EE 316 Electrical Machine 1 Module

Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering
EE-316 ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1
Chapter 1: DC Machinery Fundamentals

Introduction
DC machines are generators that convert mechanical energy to dc electric energy and
motors that convert dc electric energy to mechanical energy. Most dc machines are like ac machines
in that they have ac voltages and currents within them – dc machines have a dc output only because
a mechanism exists that converts the internal ac voltages to dc voltages at their terminals. Since this
mechanism is called a commutator, dc machinery is also known as commutating machinery.
The fundamental principles involved in the operation of dc machines are very simple.
Unfortunately, they are usually somewhat obscured by the complicated construction of real
machines.
Learning Outcome
• Understand the equivalent circuit of a dc generator
• Perform nonlinear analysis of dc generator using the magnetization curve, taking into account
armature reaction effects.
• Explain how to derive the voltage – current characteristics of separately excited, shunt series and
compounded dc generator
Learning Content
It contains readings, selection and discussion questions and sets of activities that students can
work on individually or by group.
Topics for Chapter 1
Topic 1 Commutation and armature construction in real DC machines
Topic 2 Problems with commutation in real machines
Topic 3 Internal generated voltage and induced torque equations of real DC
Machines
Topic 4 Constructions of DC Machines
Topic 5 Power flow and losses in DC machines
Teaching and Learning Activities
A simple Rotating Loop between curved Pole Faces
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The simplest rotating dc machine is shown above. Consists of a single loop of wire rotating
about a fixed axis. The rotating part is called rotor, and the stationary part is the stator. The magnetic
field for the machine is supplied by the magnetic north and south poles. Since the air gap is of uniform
width, the reluctance is the same everywhere under the pole faces. If the rotor is rotated, a voltage will
be induced in the wire loop. To determine the magnitude and shape of the voltage, examine the figure
below:
To determine the total voltage 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 on the loop, examine each segment of the loop separately
and sum all the resulting voltages. The voltage on each segment is given by 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = (𝑣𝑥𝐵). 𝑙
Thus, the total induced voltage on the loop is: 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑣𝐵𝑙
When the loop rotates through 180°, segment ab is under the north pole face instead of
the south pole face. At that time, the direction of the voltage on the segment reverses, but its
magnitude remains constant. The resulting voltage 𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡 is shown below:
There is an alternative way to express the 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 equation, which clearly relates the behaviour of the
single loop to the behaviour of larger, real dc machines. Examine the figure below:
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The tangential velocity v of the edges of the loop can be expressed as 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔. Substituting this
expressing into the 𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 equation before gives:
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑟𝜔𝐵𝑙
The rotor surface is a cylinder, so the area of the rotor surface A is equal to 2πrl. Since there are 2
poles, the area under each pole is 𝐴𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙.Thus,
2
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝐴 𝐵𝜔
𝜋 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
Since the flux density B is constant everywhere in the air gap under the pole faces, the total flux
under each pole is ∅ = 𝐴𝑝 𝐵. Thus, the final form of the voltage equation is:
2
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = ⌀𝜔 under the pole face
𝜋
This is for the simple 2-pole machine.
In general, the voltage in any real machine will depend on the same 3 factors:
1. The flux in the machine

2. The speed of rotation
3. A constant representing the construction of the machine
Getting DC Voltage out of the rotating loop
The voltage out of the loop is alternately a constant positive and a constant negative value. How can
this machine be made to produce a dc voltage instead of the ac voltage? This can be done by using a
mechanism called commutator and brushes, as shown above. Here 2 semicircular conducting segments are
added to the end of the loop, and 2 fixed contacts are set up at an angle such that at the instant when the
voltage in the loop is zero, the contacts short-circuit the two segments.
Thus, every time the voltage of the loop switches direction, the contacts also switch connections, and
the output of the contacts is always built up in the same way. This connection-switching process is known as
commutation. The rotating semicircular segments are called commutator segments, and the fixed contacts
are called brushes.
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The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop

Suppose a battery is now connected to the machine as shown here, together with the
resulting configuration:
How much torque will be produced in the loop when the switch is closed? The approach to take is to
examine one segment of the loop at a time and then sum the effects of all the individual segments.
The force on a segment of the loop is given by: 𝐹 = 𝑖(𝑙𝑥𝐵), and the torque on the segment is 𝑡 =
𝑟𝐹 sin 𝜃.
The resulting total induced torque in the loop for 2 conductors is:
𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 2𝑟𝑖𝑙𝐵 under the pole face
By using the fact that 𝐴𝑝 = 𝜋𝑟𝑙 and ∅ = 𝐴𝑝 𝐵, the torque expression can be reduced to:
2
𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑖𝐵 under the pole face
𝜋
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2
𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑑 = ∅𝑖 under the pole face
𝜋
In general, the torque in any real machine will depend on the same 3 factors:
1. The flux in the machine

2. The current in the machine
3. A constant representing the construction of the machine.
Topic 1 Commutation and armature construction in real DC machines

The commutator can be defined as an electrical rotating switch in a particular type of generators as
well as motors. This is mainly used to overturn the direction of current among the external circuit & rotor. It
comprises a cylinder with numerous metal contact segments lying on the revolving armature of the machine.
The brushes or electrical contacts are made with a carbon press material next to the commutator, designing
sliding contact by consecutive segments of the commutator while it revolves. The armature windings are allied
to the segments of the commutator.
The applications of commutators include DC (direct current) machines like DC generators,
numerous DC motors, as well as universal motors. In a DC motor, the commutator provides electric current
to the windings. By changing the direction of current within the revolving windings every half turn, a torque
(steady revolving force) will be produced.
Commutator Construction and Working

