied petroleum gases. Division I of the standard refers to
cylinder systems, and recommendations made here are largely based on this
standard.

Cylinders up to 10 kg can be placed in an upright position on the ground

outside a building, provided that the safety valve cannot discharge nearer
than one meter from a door or window. Heavier cylinders should rest on a
base of concrete or wood. The cylinder head should be screened from the
elements by a solid preferably tamperproof metal cover, which protects both
the cylinder valve and the regulators. Indoor cylinders should be avoided
unless absolutely necessary because of low ambient temperature or other
causes. If storage is indoors, no more than one cylinder should be kept and
there should be floor-level ventilation. In particular discharge from relief
valves should be conducted outside the building or at least into a space with
floor ventilation. Particular attention should be paid to cylinders in boats to

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prevent venting or leakage of LPG into the bilge, and to cylinders in mobile
homes or caravans to ensure that venting and discharge occur outside the
vehicle and more than one meter from windows, doors or vehicle exhaust.

Connecting appliances to cylinders must be by the shortest route and lines

should be permanent, firmly secured and accessible. Although all lines
should be tested at 2 atm pressure (there should be no pressure loss over 10
min) actual gas distribution pressure should always be less than 18 in (460
mm) water column, particularly in boats and trailers.

Safety precautions in LPG bulk plants and cylinder-filling facilities are not
standardized to the same extent as those for domestic cylinder installations.
However, experience has shown that provided a number of elementary
safety rules are observed, LPG cylinder filling can be absolutely safe.
Precautions to be taken include:

 A strictly enforced no-smoking rule

 Use of intrinsically safe electrical equipment
 Filling in the open or in open-sided single-story buildings constructed of
non-combustible materials
 If under cover, e.g. in the case of weighing/filling, machines, constant
through ventilation of the filling space
 LPG storage in accordance with NFPA rules, e.g. 50,000 gal (200 m3)
container above ground, a minimum of 75 ft (25 m) from nearest
building
 Installation of hydrocarbon leakage warning systems in critical locations
 No underground sewers, cable ducts, etc.
 Protection for liquid LPG lines, particularly from vehicle traffic,
construction work, etc.
 Floors should be non-sparking
 Total of cylinder LPG stored in any one building must not exceed
5000kg

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 Domestic and Commercial Utilization of
LPG
10.1 INTRODUCTION
It is not easy to define domestic and commercial LPG applications, and
particularly to distinguish between small industrial users on the one hand,
and commercial consumers on the other. Similarly there is little or no
difference between central heating or air-conditioning systems for individual
houses or flats and those serving restaurants, shops and other commercial
premises. Mainly, for organizational purposes, we like to define domestic
consumers as being supplied from cylinders of up to 50 kg content or,
exceptionally, in the case of central heating or air conditioning, from tanks up
to 1 ton. Commercial customers generally have LPG tanks of 1-5 ton content,
but may, occasionally, use batteries of cylinders. Both commercial and
domestic users are at times supplied by pipeline, generally with an air-gas
mixture. Neither normally requires a vaporizer and natural evaporation, within
the limits discussed in Chapter 8, is generally capable of meeting their
maximum gas demand.

LPG is in many respects the ideal domestic and commercial fuel, being more
widely applicable than solid or liquid fuels, and making the user independent
of monopoly suppliers of piped energy such as gas and electricity
companies. Its clean burning and ease of control simplify the design of
burners and appliances, vents and flues; its availability in cylinders of many
sizes permits its use in remote locations, for single appliances, in mobile or
seasonally occupied homes, etc.

On the other hand there are certain disadvantages associated with the use of
LPG in domestic and commercial applications. The necessity to store the
gases under pressure has led to complex legislation concerning LPG
tankage, and its location. [1-3] Different standards apply in many countries
(see Chapter 9 on handling and storage) but, almost invariably, LPG tanks
must be located underground or some distance away from buildings, and
there are restrictions on the size and number of cylinders which can be
stored or used in any one room. Locating tanks on the flat roofs of buildings,
one of the most convenient forms-of storage, is rarely permissible.

Another problem which often arises is the variable composition of LPG.

Propane and butanes content can vary over a wide range and this has
repercussions on combustion properties, flame size and stability, and burner
thermal output, particularly where Bunsen-type burners are concerned, as in
the majority of domestic and commercial appliances and furnaces. As
discussed in greater detail in Chapter 6 a burner adjusted to operate on pure

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propane when burning butanes requires a higher gas pressure to ensure
satisfactory aeration, but a lower pressure if thermal output is to remain the
same. Although it is possible to design sufficient flexibility into an appliance to
adjust it for a blend and yet to operate satisfactorily on the pure hydrocarbons
at both ends of the spectrum, there is invariably an optimum setting for each
gas composition and flexibility is only a second best.

A further problem, particularly in the case of caravans and mobile homes, is

the variation in equipment; not only do different countries use different valves
and regulators, but quite often the equipment used by different LPG suppliers
are not interchangeable. There is, however, no doubt that this situation will
not be allowed to continue for ever; national standards by now exist in many,
if not all, countries where LPG is used as a domestic fuel, and international
standardization has also made some progress.

10.2 DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS

The use of LPG in the home is historically the first and still the most important
outlet for LPG. The convenience of a clean easily regulated fuel, particularly
for cooking but also for hot water and space heating, made a large impact in
the U.S.A. between the two world wars and in Europe after World War II. To
some extent, of course, this was a temporary solution and natural gas
eventually took over the load when gas pipelines reached the smaller towns
and the suburbs of the larger cities. On the other hand economics of
pipelining dictate that not all customers can be connected, since only a
substantial increase in demand justifies construction of a long spur. As a
result there are still very many towns in Europe and in the U.S.A. without a
piped natural gas supply; sometimes they still use locally produced town gas,
but in many instances supply of LPG in cylinders or by local pipeline is found
to be most economic. In addition domestic LPG is used by many farms,
hotels and private houses, which are simply too far from the nearest gas grid
or have too small a consumption to justify piping the gas.

Domestic applications of LPG can be sub-divided into the various forms of

cooking, space and water heating, refrigeration, waste disposal and other
miscellaneous uses.

10.2.1 Domestic Cooking [4-7, 25, 26]

The domestic LPG cooker or cooking range differs only slightly from its
counterpart which is designed for the use of natural or manufactured gas.
LPG ranges, particularly those manufactured in the U.S.A. have two, three,
four or even five hot plates or top burners. In addition there are one or two

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ovens, either underneath the hot plates or separate for eye-level mounting.
Finally there is a grill or broiler burner and sometimes a hot cupboard.

Modern kitchen ranges have automatic gas lighting, either from a single pilot
through flash tubes or more frequently by electricity or by individual pilots
(spark or incandescent wire).

Thermostats invariably control oven temperature but can also be used on top
burners, where they operate in contact with the underside of the vessel which
is being heated. If this type of control is used gas flow to the burner is cut off
by a solenoid valve whenever the temperature reaches a preset value, and a
pilot ensures re-ignition when the temperature drops and the thermostat
causes the gas valve to open. For the same reason all ovens must be
equipped with a reliable pilot flame. Clocks or timers are often provided and
usually operate a separate valve on the main gas supply; they can be set for
delayed start-up and for automatic extinction after a given time interval; some
clocks provide for holding warm or simmering at the end of the cooking
period, or even gradual transition from cooking to holding.

Simple LPG cookers, e.g. for use in caravans, rarely have all the above
features. Manual operation and lighting of the burners with a match or gas
lighter are normal. Top burners and a grill (broiler) are provided, but not
necessarily an oven. Particularly in tropical and less developed countries the
use of simple one- or two-burner hot plates is common; in countries where
rice is the staple diet so-called rice cookers consisting of a single large
burner with supports for a hemispherical cooking vessel are widely used.

Burners in domestic cooking appliances are invariably atmospheric, i.e. gas

at a pressure of a few inches water gauge issues from an orifice and mixes
with atmospheric air (primary air) in a venturi tube. This premixed stream is
subsequently burned with additional air (secondary air) after leaving the
flame ports in the burner bead. This concept, originally due to Bunsen, is
discussed at greater length in Chapter 6. Although all Bunsen burners are
reasonably flexible, the need to cover a large range of thermal outputs in a
cooker hot plate or grill (gas ovens operate on the on-off principle) has
resulted in special designs such as the dual burner, which consists of a main
burner with an output of up to 6000 Btu/hr (1500 kcal/hr) on the outer
circumference, and of a simmer burner which can be turned down to as low
as 250 Btu (65 kcal) in the centre of the hot plate.

An important feature of modern domestic cooker design is a self-cleaning

oven. Coating the inside walls of a gas oven with a catalyst which results in
the oxidation of deposited grease and carbon, although originally introduced
for electric cookers, is by now fairly common in U.S.A. gas appliances.
Similarly the electricity requirements for lighting and thermostatic control can

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be eliminated, if required, by the use of battery-powered or piezoelectric
igniters, pressure on a crystal produces an electric spark or by means of self-
generated electricity from thermoelectric generators heated by the pilot and
used to operate the gas solenoid valve. Other important features are
interlocked pilot systems which stop the flow of gas if the pilot is
extinguished; indirect oven thermostats which operate through a controlling
pilot burner, which in turn opens up the flow and lights the main gas stream,
thus providing a wider range and more accurate control of operating
temperatures. But it should, perhaps, be re-emphasized that the bulk of LPG
fired cooking appliances are still extremely simple, as a rule are manually
controlled, and entirely lacking the above-mentioned refinements.

10.2.2 Domestic Space Heating and Hot Water Supply [8-14]

Domestic heating by means of gaseous fuels can be based on one of four
principles:

 Direct emission of diluted combustion gases (radiant and catalytic

heaters)
 Radiant fluid appliances
 Heat exchange between combustion gases and air
 Heating water or steam for circulation through water-air or steam-air
heat exchangers (radiators)

Increasingly complex equipment is required to carry out the four functions,

and the simpler systems involving only direct heating of room air or radiant
heating therefore predominate.

Flueless heating appliances (see Figure 10.1), although clearly the most
efficient form of heating, present their users with a number of problems. They
emit carbon dioxide and water vapour, and if wrongly operated can also
produce carbon monoxide. Instructions on their use are, therefore, essential,
but regulations pertaining to flueless burning differ in many areas. Table 10.1
summarizes recommendations on ventilation, maximum capacity, etc.,
applicable in different countries.

It will be noted that many areas regulate in favour of flame failure control and
some, specifically Switzerland, insist on it for high-output heaters, and
France, quite generally, requires atmosphere control devices.

Page 4of 20
 Figure 10.1 Flueless LPG Space Heating Appliances, Radiant (left) and
Catalytic (right) Types

Simple flame failure equipment consists as a rule of a bimetallic strip which

closes the main gas valve if the flame goes out. In the case of catalytic
combustion, where there is no flame, the bimetal strip is located in the
catalytic panel and cuts the gas flow if the panel temperature falls below
40°C. Design specifications usually demand a closing time of no more than
30 s.

The danger of emitting carbon monoxide from a flame located in the living
space, particularly if the air supply to the burner contains carbon dioxide, i.e.
is already vitiated, has produced legislation originating in France, to install
atmosphere control devices in all flueless heaters. The principle of these
devices is shown in Figure 10.2. The length of the flame of a small Bunsen
burner is a function of the CO2 content of the atmosphere; if this increases
beyond one per cent the flame lifts and eventually extinguishes. The sensing
thermocouple then no longer counteracts the spring-loaded solenoid valve,
the gas supply is cut and the pilot cannot be relit until the CO2 level of the
room falls below one per cent. The device is considered sufficiently safe for
the Federal Swiss Authorities to permit three times the maximum thermal
rating for appliances fitted with atmosphere control devices than without.

Page 5of 20
 Table 10.1 Regulations for Flueless LPG Heaters in Domestic Use

Other restrictions imposed on flueless appliances are minimum ventilation

requirements. In the U.K., for example, appliances in a room used for living
and sleeping quarters, e.g. a caravan, have to be fitted with ventilation grilles
sized as follows: [15]

Ventilation area in square centimeters =

14 + Floor area in square meters + 40 x Number of burners

This is substantially more than the corresponding recommendation for flued

appliances. [16]

Page 6of 20
 Figure 10.2 Flueless Heater, CO2 Atmosphere Control Device

The use of catalytic combustion in flueless LPG heaters has become fairly
common over the last few years and there are a number of different catalytic
heater models on the market in various European countries ranging in
capacity from 1200 to 3000 kcal/hr. Regulations vary from Holland, where
catalytic space heaters are not recommended by the authorities, to France,
where there are specific standards for catalytic flueless heaters, and where
the absence of a flame and the low temperature of the heater casing are
considered advantages, and in fact safety features in nurseries, schools,
caravans, etc. On the other hand, catalytic heaters can at times emit unburnt
hydrocarbons and unless fitted with a well-designed atmosphere control
device, which is, in fact, mandatory in France, they can constitute a serious
safety hazard. They are also more sensitive to LPG quality, particularly
unsaturation, and effective room ventilation should therefore be considered
even more essential with low-temperature catalytic than with high-
temperature radiant flueless heaters. Catalytic heaters are being introduced
successfully to the British market and a design/standard specification is being
considered by British Standards Institution.