The construction and working of a commutator are, a commutator can be built with a set of contact
bars that are set toward the revolving shaft of a DC machine, and allied to the armature windings. When the
shaft turns, the commutator will reverse the current flow within a winding. For a particular armature winding,
once the shaft has completed the one-half turn, then the winding will be connected so that current supplies
through it in the reverse of the first direction.
In a DC motor, the armature current causes the set magnetic field to

use a rotating force, otherwise a torque over the winding for making it revolve.
In a DC generator, the mechanical torque can be applied in the direction of the
shaft to maintain the armature winding motion via the stationary magnetic field,
stimulating a current within the winding. In these two
cases, Sometimes, the commutators will reverse
the direction of current flow throughout the winding
so that the flow of current within the circuit which is
external to the machine maintains in only one
Commutator
direction.
Commutator
Function of Commutator in DC Machines Construction
The role of the commutator in DC machines is like a reversing switch, and its working in the motor,
as well as a generator, is discussed below.
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Commutator in DC Machines
Commutator in DC Motor
The commutator in case of a DC motor, it reverses the flow of current which is accessible from a DC source at
the exact time while the armatures coil crosses the magnetic unbiased axis. This is essential to keep a uni-
directional torque. Therefore, the commutator will change the direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC).
Commutator in DC Generator
The commutator in case of a DC generator, the induced e.m.f within the armature coil will change in nature.
Consequently, the flow of current in the armature coil will also be changed. This current will be reversed by
the commutator at the exact time while the armatures coil crosses the magnetic unbiased axis. So, the load
which is external to the generator will get a uni-directional current otherwise DC (direct current).
Slip Ring Commutator

A slip ring commutator is an electro-mechanical device, used to allow the power transmission as well
as electrical signals from an immobile to a revolving structure. This can be utilized in any kind of electro-
mechanical system that needs revolution while power transmitting. It can recover mechanical act, make
simpler system operation & get rid of damage-prone wires hanging from variable joints. A slip ring commutator
is a technique of building an electrical connection throughout a rotating assembly. Properly, it is an electric
communication device that permits the flow of energy among two electrical rotating elements in a motor.
Slip Ring Commutator Construction

The slip ring commutator construction is, consists of immobile graphite otherwise brush which is
known as metal contact which wipes on the exterior diameter of a revolving metal ring.
When the metal ring twists, the flow of electric current otherwise signal is performed through the
immobile brush toward the metal ring for making the connection. An extra ring or brush gatherings are stack
along with the revolving axis if more than a single electrical circuit is required.
Both the brushes otherwise the rings are motionless, another component will rotate. This easy design
has been utilized for decades like a basic method of passing current into a rotating device.
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Types of Slip Rings

Slip rings are available in various sizes as well as types. This will allow for infinite turns of the allied
object, while a slack-cable cannot be turned many times before it will not pass. The slip rings are classified
into three types such as Mercury-wetted, Pancake, and Wireless.
The Process of Commutation