Radiant heaters with a catalytic after-burner section to convert CO to CO2 are

additions to the flueless heater range.

Page 7of 20
A more common form of space heating by means of LPG is the standard,
flued, either radiant or convective, room heater. To operate a room heater
satisfactorily on liquid or solid fuel it is essential to have a direct and unique
flue which will provide a satisfactory draught to ventilate all the combustion
products and to aspirate fresh air to the burner or grate. Typical negative
stack pressure for solid fuels is of the order of 25 mm water gauge; for liquid
fuels this can be reduced to about 15 mm, and gaseous fuels burnt under
atmospheric conditions only require about 10 mm, provided that combustion
chamber design is satisfactory.

In consequence gas fires, gas-fired hot-water storage heaters and even

certain types of gas-fired central heating boiler can be designed to operate
without a separate and unique flue and, if necessary, without a vertical flue
altogether. The last-named alternative, the balanced flue, consists of
concentric air intake and gas emission pipes leading through an outside wall
directly to the appliance; the cost and space-saving advantages of such an
arrangement are obvious. The appliance, if designed for convective heat
transfer, can be completely sealed on the room side, and in spite of the
concentric air inlets and smoke outlets in the outside wall, which are usually
fitted with and concealed below a cowl, such balanced flues can be
reasonably inconspicuous from the outside.

An alternative arrangement is to carry a limited number of vertical flues

through a number of floors in a high rise apartment or office building. Sealed
room heaters can be designed to both accept fresh air and discharge flue
gases into the vents, provided air vitiation is kept down to a reasonable
maximum. Fresh air can be introduced into the vent at ground level (an
arrangement known as SE-duct) or there can be two flues, a descending air
duct and an ascending flue gas duct, a system known as U-duct. Both
convective and certain radiant room heaters, apartment central-heating
systems, hot-water heaters and other gas-fired appliances can be mounted
on inside walls and made to aspirate fresh air and discharge combustion
products into such flues, again realizing substantial savings in cost and
space over individual flues for each appliance. The system, however, is not
suitable for open radiant-type room heaters which aspirate combustion air
from their surroundings. It can be used and is being recommended in the
U.K. for glass-fronted radiant heaters.

The main reason for the extensive use of radiant gas heaters is the type of
warmth provided by such appliances; apparently personal comfort is
enhanced by a degree of radiant heating and particularly in cold, foggy
climates the radiant room heater is much preferred to purely convective
heating. However, to ensure improved efficiency modern radiant heaters also

Page 8of 20
have a convection section in which the hot gases, which leave the radiant at
about 650°C, are cooled to about 150°C by heat exchange with ambient air,
before they are discharged into the flue. Under these circumstances the
thermal efficiencies of modern radiant and convective heaters tend to
approach the same values (75-80%) and with the added comfort of radiation
heating thrown in, the higher cost of incandescent heaters appears to be no
obstacle to their popularity.

The convection section of radiant heaters resembles the design of gas-fired

convective heaters, i.e. the complete heater or the convection section is in
fact a gas-to-gas heat exchanger with extended surfaces (fins, studs, etc.) on
both the air and combustion gas side. Good design attempts to minimize
pressure drop while arranging for maximum heat transfer rates, i.e. a
minimum total heat transfer area.

LPG heaters in Europe are generally used for single room heating; however,
there are heater designs available which provide for the circulation of hot air
from the convection section to other rooms in the house. Back boilers for gas
fires are also available, and these can be used to circulate hot water through
radiators in other rooms or to produce hot water for storage in an insulated
cylinder for subsequent use. Only relatively rare instances occur in Europe of
full house heating and/or air conditioning by means of LPG-fired equipment.

In certain areas of the U.S.A., on the other hand, LPG is used as a fuel in
domestic central heating systems both of the circulating hot air and
circulating water type. Since these systems do not differ substantially from
ordinary natural gas or manufactured gas-fired central heating and air
conditioning it is not proposed to discuss them in detail.

While hot-water systems invariably supply both heating and domestic hot
water, sometimes from the same coil, sometimes from a separate coil in the
same boiler, air-heating systems are generally equipped with a small
separate hot-water generator. Since local water supplies even in soft-water
regions, but particularly in hard-water areas, tend to deposit solids on the
inside of pipes, hot-water systems as a rule are of the indirect type, i.e. water
is heated in the boiler in closed circuit and exchanges heat with the domestic
hot-water supply in a separate heat exchanger, usually a coil immersed in the
hot-water cylinder, thus ensuring a minimum of deposits in the primary circuit.

Since central-heating systems have a substantially larger gas consumption

than room heaters, an unobstructed air supply to the burner, good venting of
combustion gases, and safety devices such as flame control and pilot lights
become of even greater importance Gas boilers, particularly if their capacity
exceeds 25,000 kcal/hr, often have automatic lighting and Inbuilt delays after
abortive start-up to prevent gaseous explosions. Time clocks and

Page 9of 20
thermostats acting through solenoid valves on the main gas supply ensure
light-up when heat and/or hot water are required, and close down, once the
preset room or water temperature has been reached, respectively.

Table 10.2 Typical Domestic LPG Consumption per Year

Where hot water alone is required LPG-fired hot-water heaters are available,
which can be flueless in the case of kitchen sink heaters and some smaller
storage heaters, but should be vented to atmosphere if of a sufficient
capacity for bathroom use, i.e. for hot baths and showers. The small heater
required in conjunction with a hot-water storage cylinder thus has certain
advantages and is preferred in countries such as Japan, Holland and
Belgium. In most other countries large instantaneous gas-fired water heaters
are in use, which will produce up to 351 of hot water (70°C) per minute. They
can be of the multipoint type, i.e. produce hot water for bathrooms, hand-
basins, kitchen sink, utility room, etc., from one heater, or there may be
separate kitchen sink, basin and bathroom heaters. Storage heaters, on the
other hand, are almost always of the multi-point type.

In supplying LPG for domestic purposes it is essential to provide sufficient

storage, and for this reason it is necessary to estimate gas consumption, a
relatively easy exercise if number and type of appliance and number of
persons using heat, hot water and other services, is known. Table 10.2 lists
gas consumption in the U.S.A. for typical appliances. While similar figures for
other countries are not yet available it can be assumed that consumptions for
other than space heating will be lower. Similarly space heating if expressed
in terms of degree days should also be discounted to allow for the smaller
size of houses and in some areas outside the U.S.A. for lower typical living
room temperatures.

Page 10of 20
10.2.3 Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Miscellaneous
Domestic Uses. [17-22]
All domestic gas-operated refrigerators are based on the
absorption/refrigeration principle. Since compressor-based refrigerators are
basically more efficient than absorption units the use of gas-fired refrigerators
is by now more or less confined to areas of unusually high cost (or an
unreliable supply) of electricity, or to special situations where low noise or the
absence of moving parts are at a premium. Nevertheless the outlet for LP
and other gases in domestic refrigeration is still very substantial.

The operating fluid in gas-fired refrigeration is invariably an aqueous

ammonia solution. Attempts to replace ammonia by other substances have
not so far been economically successful since no other refrigerant has:

 The strong affinity for water (low vapour pressure of aqueous

ammonia),
 High latent heat of vaporization from solution,
 Relatively low specific heat (both ingredients and solution),
 Relatively low freezing point,
 Low viscosity.

These properties are essential for satisfactory operation of a closed-cycle

system made up of an evaporator, an absorber, a generator and a
condenser. The system is filled with a 30% aqueous solution of ammonia,
pressurized with hydrogen to 20 atm, and sealed. When the generator is
heated by gas flame ammonia is boiled off; at the same time the lean solution
is raised by a stream of bubbles into the absorber. Ammonia vapour rises
into the condenser pushing some hydrogen ahead and raising the pressure
to 28 atm. In the condenser the ammonia vapour is liquefied by heat
exchange with ambient air and the liquid flows down into the evaporator
which is situated inside the refrigerator. Here the liquid ammonia vaporizes,
with the absorption of heat from its surroundings. Continued downward flow
is due to the gradual increase in density of the gas, originally only hydrogen
is present in the vapour phase, and the ammonia/hydrogen vapour can be
moved by gravity into the absorber. Here ammonia recombines with the lean
solution evolving some heat in the process, which is dissipated by means of
air fins. Saturated ammonia solution flows by gravity from the absorber
reservoir back into the generator to complete the cycle. Figure 10.3 is a
simplified diagram of the flow of materials in a single pressure or Platon-
Munters absorption/refrigeration cycle.

Page 11of 20
Solid lines, gravity flow;
Broken lines vapour flow;
Dotted lines, liquid circulation by vapour lift.

Figure 10.3 Single Pressure Absorption Refrigeration

The efficiency of gas-fired refrigerators is often expressed as a coefficient of

performance defined as the heat removed-by refrigeration divided by the heat
supplied to the system. It has little meaning as such, since there are
thermodynamic limits beyond which it is impossible to improve performance,
but coefficients of performance can be used to compare gas-fired with
electric refrigerators or with each other. A wide range of values has been
reported (0.17-0.50) which compare unfavorably with compressor-operated
refrigerators for which a typical coefficient of performance would be about
70%. However, if one bears in mind that electric energy is rarely generated
with efficiency higher than 0.3 this shows that overall absorption refrigerators
are not inherently inefficient.

Refrigerator burners as a rule are thermostatically controlled; small (200-800

kcal/hr) Bunsen-type burners are used, and primary air is directed through a
dust tube to prevent linting and dust blockage of the small openings in the air
shutter. A safety shut-off valve held open by a bimetallic strip exposed to the
main flame controls the gas flow and arrests it if the flame is extinguished; a
thermostatic valve, with a by-pass to ensure constant minimum gas flow is
operated by a thermometer bulb located inside the refrigerator; a press-
button-operated by-pass round the safety shut-off permits relighting of the
burner. Defrosting is either manual by setting the thermostat to a high
temperature or clock-controlled, as a rule by means of electric heaters which
override the refrigeration.

Page 12of 20
Solid lines, gravity flow;
Broken lines vapour flow;
Dotted lines, liquid circulation by vapour lift.

Figure 10.4 Lithium Bromide Refrigeration Cycle

Just as the use of LPG for complete domestic central heating is relatively
rare, and confined to certain areas of the U.S.A. where LPG is cheap or
where natural gas is not available, so is complete air conditioning only rarely
achieved by means of LPG. Again there is little difference between natural
gas, manufactured gas or LPG-fired units. Again the principle employed is
that of the gas absorption cycle.

However, while domestic refrigerators and freezers exclusively use aqueous

ammonia as a working fluid, larger air conditioners operating at chilled water
temperatures of 40°F or higher can use the lithium bromide/water cycle in
addition to the aqueous ammonia system. The concept of LiBr/H2O
refrigeration differs from the ammonia system in that water vapour is the
refrigerant and its high affinity to lithium bromide solution allows it to be
recycled after condensation. In order to obtain heat transfer at a low enough
temperature the LiBr system operates at a partial vacuum, 6 to 9 mmHg in
the cooling coil and 50 to 60 mm in the generator, and the solution
temperature in the generator is about 110°C. Again the pumping effect of a
vapour lift is used to transfer concentrated solution into the absorber. The
condenser, however, can be either water- or air-cooled, the former being the
more efficient. Figure 10.4 is a diagram of the cycle.

Another interesting air-conditioning device which operates on LPG and uses

water vapour as a refrigerant is the MEC (Munter's Environmental Control),
which consist of a series of rotating discs capable of being wetted by steam
and dried out by heating. In the refrigeration mode warm outside air is first
dried and then cooled by moistening. Room air flows in countercurrent
through the rotating discs, first being heated and subsequently dried. The
only mechanical power required for the MEC, apart from the air blower, is
that for rotating the assembly of moisteners, driers and heat exchangers.

Page 13of 20
 Figure 10.5 LPG-Fired Floodlights (British Oxygen Co. Ltd)

Apart from cooking, space heating, refrigeration and air conditioning,

domestic LPG outlets are relatively small in total volume. LPG-fired
incinerators are used where refuse collection is inadequate and air pollution
ordinances do not permit open combustion. Gas-fired incinerators are also
used in hospitals, slaughter-houses, schools and institutions to dispose of
insanitary or merely unpleasant wastes. [21]

Typical smokeless, odorless domestic incinerators consist of a primary

combustion chamber equipped with a charging door for refuse, a gas burner,
a grate to support the refuse and an ashpan to collect non-combustible
material. Gaseous combustion products are conducted into a secondary
hotter combustion chamber (about 1000°C) which holds another burner;
combustion gases from the primary chamber must pass through the spread-
out flame of the second burner before they are diluted with air and released
to atmosphere. It is important to provide ample combustion air for both gas
burners and for the refuse, and for satisfactory operation; incinerators should
be supplied with about 100% excess air by either natural or forced draught.

An LPG-fired flushless toilet is on the market, for use in vacation homes,

caravans and boats and for locations where septic tanks or in-ground
disposal are impracticable. Gas-fired pokers are used to light wood or coal in

Page 14of 20
stoves and fireplaces. LPG lanterns are widely used for camping and in
mobile homes (see Figure 10.5). Finally LPG is used in blow-lamps for paint
stripping, soldering and other domestic repairs.