The DC generator is fundamentally an AC generator because, internally in the armature conductors,
the current reverses periodically as the wires move to cut the lines of force successively under the north and
south poles. Absolutely nothing can be done to change this action in the modern type of generator. What can
be changed, however is the way in which the current may be made to flow in the external circuit, that is
through the load resistance AB of Fig 1. If the two slip rings in Fig. 1 are replaced with a slip ring like that
shown in Fig. 2, the current will always flow from A to B. The current will change in magnitude but there will
be no reversal of current flow.
Figure 1 Figure 2
Considering Figure 2, in which a two-part commutator (split ring) replaces the two slip rings. Brushes
are located so that they touch two segments exactly on top and bottom. Note particularly that conductor mn
is permanently connected to semiring x and that conductor pq is connected to semiring y; also, that the split
ring rotates with the rotating coil mnpq. Brushes and poles are, of course, stationary. Observe that when the
soil is in horizontal plane, the split ring is in the position with the split along the horizontal axis; when the coil
is in a vertical plane, the split ring has been rotated so that the split is along a vertical plane. These
adjustments are extremely important if this mechanism, a rectifier of alternating current, is to function properly.
When conductor mn is moving downward (clockwise rotation and cutting flux under a north pole,
semiring x will be negative; at the same time, conductor pq will be moving upward and cutting flux under a
south pole, thus making semiring y positive. The upper brush will therefore be positive, while the lower brush
will be negative; the current through the load will be from A to B. During the next half of the revolution,
conductor mn will change places with conductor pq under the poles and this exchange will cause the
generated voltages in the two conductors to reverse their direction. But when this happens, semiring y will be
located on the bottom. Thus, as the emfs in the conductors mn and pq reverse direction, the semirings, to
which they are connected, automatically change places under the stationary brushes. It follows, therefore,
that the polarity of the brushes do not change. Hence, the current through the load resistance will always be
from A to B. It is true, of course, that the magnitude of the current will change as the conductors mn and pq
occupy different positions under the poles, but there will be no reversal of current through the load.
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The mechanism described in the preceding paragraphs is called a commutator – a simple two-part
commutator – and the process performed by it in rectifying the alternating current (that is, changing the
internal alternating current to an external circuit direct current) is called the commutation process.
In modern DC generators – DC generators only in the sense that the current in the external circuit is
unidirectional – there are usually many coils wire in the armature winding and, more often than not, four or
more poles. (Two poles are used only when the machine is small). In such cases, the ring divided into many
segments and there will usually be as many brushes as there are poles. The brushes are always
interconnected so that one set of alternate brushes is joined together to form the positive terminal, while the
other set of alternate ones is joined together to form the negative terminal.
It is interesting to note that the rectified current supplied by each coil is multipolar machine pulsates
as many times per revolution as there are number of poles. Thus, for a two-pole generator there will be two
pulsations per revolution for each coil; for a four-pole generator, for pulsations per revolution; for a six-pole
generator, six pulsations per revolution. Figure 3 depicts graphically the pulsations of the current in the load
circuit supplied by a single – turn armature coil when there are two, four and six poles.
When several coils are joined together properly so that their combined effect acts additively, the result
is not only increased voltage, but also voltage pulsations that are not so violent; in other words, the voltage
wave becomes smoother as the number of coils are increased. Figure 4 shows the effect upon the resultant
voltage wave with two coils in series and also three coils in series. Obviously, when there are a great many
armature coils, the external voltage wave between brushes approaches a smooth unvarying line that
approximates the pure DC voltage supplied by the battery. Strictly speaking, however, a DC generator does
not deliver a pure direct current, as does a storage battery, for example, but approaches such as a current
very closely as the number of coils and commutator – type machine causes interference with the reception of
a radio set, unless proper corrective measures.
Figure 3
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Figure 4
The Armature
The first armature was used by the magnet keepers in the 19th century. The related equipment parts
are expressed in terms of an electrical as well as mechanical. Though definitely separate these two sets of
terms are regularly used similarly which includes one electrical term as well as one mechanical term. This
may be the reason for confusion whenever working with complex machines such as brushless alternators. In
most of the generators, part of the rotor is the field magnet that will be active that means rotates, whereas
part of the stator is armature that will be inactive. Both the generators as well as motors can be designed with
an inactive armature & an active (rotating) field otherwise an active armature as the inactive field. The shaft
piece of a stable magnet otherwise electromagnet, as well as the moving iron piece of a solenoid, particularly
if the latter performs as a switch or else relay, can be referred to as armatures. This article discusses an
overview of the armature and its working with applications.
What is an Armature?
An armature can be defined as a power generating component in an electric machine where the
armature can be a rotating part otherwise a stationary part in the machine. The interaction of the armature
with the magnetic flux can be done in the gap of air, the field element can include any stable magnets
otherwise, electromagnets which are shaped with a conducting coil like another armature which is known as
a doubly-fed electric machine. the armature always works like a conductor, sloping normal toward both the
field as well as toward the motion direction, torque otherwise force. The armature diagram is shown below.
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Armature
The main role of an armature is multi purposed. The primary role is to transmit current across the
field, therefore generating shaft torque within an active machine otherwise strength in a linear machine. The
second role of an armature is to produce an EMF (electromotive force). In this, an EMF can occur with the
armature’s relative motion as well as the field. As the machine is employed as a motor, then the EMF will
oppose the current of an armature and converts the electric power into mechanical which is in the form of
torque, and finally transmits through the shaft.
Whenever the machine is utilized like a generator, then the armature electromotive force drives the
current of an armature, as well as the movement of the shaft will be changed to electrical power. In the
generator, the power which is produced will be drawn from the stator. A growler is mainly used to ensure the
armature intended for opens, grounds, as well as shorts.
Armature Components
An armature can be designed with the number of components namely the core, the winding, the
commutator, & the shaft.
Armature Parts
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The Core
The armature core can be designed with many thin metal plates which are named as laminations.
The thickness of laminations are approximate 0.5mm and it depends on the frequency by which the armature
will be designed to work. The metal plates are stamped-out on a push.
They are in the circular form by a hole stamped-out of the core, while the shaft is pressed, as well as
the slots which are stamped in the region of the edge wherever the coils will finally sit. Metal plates are
associated together to generate the core. The core can be built with stacked metal plates instead of using a
steel piece to produce the sum of lost energy while heat in the core.
The loss of energies is known as iron losses which are occurred by eddy currents. These are minute
turning magnetic fields forms in the metal because of the revolving magnetic fields which can be found
whenever the unit is running. If the metal plates use the eddy currents then they can form in one plane as
well as significantly reduces the losses.
The Winding
Before the process of winding starts then the core slots will be protected from the copper wire within
the slots approaching into contact by the laminated core. Coils are placed into the armature slots as well as
attached to the commutator in revolving. This can be done in many ways based on the armature design.
Armatures are classified into two types namely lap wound armature as well as wave wound armature.
In a lap wound, the final end of one coil is attached toward the segment of a commutator as well as the
primary end of the nearby coil. In a wave wound, the coils two ends will be associated with the segments of
the commutator which are divided by some distance among the poles.
This permits the sequence adding of the voltages within the windings among brushes. this kind of
winding needs only one couple of brushes. In the first armature, the number of lanes equals the number of
poles as well as brushes. In some of the armature designs, they will have two or more different coils in a
similar slot, attached to nearby commutator segments. This can be done if the required voltage across the
coil will be considered to be high.
By distributing the voltage over three separate segments as well as coils will be in the same slot, the
strength of the field in the slot will be high, however, it will decrease arcing over the commutator, as well as
make the device more competent. In several armatures the slots are also twisted, this can be attained with
every lamination being somewhat out of line up. This can be done to decrease cogging, as well as provide a
level revolution from one to another pole.
The Commutator
The commutator is pushed on top of the shaft as well as it is held on by a coarse knurl similar to the
core. the designing of commutator can be done using copper bars, and an insulating material will separate
the bars. Normally, this material is a thermoset plastic however in older armatures sheet mica has been used.
The commutator has to be accurately associated by the core slots whenever pushed on top of the
shaft because the wires from every coil will appear from the slots as well as attach with the commutator bars.
To work the magnetic circuit efficiently, it is essential that the armature coil has a precise angular
displacement from the commutator bar toward which it is attached.
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The Shaft
The shaft of an armature is one kind of hard rod mounted among two bearings that describe the axis
of components placed onto it. It should be broad sufficient to send out the torque necessary with the engine
& rigid adequate to control some of the forces which are out of balance. For harmonic distortion, the length,
speed, and bearing points are selected. An armature can be designed with a number of major
components namely the core, the winding, the shaft, and the commutator.
Armature Function or Armature Working
The armature rotation can be caused by the communication of two magnetic fields. One magnetic
field can be generated by the field winding, whereas the second can be produced with the armature while
voltage is applied toward the brushes to get in touch with the commutator. Whenever the current supplies
through the winding of an armature, then it creates a magnetic field. This is out of line by the field created
with the field coil.
This will cause the power of attraction toward a single pole as well as revulsion from the other. When the
commutator is connected to the shaft then it will also move with a similar degree as well as activates the pole.
The armature will continue to chase the pole to spin.
If the voltage is not given to the brushes, then the field will get excited as well as the armature will be
driven mechanically the voltage which is applied is AC because it approaches, and flows away from the pole.
However, the commutator being associated with the shaft and frequently activates the polarity because it
revolves, like that the real output can observe across the brushes in DC.
Armature Winding and Armature Reaction

The armature winding is the winding where the voltage can be induced. Similarly, the field winding is
the winding where the main field flux can be generated whenever the current flows through the winding. The
armature winding has some of the basic terms namely turn, coil and winding.
Armature reaction is the result of the armature flux on top of main field flux. Generally, the DC
motor includes two windings such as Armature winding as well as field winding. Whenever we stimulate the
field winding, then it generates a flux which connects by the armature, and this will cause an emf & therefore
a flow of current in the armature.
Applications of Armature
The applications of an armature include the following.
• The armature is used in an electric machine for generating power.

• The armature can be used as rotor otherwise stator.
• This is used to monitor the current for the applications of DC motor.
Thus, this is all about an overview of an armature which includes what is an armature, components,
working, and applications. From the above information finally, we can conclude that an armature is an
essential component used in an electric machine for generating power. It can be on either the rotating part
otherwise stationary part of the machine.
DC Windings
a. Lap Winding
b. Wave Winding
These two types of windings differ in two ways
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i. Number of circuits between positive and negative brushes

ii. The manner in which the coil ends are connected.
However, the coils of both lap and wave windings are identically formed.
Types and shapes of winding wires
1. Round wires: it has thin and thick conductors are used in semi-closed slot type motors and mush
windings rotors. It is wounded in reels and available in kilograms.
2. Rectangular straps: it is used in open type slot motors. These conductors are available as long straps
in meters. They are used in the following places:
a. Low voltage motor windings
b. Used as conductor in high current motor
c. Series field motor windings coils.
Winding Pitches
Back Pitch: The distance between top and bottom coil sides of a coil measures around the back of the
armature is called back pith and is designated as 𝑌𝑏 . Back pitch is approximately equal to number of coil
sides per layer. Generally back pitch is an odd integer.
Front Pitch: The distance between two coil sides connected to the same commutator segment is called the
front pitch and is designated as 𝑌𝑓 .
Winding pitch: The distance between the starts of two consecutive coils measured in terms of coil sides is
called winding pitch and is designated as Y.
For lap winding 𝑌 = 𝑌𝑏 − 𝑌𝑓
For wave winding 𝑌 = 𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑓
Commutator pitch: The distance between the two commutator segments to which the two ends of a coil are
connected is called commutator pitch and is designated as 𝑌𝑐 and is measured in terms of commutator
segments
Simplex Lap Winding
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Lap winding: The winding in which successive coils overlap each other hence it is called lap winding. In their
winding end of one coil is connected to the commutator segment and start of the adjacent coil situated under
the same pole as shown in the figure above.
m multiplicity factor
1, for simplex winding
2, for duplex winding … etc
Important rules for lap winding
Let Z Number of conductors
P number of poles
𝑌𝑏 Back pitch
𝑌𝑓 Front pitch
𝑌𝑐 Commutator pitch
𝑌𝑎 Average pole pitch
𝑌𝑝 Pole pitch
𝑌𝑅 resultant pitch
1. 𝑌𝑏 and 𝑌𝑓 must be approximately equal to 𝑌𝑝
2. 𝑌𝑏 must be less or greater than 𝑌𝑓 by 2m where m is the multiplicity of the winding. When 𝑌𝑏 is
greater than 𝑌𝑓 the winding progresses from left to right and is known as progressive winding. When
𝑌𝑏 is lesser than 𝑌𝑓 the winding progresses from right to left and is known as retrogressive winding.
Hence 𝑌𝑏 = 𝑌𝑓 ± 2𝑚.
3. 𝑌𝑏 and 𝑌𝑓 must be odd
4. 𝑌𝑏 and 𝑌𝑓 may be equal or differ by ±2.
+(sign) for progressive winding
Winding expands from left to right
-(sign) for retrogressive winding
Winding expands from right to left
𝑌𝑏 +𝑌𝑓
5. 𝑌𝑎 = = 𝑌𝑝
2
6. 𝑌𝑅 is always even
7. 𝑌𝑐 = 𝑚
8. Number of parallel paths 𝑎 = 𝑚𝑝, number of brushes
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Simplex Wave Winding

Advantages of Lap Winding
The advantages of lap windings include:
• This winding is necessarily required for large current applications because it has more parallel
paths.
• It is suitable for low voltage and high current generators.
Disadvantages of Lap Winding
The disadvantages of lap windings include:
• It gives less emf compared to wave winding. This winding requires more no. of conductors for
giving the same emf, which results in high winding cost.
• It has less efficient utilization of space in the armature slots.
Wave winding: The end of one coil is not connected to the beginning of the same coil but is connected to
the beginning of another coil of the same polarity as that of the first coil.
Important rules for wave winding
1. 𝑌𝑏 and 𝑌𝑓 must be approximately equal to 𝑌𝑝
2. 𝑌𝑏 and 𝑌𝑓 must be odd
3. 𝑌𝑏 and 𝑌𝑓 may be equal or differ by ±2.
𝑌𝑏 +𝑌𝑓
4. 𝑌𝑐 = and should be a whole number
2
Dummy coils: The wave winding is possible with particular number of conductors and poles and slots
combinations. Sometimes the standard stampings do not consist of the number of slots according to the
design requirements and hence the slots and conductor combination will not produce a mechanically
balanced winding. Under such conditions some coils are placed in the slots, not connected to the remaining
part of the winding but only for mechanical balance. Such windings are called dummy coils.
Simplex Wave Winding Advantages
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The advantages of simplex wave windings include:

• In this winding, only two brushes are required but more parallel brushes can be added to make it
equal to the no. of poles. If one or more brushes set poor contacts with the commutator, satisfactory
operation is still possible.
• This winding gives sparkles commutation. The reason behind that it has two parallel paths
irrespective of the number of poles of the machine. The conductors in each of the two parallel paths
distributed around the armature in the entire circumference.
• No. of conductors in each path = Z/2, Z is the total no. of conductors.
• Generated emf = average emf induced in each path X Z/2
• For a given number of poles and armature conductors, it gives more emf than that of lap winding.
Hence wave winding is used in high voltage and low current machines. This winding is suitable for
small generators circuit with a voltage rating of 500-600V.
• Current flowing through each conductor.
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ(𝐼𝑎 )
=
2
𝐼𝑎 is the armature current. The current per path for this kind of winding must not be exceeded 250A.
• The resultant emf around the entire circuit is zero.
Simplex Wave Winding Disadvantages
The disadvantages of simplex wave windings include:
• Wave winding cannot be used in machines having higher current rating because it has only two
parallel paths.
Sample Problems
1. The difference between the back pitch and the front pitch is 2. The front pitch is 21. If the winding is
lap retrogressive, what is the back pitch?
Note: Since the difference between the back pitch and the front pitches is 2, the winding is simplex
(m = 1)
𝑌𝑏 = 𝑌𝑓 − 2𝑚 for retrogressive lap
𝑌𝑏 = 21 − 2(1)
𝑌𝑏 = 19
2. A duplex lap wound, four pole DC generator has 120 slots and four elements per slot. How many
commutator segments are there?
4 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑍= 𝑥 120 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 480 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡
𝑍 480
𝑁𝑐 = = = 240 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
2 2
3. A 4-pole wave wound armature has 744 armature conductors in 62 slot. If the commutator has 186
segments, determine
a. The coil span
b. The number of conductors per coil
16 | Page
a.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 62
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 = = = 15.5
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 4
Coil Span = 15
Note: Coil span is rounded off to the nearest whole number.
b.
Number of coils = Nc
Number of coils = 186 coils
2 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 "𝑛"𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑍 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑥 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Substitute:
744 = 186(2)n
N=2
Therefore, there are two conductors per coil.
4. Draw a winding diagram of a DC machine with 4 poles, 14 slots, progressive, double layer lap
winding. Show the position of brushes and direction of induces emf.
Solution:
Number of poles 4
Number of slots 14
Number of conductors 14x2=28
Pole pitch = number of conductors/poles = 28/4=7
𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑓
𝑌𝑝 =
2
Hence, 𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑓 = 14
𝑌𝑏 − 𝑌𝑓 = 2
Therefore, 𝑌𝑏 = 8 and 𝑌𝑓 = 6
2𝑐
In back pitch 𝑌𝑏 = ±𝑘
𝑝
For lap winding both 𝑌𝑏 and 𝑌𝑓 must be odd and differ by 2
Satisfying the above condition 𝑌𝑏 = 7 and 𝑌𝑓 = 5
Winding Table:
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At the back 𝑌𝑏 = 7 At the back 𝑌𝑓 = 5 At the back 𝑌𝑏 = 7 At the back 𝑌𝑓 = 5

coil connected coil connected coil connected coil connected
side to coil side side to coil side side to coil side side to coil side
1+7=8 8 – 5= 3 17+7=24 24 – 5= 19
3+7=10 10 – 5= 5 19+7=26 26 – 5= 21
5+7=12 12 – 5= 7 21+7=28 28 – 5= 23
7+7=14 14 – 5= 9 23+7=30(2) 30 – 5= 25
9+7=16 16 – 5= 11 25+7=32(4) 32 – 5 = 27
11+7=18 18 – 5= 13 27+7=34(6) 34 – 5= 29(1)
13+7=20 20 – 5= 15
15+7=22 22 – 5= 17
Winding Diagram
5. Develop the single layer winding for a DC machine having 32 armature conductors and 4 poles. Mark
the poles. Draw the sequence diagram, indicate the position of the brushes and the direction of
induced emf and show the equalizer connections.
Solution:
Number of conductors 32
Pole pitch 32/4=8
𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑓
𝑌𝑝 =
2
Hence, 𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑓 = 16
𝑌𝑏 − 𝑌𝑓 = 2
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Hence, 𝑌𝑏 = 9 and 𝑌𝑓 = 7
Winding Table
At the back 𝑌𝑏 = 9 At the back 𝑌𝑓 = 7 At the back 𝑌𝑏 = 9 At the back 𝑌𝑓 = 7
coil connected coil connected coil connected coil connected
side to coil side side to coil side side to coil side side to coil side
1+9=10 10 – 7= 3 17+9=26 26 – 7= 19
3+9=12 12 – 7= 5 19+9=28 28 – 7= 21
5+9=14 14 – 7= 7 21+9=30 30 – 7= 23
7+9=16 16 – 7= 9 23+9=32 32 – 7 = 25
9+9=18 18 – 7= 11 25+9=34(2) 34 – 7= 27
11+9=20 20 – 7= 13 27+9=36(4) 36 – 7= 29
13+9=22 22 – 7= 15 29+9=38(6) 38 – 7= 31
15+9=24 24 – 7= 17 31+9=40(8) 40 – 7= 33(1)
Sample Problems
6. The difference between the back pitch and the front pitch is 2. The front pitch is 21. If the winding is
lap retrogressive, what is the back pitch?
Note: Since the difference between the back pitch and the front pitches is 2, the winding is simplex
(m = 1)
𝑌𝑏 = 𝑌𝑓 − 2𝑚 for retrogressive lap
𝑌𝑏 = 21 − 2(1)
𝑌𝑏 = 19
7. A duplex lap wound, four pole DC generator has 120 slots and four elements per slot. How many
commutator segments are there?
4 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑍= 𝑥 120 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 = 480 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡
𝑍 480
𝑁𝑐 = = = 240 𝑠𝑒𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
2 2
8. A 4-pole wave wound armature has 744 armature conductors in 62 slot. If the commutator has 186
segments, determine
a. The coil span
b. The number of conductors per coil
a.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 62
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 = = = 15.5
𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 4
Coil Span = 15
Note: Coil span is rounded off to the nearest whole number.
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b.
Number of coils = Nc
Number of coils = 186 coils
2 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 "𝑛"𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠
𝑍 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑥 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
Substitute:
744 = 186(2)n
N=2
Therefore, there are two conductors per coil.
Self-Assessment Questions
1. In your own words, briefly explain commutation.
2. What is armature and its components?
3. A four – pole, DC generator with lap winding has 48 slots and 4 elements per slot. How many coils
does it have?
4. If the armature of an eight – pole machine was wound with a simplex wave winding, how many parallel
coils does it have?
5. Draw a developed diagram of a simple 2 – layer lap – winding for a 4 – pole generator with 16 coils.
Hence, point out the characteristics of a lap – winding.
Topic 2 Problems with commutation in real machines
There are 2 main issues that disturb the commutation process. We will discuss these two with details and
solutions of these problems.
• Armature reaction
• L di/dt voltages
If we connect input supply at the stator of dc machine and also rotates the rotor of a machine with the
exterior prime mover, during rotation rotor will link with the flux of stator field that will induce a voltage in the
rotor.
The voltage will be AC and covert into dc by the commutator attached to the rotor. Now if we connect some
load with the rotor of a machine it will use some amount of current that will pass through the armature or rotor
windings.
Due to this current, there will be another magnetic field will produce that will affect the field of the stator.
This disturbance of the armature field to the original field of stator is known as armature reaction.
There are two main issues occurs due to this armature reaction.
• Neutral-Plane Shift
• Flux Weakening
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Neutral plane shift