10.3 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS [23]

Although there is no strict demarcation between certain domestic outlets
such as central heating, cooking or refrigeration and their commercial
equivalent in restaurants, hotels, bakeries and the like, and there is a gradual
transition from commercial use, e.g. in the catering industry, to industrial
outlets, such as the food industry, there remains a very definite field of gas
applications which are clearly neither domestic nor industrial. Brief mention
will, therefore, be made of LPG use in hotels and catering, laundries and dry
cleaning, and miscellaneous commercial applications.

10.3.1 Hotels and Restaurants

The use of LPG for cooking in hotels, restaurants, cafeterias, works
canteens, for the provision of school meals, in hospitals and other institutions
does not differ to any extent from domestic cooking. Commercial cooking
ranges are, of course, much larger both in regard to the number of top
burners and the diameter of the individual hot plates. Construction of the
range must accordingly be more solid, and there is a preference for stainless
steel in place of the more vulnerable porcelain enamel used on domestic
equipment. The use of pilots, automatic lighting, clocks and thermostatic
control on top burners is less common in large-scale catering, where there is
usually continuous supervision. Also for very large-scale catering the height
of the cooking range can, with some advantage, be reduced from the normal
90 cm above floor level to 40 or 50 cm to facilitate the handling of larger
cooking vessels.

Typical heat input in commercial top burners is between 4000 and 6000
kcal/hr for individual gas rings, and between 10,000 and 100,000 kcal/hr for a
hot-top cooker with a heavy cast-iron top providing a continuous cooking
surface. Availability of different tops, i.e. some continuous and some
individual gas rings, in commercial kitchens provides flexibility for deep fat
frying, frying directly on the cooking surface, boiling, simmering and holding,
which all require slightly different heating arrangements.

Ovens for baking and roasting in restaurant and hotel kitchens usually have
several shelves and their burners have a minimum capacity of 5000 kcal/hr;
larger models up to 20,000 kcal /hr are available. The very large models
which are also used by bakers and confectioners sometimes have facilities
for air circulation and steam injection, the latter for the baking of hard crust
bread. Broilers, grills and rotisseries, and in the U.S.A. also griddles, are

Page 15of 20
frequently gas-fired; radiant burners radiate heat downwards on to either
stationary or rotating steaks, joints, or other prepared meats. Whereas
domestic broilers or grills have partial premix burners and emit heat by a
combination of flame and metal radiation, the most efficient commercial
broilers use infra-red radiation produced by firing a fully premixed flame
against a ceramic refractory radiant. The latter can be heated to 900 to
1000°C and grills food at least twice as fast as the ordinary domestic unit.

Specialized cooking in catering establishments includes coffee- and tea-

making in automatic urns, deep fat fryers with thermostatic temperature
controls, and sometimes with pop-up timing for the baskets of fried potatoes,
hot food tables with steam or air circulation which maintains the top at a safe
holding temperature, automatic gas-fired bread toasters, rotisseries with a
number of spits for cooking of large numbers of broiler chickens, etc.

In addition, hotels and restaurants can have gas-fired hot-water supplies,

refrigerators, freezers and air conditioners, dishwashers and laundries.

Gas consumption in commercial catering is difficult to express in general

terms, as it not only depends on the type of installed equipment but also on
the kind of food which happens to be popular in the area, or in which the
restaurant specializes. A figure of 90 x 106 kcal /yr per establishment has
been reported in the U.S.A.; this is actually more than that for any of the
other forms of commercial gas use listed in Table 10.3. It should be borne in
mind; however, that laundries and dry cleaners are not included in the list.

Table 10.3 Typical Gas Consumption by Certain Commercial Customers

10.3.2 Baking and Confectionery

The baking of bread and rolls on a large scale will be discussed in a
subsequent chapter. The present discussion is restricted to commercial
operations on a relatively small scale, often on the same premises as the
sale of bread, and frequently including such activities as cake and
confectionery production.

Page 16of 20
While there are differences in baking techniques between different countries
and bread composition also varies, all bread, after the dough has risen as a
result of yeast activity, is baked at a temperature of between 220 and 250°C
for a period of 25 to 40 min. To produce a hard glazed crust on the bread,
steam can be injected during baking, and hydrolyses the surface starch to
gum and sugar which is caramelized. Hot-air circulation speeds up baking
time and permits lower baking temperatures which produce a more uniform
product. Traveling grates and other forms of moving racks in baking ovens
have a similar effect, but are generally confined to industrial baking.

The baking of cakes does not differ greatly from bread production.
Temperatures are similar but baking times, depending on size, are somewhat
shorter. However, typical gas consumptions in terms of kilocalories per
kilogram of finished product are approximately 290 for bread and 440 for
sweet goods, the higher consumption for the latter being mainly due to the
much smaller scale of production and, therefore, reduced service efficiency.

10.3.3 Laundries and Dry Cleaning

Laundries, launderettes or Laundromats and dry-cleaning establishments can
be substantial consumers of gaseous fuels. Particularly large central
laundries with numerous collection points and centralized processing can
consume more LPG than any other commercial activity. However, since they
require steam generation on a substantial scale their choice of fuel is only
restricted by air pollution considerations, and unless situated in the centre of
a city, they are likely to use fuels other than gas or LPG. Their steam-raising
and hot-water-generating facilities are discussed under the appropriate
heading in a later chapter on steam and power generation.

Launderettes, the relatively recent but by now fairly common High Street
establishments with between six and thirty coin-operated washing machines,
are typical, large LPG-consuming, commercial operators. Hot water is
generated centrally in a gas-fired boiler and piped to individual machines. A
hot-water storage vessel ensures that gas consumption is evenly spaced out
and also that there is enough hot water available for simultaneous water
changes in several machines. Coin-operated drying cabinets or tumble driers
are available to remove residual moisture from the spun-dry laundry which
issues from the washing machine. Hot, dry air for the laundry driers is also
generated centrally, as a rule in a gas-fired air heater, and is piped to the
individual driers.

Apart from centralized dry-cleaning plants which collect garments from a

number of collection points and clean them in large semi-industrial
equipment, there are also smaller dry-cleaning machines often run in
conjunction with launderettes and frequently coin-operated. In both types of

Page 17of 20
cleaning equipment, cleaning fluid, a mixture of hydrocarbons and
chlorinated solvents with the addition of a detergent, is warmed and is used
to extract soil from garments in a tumbling device which rotates on a
horizontal axis in a vessel filled with cleaning fluid. In some systems the fluid
is also charged with a carefully controlled amount of water to assist in the
removal of oil-insoluble stains. After passage through the cleaning equipment
the solvent is withdrawn, filtered and partly redistilled, and the garments are
dried in a current of hot air to remove all traces of solvent.

In large central dry-cleaning plant tumbler cleaners are charged with 50 kg or

more of garments; cleaning, drying, and solvent regeneration each take place
in separate machines. In coin-operated Laundromats, on the other hand,
both cleaning and drying take place successively in the same machine, which
is charged with a load of 4-5 kg at a time; solvent from several machines can
be centrally processed, unless there is a built-in pump and charcoal filter
which continuously separates the soil from the solvent.

Fuel consumption in laundries and launderettes is almost entirely due to their

large consumption of water at temperatures close to the boiling point. A small
additional gas requirement is to heat the air for the tumbler driers. In dry
cleaning LPG is used to heat the solvent to extraction temperature (40-50°C),
to fire the solvent regeneration still, and to provide a hot-air stream for
garment drying and the removal of the last traces of solvent.

Gas consumption for laundering and dry cleaning varies widely. between
establishments. Heat exchange between out-going dirty and fresh clean
water, and between dirty and a distilled cleaning solvent can substantially
reduce heat losses and improve efficiency. Values of 1500 kcal/100 kg of dry
laundry and 750 kcal/100 kg of garments to be cleaned have been reported.

10.3.4 Public Baths and Swimming Pools

The hot-water consumption of public baths and swimming pools is
substantial; furthermore it has the right load characteristics for LPG use, i.e. it
tends to peak at certain times of day and times of year, which implies, in the
case of a piped gas supply, large-diameter pipes and a relatively
unfavourable gas tariff.

Generating hot water at the low temperatures required for pools and baths
(50-80°C) is thermally efficient, and its cost can be further reduced by using
submerged combustion and the types of burner mentioned in sub-section
7.3.8. Heat exchange between combustion gases and water can be affected
by direct mixing and, provided that gas and air are supplied under pressure,
a genuine submerged combustion system will produce hot water at minimum

Page 18of 20
cost. Alternatively, heat exchange between water and combustion gases can
take place in two stages: cold water is first used to scrub the stack gases in a
packed tower; preheated water from the bottom of the tower is further heated
in a normal heat exchanger which surrounds the LPG burner. [24]

Finally, standard hot-water generators can be used to meet the entire hot-
water requirements of central heating, showers, heating of passages, floor
heating, etc., by means of one or several direct-fired heat exchangers. In all
these instances LPG firing provides the advantages of seasonal availability,
flexibility and absence of smoke or other emissions.

10.3.5 Miscellaneous Commercial Applications

Apart from its use by hotels, catering establishments, bakers, laundries and
cleaners, public baths and swimming pools, smaller LPG outlets exist on the
commercial scene in tailoring and dress-making, where materials and
garments are ironed and pressed. There are outlets in garages and
mechanical workshops, where LPG is used for cutting metal, soldering and
brazing; in dairies where milk bottles and churns are washed and sterilized,
often using LPG-generated steam and hot water; on building sites where
portable LPG gas heaters and polythene curtains permit building operations
to continue during extremely cold weather. LPG is also used by glass
blowers in the manufacture and repair of laboratory glass ware; by jewelers
and silversmiths in the fashioning and repair of precious metal objects; by
plumbers in the making up of joints in copper lines and the making and
shaping-of lead joints; by dental mechanics to solder, make up and repair
dentures and by many other small businesses.

DOMESTIC USES
 Air conditioning
 Clothes drying
 Cooking
 Gas lighting
 Home heating
 Incineration
 Refrigeration
 Water heating

FARM AND RANCH APPLICATIONS

 Branding
 Poultry and animal brooding
 Crop drying

Page 19of 20
  Stock tank heating
 Flame cultivation
 Tobacco curing
 Irrigation
 Tractor operation
 Orchard heating

INDUSTRIAL USES
 Core baking and molding drying
 Paint removal
 Paint and varnish drying
 Flame cutting
 Portable heating and lighting equipment
 Flame hardening
 Incineration
 Forklifts
 Glass melting
 Asphalt heating
 Heat treating

*It is reliably reported that there are some 10,000 different uses for gas in the
industrial field.

AUTOMOTIVE
As a motor fuel for internal combustion engines LP-gas is used in cars trucks,
buses, tractors, forklifts and electric generator sets. Wherever an internal
combustion engine is required, propane and butane are excellent fuels and
superior in many respects to gasoline. An overall picture of LP-gas
carburetion is presented in a later chapter.

UTILITY GAS USE

 Direct distribution of undiluted LP-gas through city mains.
 Direct distribution of propane-air or butane-air gas through city mains.
 Enrichment gas for increasing the heating value of "city" gas.
 For standby use in case of interruption of natural gas supply.
 For peak shaving to supplement the supply of natural gas during
periods of greatest demand.

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 LPG as an Automotive Fuel
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter it is proposed to discuss the use of LP gases in internal
combustion engines. We shall deal with the principles involved in the design
and operation of LPG-fuelled engines; but it is not intended to provide details
of the mechanical construction of original or conversion equipment, or to treat
in detail the principles of the internal combustion engine itself. For these the
reader is referred to manufacturers' literature and to the texts quoted for
further reference at the end of this chapter. We do not intend to consider LP
gases for the fuelling of gas turbines, steam engines and other externally
fired power generators either, but to confine ourselves to the standard I.C.
engine in its two basic forms, namely, the spark ignition or Otto cycle engine
and the compression ignition or diesel engine.

The main difference between these two types is that the compressed air-gas
mixture which provides energy by its combustion is ignited in the one case by
means of an electric spark. In the case of the diesel engine, however,
combustion occurs as a result of the high temperature of compression. It
follows that diesel engines use very much higher compression ratios (12:20)
than spark ignition engines (7:10).

11.1.1 Advantages of LPG for Automotive Fuelling [1]

The standard fuels for spark ignition and compression ignition engines are
automotive gasoline (motor spirit, petrol) and auto diesel fuel (DERV, gas oil),
respectively. The main advantage of using LPG rather than either of these
two fuels is the cleanliness of LPG, which is free of lead, and very low in
sulphur, other metals, aromatics and other contaminants. Particularly lead,
which has to be added to gasoline in the form of TEL (tetraethyl lead) in order
to increase its knock resistance, is undesirable because it is a spark-plug
foulant and a potentially poisonous air pollutant. Similarly, any sulphur which
finds its way into the atmosphere ends up as sulphurdioxide and sulphur
trioxide which is clearly undesirable.

In addition, the use of a gaseous rather than a liquid fuel permits combustion
in the engine to occur more smoothly and regularly, and also facilitates start-
up on cold days, when gasoline engines tend to stall because of
condensation. The fact that contaminants are normally absent from LPG also
results in cleaner burning, less deposition of carbon and varnish inside the
engine, and consequently substantially improved life of the engine oil. A final

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reason for the change from liquid hydrocarbon fuels to LPG is the low cost of
the latter. In many countries LPG is taxed at a lower rate or not at all,
whereas liquid automotive fuels are universally considered useful sources of
taxation revenue.