The first issue caused by the armature reaction is a neutral plane shift, in dc machine a position where
the rotation direction of the rotor is parallel to field lines this position is known as a magnetic neutral plane.
In this plane voltage production in armature windings is zero. For an understanding of the neutral plane
shift problem, we discuss the given below the figure, which has 2 pole dc machines.
You can see that flux is uniform over the complete

machine. The voltage induced in the winding under
the North Pole is out of page and voltage to induce in
rotor windings under the South Pole has direction
into a page.
You can see that in an above-given figure the
direction of the neutral plane is at ninety degrees. It
is when there is no load is linked with the machine.
Let’s assume that we have connected a load with
this machine it behaves like a generator. Current will
flow in outward direction form positive output
terminal, thus current direction is out of the page for windings under the effect of north poles and into a page
for windings effect of south poles.
Due to this current, there will be field produce in the windings of the rotor it is shown in this given figure.
This field of a rotor will interact with the field

generated by the stator of the generator. At
some points, these two fields will add up with
each other and some points will cancel each
other.
The final effect of these two fields is shown in
this given figure.
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You can see that the point where the voltage produce is 0, where the neutral plane shift has occurred. As
we are working on dc generator you can observe that the neutral plane shift is in the direction in which the
generator is rotating. But if it is the dc motor then the neutral plane shift will be opposite to the direction of
rotation.
In simple words, the plane shift for a generator is in direction of rotation and for a motor is in the opposite
direction of rotation. The plane shift relies on the quantity of current drawn from the rotor and load connected.
So what’s the big deal about the neutral-plane shift?

The commutator necessity short-circuited commutator segments at the instant when the voltage crosswise
them is 0. If the brushes are fixed to short-out conductors in the perpendicular plane, then the voltage among
segments is certainly 0 till the load is attached.
When a load is attached, the neutral plane shifts and the brushes short-circuited commutator segments
with a specific value of voltage crossways them. The consequence is a current now flowing among the short
out segments and huge sparks at the brushes when the current is disturbed as the brush left a segment. The
final outcome is arcing and sparking at the brushes.
It is a thoughtful problematic, as it leads to severely decreases brush Life, pitting of the commutator
segments, and highly enhance repairing charges. Note that this issue cannot be removed even by insertion
the brushes over the full-load neutral plane since sparking will occur at no-load condition.
Flux weakening Armature Reaction
The issue caused by the armature reaction is the weakening of flux. For an understanding of this
issue, we discuss this given below figure.
22 | Page
Mostly machine work at flux near the saturation point. So, at the point where the mmf of rotor adds up with
the MMF of poles at stator, there is less increment in total flux. But at a point where mmf rotor subtracted from
the mmf poles then larger decrement occurs in flux value. The final outcome is that the net value of flux over
a complete pole will be lessened. You can see this in a given figure.
The weakening of flux is not good for both motor and generator. In generators, the output voltage of the
generator decreases. But in the case of the motor, this factor causes serious problems. With the decrement
of a flux rotation speed of motor also decreases.
Speed increment also enhances the load connected with the motor that causes a lessening of flux. It is
likely in some shunt dc motors to approaches a running state as a consequence of flux decrement
(weakening), where the speed of the motor increasing till the machine is detached with input supply or until its
damage.
L di/dt Voltages
The second issue that occurs during commutation is L di/dt that occurs on the commutator is also known
as an inductive kick.
23 | Page
To an understanding of this issue lets discuss this given figure. You can see commutator segments are
attached with one another in a sequence and winding conductor is linked with them.
Let’s suppose that current passing through the carbon brush is four hundred amperes, the current through
every path is two hundred amperes. Note that when the commutator is short-circuited, the current passing
through the commutator will be reversed.
Here the question arises.
How fast must this reverse occur?

Let’s suppose that the machine is rotating at the eight hundred revolutions per minute and have fifty
commutators segments every commutator segment rotates under a brush and change its position in (t = 0.00
15 seconds).
di/dt = 400A/0.0015s= 266,667 A/s
With a small value of inductance, a very high value of Ldi/dt will be produced at the short-circuited
commutator segments. This higher voltage obviously sources flashing at the brushes of the machine,
resultant in the similar arcing problems that the neutral-plane shift causes.
Activity 2
1. Write an essay discussing the problem with commutation in real DC machines and its solutions.
Topic 3 Internal generated voltage and induced torque equations of real DC Machines
DC Machines types
1. DC Generator
2. DC Motor
There are three (3) main factors over which dc machines

voltages depend on.
• Flux ø of the machine.
• A rotation speed of the machine.
24 | Page
• Third, is constant over which construction of dc machine rely.
The value of voltage at the armature winding of DC machine is no of a winding conductor in a single
current path with the multiple of voltage in every conductor.
The voltage induced in a single conductor under effect of pole is given as.
𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 B magnetic field

v velocity of the wire
l length of the wire
The value of voltage at the armature of a machine is given as
𝑍𝐵𝑣𝑙
𝐸𝐴 = --- (1) ; Z no. of conductors
𝑎
a current path
The rotation speed of every conductor is given as
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 r radius
ω angular velocity
So, equation 1 becomes
𝑍𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑙
𝐸𝐴 =
𝑎
This equation can be written in more comprehensive way as we know flux of poles is equal to the
product flux density and area of poles.
Φ = BAp
The area of rotor is like the cylinder
A = 2пrl
If there are poles on the machine, then the potion of the area associated with each pole is the total
area A divided by the number of poles P.
If the no. of poles in a machine is P so the area cover by all poles will be equal to the
𝐴 2пrl
𝐴𝑝 = =
𝑃 𝑃
So, total flux in a machine will be.
2пrl
Φ = B𝐴𝑝 = 𝐵( )
𝑃
2пrl
Φ = 𝐵( )
𝑃
So internal generated voltage in DC machine will become
𝑍𝐵𝑟𝜔𝑙
𝐸𝐴 =
𝑎
25 | Page
𝑍𝑃 2пrBl
𝐸𝐴 = ( )𝜔
2п𝑎 𝑃
𝑍𝑃
𝐸𝐴 = (𝜙𝜔)
2п𝑎
𝑍𝑃
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾 (𝜙𝜔) at 𝐾 =
2п𝑎
In industries, the rotation speed of machines is measured in (rpm) instead of radians per second.
So we have
2п
𝜔= (𝑁)
60
So induced voltage equation in terms of rpm can be written as
𝑍𝑃 2п
𝐸𝐴 = (𝜙)( (𝑁))
2п𝑎 60
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁
𝐸𝐴 =
60𝑎
Generated EMF equation of a DC Generator
Electric Generator – a machine that converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical energy (or
power). The energy conversion is based on the principle of Faraday`s first law of Electromagnetic Induction,
which states that whenever a conductor cuts magnetic lines of flux, an emf is developed in the conductor.
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁
𝐸𝑔 =
60𝑎
Where,
E generated emf (volt)
P number of poles
N speed of armature core rotation (rpm)
Z total number of elements or conductors
Φ flux per pole (weber)
a number of armature current paths
If flux is given in unit maxwells or lines,

𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑥 10−8
60𝑎
After the machine has been assembled, “PZ and a” are constant.
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝜙1
=
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝜙2
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐾𝜙𝑁
Where
k proportionality constant
subscript 1 for condition 1
26 | Page
Sample Problems
1. A 4 pole DC generator with duplex lap winding has 48 slots and four elements per slot. The flux per
pole is 2.5 x 106 maxwells and it runs at 1500 rpm. What is the output voltage?
Given
Number of poles 4
a=mP= 2(4)=8
4 elements per slot
Flux=2.5 x 106 maxwells
N = 1500 rpm
E?
Z= elements/ slot x slots

Z= 4(48) = 192
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁
𝐸= 𝑥 10−8
60𝑎
4(1500)(4 𝑥 48)(2.5 x 106 )

𝐸= 𝑥 10−8
60(2)(4)
E = 60V
2. A 4 – pole DC generator with simplex wave winding has 72 slots. The flux per pole is 2.88 x
106 maxwells. What is the speed of the prime mover when the open circuit voltage of the generator
is 120V?
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁
𝐸= 𝑥 10−8
60𝑎
4(𝑁)(2𝑥72)(2.88 x 106 )
120 = 𝑥 10−8
60(2)(1)
N = 868 rpm
3. A DC generator is driven at a speed of 1000 rpm and generates 120V.Determine the generated
emf if the speed is reduced to 900 rpm while the flux is increased by 25%
𝐸1 𝑁1 𝜙1
=
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝜙2
Substitute 𝑁2 = 900 and 𝜙2 = 1.25𝜙1
120 1000𝜙1
=
𝐸2 900(1.25𝜙1 )
𝐸2 = 135 𝑉
Torques in DC machines
27 | Page
The induced torque in dc machines depends on three main factors that are listed here.
• Flux ø in a machine.
• Armature current (IA) in the machine.
• The third is constant that depends on structure of machine.
The torque induced on armature windings is equal to the product of no of a conductor in armature winding
and torque in every conductor. The value of torque on every conductor of armature winding is given as.
T = Force x radius
𝑇 = 𝑟(𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 )𝑙𝐵
Where
r radius
𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 Conductor current
B flux density
28 | Page
If the no. of current paths in a machine is “a” so the current 𝐼𝑎 will divide into each current paths.
So current in a conductor of armature winding is given as
𝐼𝑎
𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 =
𝑎
The torque in a single conductor will be given as
𝑟𝐼𝑎 𝐿𝐵
𝑇=
𝑎
The flux of each pole of machine is given as
2п𝑟𝐿
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴𝑃 = 𝐵( )
𝑃
𝐵2п𝑟𝐿
𝜙=
𝑃
So total induced torque can be written as
𝑟𝐼𝑎 𝐿𝐵
𝑇=
𝑎
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝐼𝑎
𝑇=
2п𝑎
The electric motor
Electric Motor – a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
DC electric motor works on the principle that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor causing it to move.
29 | Page
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝑎
Where
E back emf or counter emf (volt)
P number of poles
N speed of armature core rotation (rpm)
Z total number of elements or conductors
Φ flux per pole (weber)
Speed Characteristics of a DC motor

𝐸𝑏 (60)(𝑎)
𝑁=
𝑍𝑃𝜙
After the machine has been assembled, “PZ and a” are constant
𝐸𝑏 𝑁1 𝐸𝑏1 𝜙1
𝑁=𝑘 =
𝜙 𝑁2 𝐸𝑏2 𝜙2
Where
k proportionality constant
Torque developed in the armature
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝐼𝑎
𝑇=
2п𝑎
Where
T torque developed (Newton – meter)

𝐼𝑎 armature current (ampere)
N speed of armature rotation (rpm)
P number of poles
Z number of conductors
𝜙 flux per pole (weber)
After the machine has been assembled, “PZ and a” are constant
𝑇1 𝐼𝑎1 𝜙1
𝑇 = 𝑘𝐼𝑎 𝜙 =
𝑇2 𝐼𝑎2 𝜙2
Power developed in the armature
𝑃𝑑 = 𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎
Where
𝑃𝑑 power developed in the armature (watt)
𝐸𝑏 back emf or counter emf (volt)
𝐼𝑎 armature current (ampere)
30 | Page
Mechanical Power Output in the Shaft

2п𝑁𝑇
𝐻𝑃 = , N = rpm; T= lb-ft
33,000
2п𝑁𝑇
𝐻𝑃 = , N = rpm; T= N-m
44760
Where
HP mechanical power output in the shaft (horsepower)
N Speed of shaft rotation (rpm)
T Torque developed
Sample Problem
1. A simplex lap wound armature has 600 conductors and carries a current of 50 amperes per
armature current path. If the flux per pole is 30mWb, determine the electromagnetic torque
developed by the armature?
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑃𝜙𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝜙𝐼𝑎