11.1.2 Alternative Ways of Using LPG

It has already been mentioned that existing automotive equipment designed
for fuels other than LPG can be converted to operate successfully using the
latter. In addition to conversion, however, there are on the market engines
designed specifically to operate on LPG, particularly smaller engines suitable
for indoor use, where their clean exhaust makes it possible to use an internal
combustion engine without excessive ventilation. Instances which come to
mind are lift trucks for warehouse or ship-hold use, cement mixers, coal and
iron-ore mining equipment and other forms of indoor or underground
transport and mechanical power generation. Similarly, certain agricultural
tractors and other farming machinery have been designed from the start to
operate on LPG.

As far as modification of engines is concerned, this is of considerable

importance where it is intended to continue using the original fuel on certain
occasions; the need for dual fuelling arises particularly where supply points
for LPG are few and far between and where it is therefore desirable to have a
reserve liquid fuel tank and the ability to switch from LPG to gasoline and vice
versa. Methods of converting gasoline engines to partial or complete LPG
use will be discussed later.

The modification of the automotive diesel engine to operate on LPG differs

from that of the gasoline engine; it is not possible to convert completely to
LPG since the latter is not capable of sustaining diesel operation. LPG-air
mixtures do not ignite as diesel fuel-air mixtures will when diesel oil is
injected into hot compressed air, and they will also result in diesel knock if
excessive LPG is used as fuel. It is therefore necessary to startup diesel
engines on gas oil alone, and furthermore, one must not exceed a certain
percentage of LPG in the total hydrocarbon blend. The LPG is introduced not
by injection like diesel fuel, but by aspiration with the combustion air.

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11.2 LPG AS A SPARK IGNITION FUEL
11.2.1 Engine Aspects
The standard spark ignition or Otto cycle engine operates on a four-stroke
cycle consisting of aspiration of the mixture, compression, power stroke and
exhaust stroke. When gasoline is used as a fuel, the explosive mixture is
produced in a carburetor which converts liquid fuel and air into a mist or
vapour mixture which passes through the manifold into the working cylinders
through valves which open and close at appropriate times.

An important point to bear in mind is the need for the air-fuel mixture to ignite
at the exact moment, and this is assured in the spark ignition engine by
passing a high-voltage discharge through the mixture a few degrees before
the end of the compression stroke. It is essential to avoid ignition due to the
heat of compression, since this would not take place at the exact time, and
therefore would not produce optimum power. Liquid spark ignition engine
fuels often have to be doped with so-called anti-knock agents, particularly
tetraethyl or tetramethyl lead, to give them the necessary resistance to
premature ignition.

If LPG is used as an engine fuel in place of gasoline it is no longer possible to

improve knock resistance by the addition of lead compounds. The LPG-air
mixture is completely gaseous, whereas TEL and TML are liquids, and
therefore cannot be carried suspended in the gas stream. Fortunately, most
LPG components have sufficient knock resistance without further doping, and
therefore can be used in most spark ignition engines. However, it will be
noted from Table 11.1 that there are restrictions on maximum safe
compression ratios for LPG-fuelled engines, and that certain LPG
components such as propylene and the butylenes can only be present in
small proportions, particularly in those engines which rate fuels by the motor
method rather than the less severe research octane testing method.

On the other hand, it will be noted that propane, for instance, has a higher
research and motor octane rating than premium gasoline. This means that
engines operating on propane can have a higher compression ratio, and
therefore can operate at a higher efficiency, than corresponding gasoline
engines. It is therefore possible to increase compression ratios on
conversion, either by lowering the cylinder head or by using domed pistons,
and spark ignition engines specially designed to operate on propane should,
of course, have higher compression ratios from the beginning.

Page 3of 10
 Table 11.1 Octane Numbers of LPG Components

Ignition in Otto engines is effected by means of spark plugs, and different

types of plugs are used for engines of different compression ratios, and of
different performance. On conversion from gasoline to LPG it will be found
that a so-called lower heat range or colder plug will improve performance,
and also that increasing the compression ratio will necessitate a somewhat
narrower spark gap. In general, misfiring due to carbon deposition should
occur less frequently and only after much longer operating periods.

Other changes which take place on switching from gasoline to LPG are
greater regularity and smoothness of combustion and also total absence of
oil removal from the cylinder walls. LPG being a clean, sulphur-free fuel does
not tend to corrode valves, piston rings, pistons and cylinders to the extent
that sulphur- and lead-containing gasolines do. Furthermore, being
completely gaseous on entering the cylinder, no dilution of the lubricating oil
due to condensing droplets of liquid fuel can occur. As a result a much longer
lubricant life has been claimed for LPG engines, and oil consumptions
between ⅓ and ½ those of gasoline engines are not uncommon.

There is, however, one problem which occasionally occurs; the presence of
lead in conjunction with the metallurgy of standard exhaust valves seems to
result in a longer exhaust valve life than appears to be obtainable with
completely lead-free fuels. This must be borne in mind when designing
engines for exclusive LPG operation. Even occasional use of leaded fuel in
dual fuel engines provides sufficient protection for the exhaust valves to
guarantee a normal valve life.

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Furthermore, the arrival of low lead or lead-free motor fuels has forced
manufacturers to change valve seat metallurgy, and valve seat recession
with low lead fuels may soon become a problem of the past. A final point to
remember when converting a vehicle from gasoline to LPG is the lower
specific gravity of the latter and the consequent lower mileage per gallon
obtainable from the gaseous fuel. A propane-fuelled car, for example, should,
assume no other changes in the engine, give:

0.575 21,650
= 88 times
0.690 x 20,540

The mileage of its premium gasoline equivalent, the conversion factor being
the product of the specific gravity and specific heat of combustion ratios of
the two fuels. The performance of LPG in spark ignition engines compared
with that of established fuels is illustrated in Table 11.2.

Table 11.2 Gasoline versus LPG Spark Ignition Engines

11.2.2 Air Pollution—Spark Ignition Engines

It seems by now firmly established that the internal combustion engine and
particularly the automotive spark ignition engine is the principal source of air
contaminants in the built-up areas of the Western World and of Japan, with
additional polluted spaces spreading into the cities of Asia, Australia and
Africa. Exhaust gases from motor cars run on gasoline, as distinct from LPG,
contain lead compounds; anti-knock agents such as TEL are the cheapest
means of reconciling the high-compression ratio of a modern engine with
available fuels, and after combustion they find their way with the exhaust
gases into the atmosphere. Furthermore, if a catalytic exhaust purifier is fitted
lead compounds will tend to deactivate the catalyst.

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As a result not only lead but also carbon monoxide and unburned
hydrocarbons will issue with the exhaust gases in concentrations depending
on operating conditions, maintenance standards of the engine, condition of
the purifier and several other factors. As a result of its dependence on these
parameters it is difficult to give a numerical indication of the concentration of
these contaminants for either gasoline or LPG-fuelled engines without very
carefully defining a set of conditions (operating cycle, e.g. the now well-
established California test cycle). It can be stated, however, that in many
tests over the past few years a switch from gasoline to LPG has brought
improvements in carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbon emission. In
fact a reduction by a factor of two for hydrocarbons and a factor of five for
carbon monoxide is not uncommon. But both absolute values and reductions
depend on the previously mentioned parameters.

Table 11.3 Air Pollution Characteristics—Gasoline and LPG Engines

Other impurities present in both gasoline and LPG exhausts are the oxides of
sulphur and nitrogen. The concentration of the former, in line with the lower
sulphur content of LPG, will be lower by a factor of ten for LPG-fuelled
engines. This is less significant since even gasoline engines only very rarely
give rise to complaints on the score of sulphur emission. Nitrogen oxides,
however, have recently become established as the principal culprit in the
formation of optical smog; in combination with unsaturated hydrocarbons and
under the influence of ultraviolet radiation they produce this un-savory
product of modern living. It is, therefore, of considerable importance that tests
have indicated a substantial reduction (up to 55% has been claimed) of
nitrogen oxide emission when converting an engine from gasoline to LPG.
Table 11.3 summarizes the anti-pollution advantages of LPG-fuelled spark
ignition engines.

In the light of these results, a number of urban transport agencies, among

them the Chicago Transit Authority, have already converted their fleet of
buses and trucks to LPG operation.

Page 6of 10
11.2.3 Conversion of Gasoline Engines to LPG [2]
The conversion of a standard gasoline engine to the use of LPG is relatively
simple and cheap. Although it depends to some extent on the size of the
engine and the type of conversion equipment selected, the cost of conversion
inclusive of the special fuel tank required will usually be in the range of U.S.
$200-300. Conversion systems are manufactured in most industrial countries,
and Table 11.4 lists a number of commercial LPG carburetion systems which
are widely used and have proved themselves in many gasoline engines over
an extended period of time.

Table 11.4 LPG Carburetion (Commercial Systems)

The three principal features of any gasoline to LPG conversion are the
storage tank, the LPG regulator/vaporizer and the carburetor. It is proposed
to discuss these individually in somewhat greater detail. Their arrangement
and the connection between the different elements and the engine are shown
in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1 Typical LPG Automotive Installation

Page 7of 10
The Fuel Tank
The tank of an LPG-fuelled vehicle as a rule is a cylindrical pressure vessel,
and is normally carried in the luggage compartment. In vehicles designed
exclusively for LPG operation, it is possible to locate the tank between the
chassis members; however, in the more usual dual fuel vehicle this space is
occupied by the gasoline tank, and part of the luggage compartment has to
be sacrificed to accommodate the extra container. As shown in Figure 11.2,
the LPG tank is normally provided with fittings and valves as follows:

 Liquid outlet service valve

 Vapour return valve
 Vapour outlet service valve
 Fixed outage valve
 Excess pressure relief valve
 Level gauge
 Filler valve

All fittings are grouped in a panel; this facilitates manufacture, the pressure
tank and panel being produced separately and the panel and its protective
cover being welded into position in the final stages of manufacture.

Figure 11.2 LPG Automotive Fuel Tank

1. Liquid outlet service valve; 2. Vapour outlet service valve;

3. Excess pressure relief valve; 4. Filler valve;
5. Vapour return valve; 6. Fixed outage valve;
7. Contents gauge

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Liquid LPG under pressure leaves the fuel tank through the dip tube and
outlet service valve and passes through a supply line into the
vaporizer/regulator. The latter is usually situated in the engine compartment,
since it is heated by circulating hot water from the engine-cooling system.
Safety precautions in transferring both liquid and vaporized LPG are
essential. From the diagram of a complete installation for LPG dual fuel
operation (Figure 11.1) it will be gathered that the LPG fuel system is
protected by a fuel transfer switch which simultaneously opens and shuts
gasoline and LPG shut-off valves, respectively. In addition it is common
practice to interlock manifold vacuum and LPG supply to ensure that no fuel
enters the air-mixing chamber unless the engine is running. A filter protects
the vaporizer from impurities suspended in the fuel.

The Vaporizer
LPG evaporates in the central chamber of the vaporizer/regulator,
immediately after start-up, due to the sensible heat of the vaporizer;
subsequently, when hot radiator water starts circulating through the
vaporizer, the liquid is vaporized by heat exchange with the latter; pressure
regulation in either a single step or more commonly, in two stages down to
about atmospheric pressure, is effected by means of the usual diaphragm-
type gas pressure governors. In the case of two-step reduction, a high-
pressure reduction valve allows the liquid to enter the vaporizing chamber at
10-13 Ib/in2 gauge. After evaporation the vapour is expanded through a low-
pressure reducing valve and enters the low-pressure gas line to the LPG
carburetor.

The Carburetor

The principle of both liquid and gas carburetors is simple. It is a device to mix
fuel and air to produce an inflammable mixture for combustion in the engine.
Problems arise first because power output, and therefore fuel consumption of
an engine, vary over a very wide range, and secondly because optimum air-
fuel ratio at different throttle openings changes quite rapidly. Finally there
must be provision for idling, i.e. a minimum fuel throughput independent of
engine load.

Page 9of 10
 Table 11.5 LPG Carburetion Systems

The problem of a well-balanced air and gaseous fuel intake at all engine
speeds and loads has been solved in a number of ways, and there are
several basically different types of LPG carburetion devices commercially
available. The Table 11.5 lists four of these systems and gives a brief
indication of the principles involved, as well as an instance of a commercial
design.

Clearly in order to obtain optimum performance from a converted gasoline or

dual fuel LPG vehicle it is essential that the carburetor should be carefully
adjusted, both for idling and part-throttle as well as wide-open throttle
operation. Particularly in dual fuel systems, where the LPG carburetor is
usually located in the air intake above the gasoline carburetor, one must
ensure that it does not interfere with normal gasoline operation. In all
instances it is important to provide an ample gas supply capable of sustaining
operation at maximum gas throughput without setting up unduly high
pressure drops in supply pipes, reduction valves and the vaporizer.

A further important consideration in the design of LPG carburetion for

vehicles is safety. A detailed set of standards for the conversion of petrol-
fuelled vehicles to operation on LPG is included in NFPA 58, Code of
Practice for LPG Users, Div. IV, and LP Gas as a Motor Fuel. Separate
sections deal with fuel containers, valves and accessories, piping, vaporizers
and safety devices. [5, 6]

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