𝑇= = =
2п𝑎 2п(𝑚𝑃) 2п𝑚
600(30 𝑥 10−3 )(50)

𝑇= = 143.24 𝑁 − 𝑚
2п(1)
2. The armature of a 4 – pole lap wound dc motor has 850 conductors and draws an armature current
of 70A when the speed is 500rpm. If the flux per pole is 60mWb, determine the horsepower
developed in the armature.
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑍𝜙𝑁

𝐸𝑏 = = =
60𝑎 60(𝑚𝑃) 60𝑚
500(850)(60 𝑥 10−3 )
𝐸𝑏 = = 425𝑉
60(1)
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 425(70)
𝑃𝑑 = = = 39.88 ℎ𝑝
746 746
3. If the power transmitted by the shaft of a motor is 20 hp and the torque exerted at the pulley is 220
N-m, what is the speed?
2п𝑁𝑇
𝐻𝑃 =
44760
44760 (𝐻𝑃) 20(44760)

𝑁= = = 647.6 𝑟𝑝𝑚
2п𝑇 2п(220)
Activity 3
31 | Page
1. The armature of a four-pole shunt generator is lap wound and generates 216 volts when running at
600 rpm. The armature has 144 slots with six conductors per slot. If the armature is rewound, wave
connected, find the emf generated at the same speed and flux per pole.
2. A two pole DC generator has an armature containing a total of 48 conductors connected in two
parallel paths. The flux per pole is 6.48 x 108 lines and the speed of the prime mover is 30 rpm.
The resistance of each conductor is 0.01 ohm and the current carrying capacity of each conductor
is 10A. calculate the terminal voltage of the generator.
3. A 4-pole generator, having wave – wound armature winding has 51 slots, each slot containing 20
conductors. What will be the voltage generated in the machine when driven at 1500 rpm assuming
the flux per pole to be 7mWb.
4. A DC motor takes an armature current of 110A at 480V. The armature circuit resistance is 0.2 ohm.
The machine has 6 poles and the armature is lap – connected with 864 conductors. The flux per
pole is 0.05Wb. Calculate the speed and the gross torque developed by the armature.
5. If the power transmitted by the shaft of a motor is 10 hp and the torque exerted at the pulley is 70 lb
– ft, what is the speed?
Topic 4 Construction of DC Machines

The DC machine can be classified into two types namely DC motors as well as DC generators. Most
of the DC machines are equivalent to AC machines because they include AC currents as well as AC voltages
in them. The output of the DC machine is DC output because they convert AC voltage to DC voltage. The
conversion of this mechanism is known as the commutator; thus, these machines are also named as
commutating machines. DC machine is most frequently used for a motor. The main benefits of this machine
include torque regulation as well as easy speed. The applications of the DC machine are limited to trains,
mills, and mines. As examples, underground subway cars, as well as trolleys, may utilize DC motors. In the
past, automobiles were designed with DC dynamos for charging their batteries.
DC Machine
A DC machine is an electromechanical energy alteration device. The working principle of a
DC machine is when electric current flows through a coil within a magnetic field, and then the magnetic force
generates a torque which rotates the dc motor. The DC machines are classified into two types such as DC
generator as well as DC motor. The main function of the DC generator is to convert mechanical power to DC
electrical power, whereas a DC motor converts DC power to mechanical power. The AC motor is frequently
used in the industrial applications for altering electrical energy to mechanical energy. However, a DC motor
is applicable where the good speed regulation & ample range of speeds are necessary like in electric-
transaction systems.
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DC Machine
Construction of DC Machine
The construction of DC machine can be done using some of the essential parts like Yoke, Pole core
& pole shoes, Pole coil & field coil, Armature core, Armature winding otherwise conductor, commutator,
brushes & bearings. Some of the parts of the DC machine is discussed below.
Construction of DC Machine
Yoke
Another name of a yoke is the frame. The main function of the yoke in the machine is to offer mechanical
support intended for poles and protects the entire machine from the moisture, dust, etc. The materials used
in the yoke are designed with cast iron, cast steel otherwise rolled steel.
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Pole and Pole Core

The pole of the DC machine is an electromagnet and the field winding is winding among pole. Whenever field
winding is energized then the pole gives magnetic flux. The materials used for this are cast steel, cast iron
otherwise pole core. It can be built with the annealed steel laminations for reducing the power drop because
of the eddy currents.
Pole Shoe
Pole shoe in DC machine is an extensive part as well as enlarge the region of the pole. Because of this
region, flux can be spread out within the air-gap as well as extra flux can be passed through the air space
toward armature. The materials used to build pole shoe is cast iron otherwise cast steed, and also used
annealed steel lamination to reduce the loss of power because of eddy currents.
Field Windings
In this, the windings are wounded in the region of pole core & named as field coil. Whenever current is
supplied through field winding then it electromagnetics the poles which generate required flux. The material
used for field windings is copper.
Armature Core
Armature core includes the huge number of slots within its edge. Armature conductor is located in these slots.
It provides the low-reluctance path toward the flux generated with field winding. The materials used in this
core are permeability low-reluctance materials like iron otherwise cast. The lamination is used to decrease
the loss because of the eddy current.
Armature Winding
The armature winding can be formed by interconnecting the armature conductor. Whenever an armature
winding is turned with the help of prime mover then the voltage, as well as magnetic flux, gets induced within
it. This winding is allied to an exterior circuit. The materials used for this winding are conducting material like
copper.
Commutator
The main function of the commutator in the DC machine is to collect the current from the armature conductor
as well as supplies the current to the load using brushes. And also provides uni-directional torque for DC-
motor. The commutator can be built with a huge number of segments in the edge form of hard drawn copper.
The Segments in the commutator are protected from thin mica layer.
Brushes
Brushes in the DC machine gather the current from commutator and supplies it to exterior load. Brushes wear
with time to inspect frequently. The materials used in brushes are graphite otherwise carbon which is in
rectangular form.
Types of DC Machines
The excitation of the DC machine is classified into two types namely separate excitation, as well as self-
excitation. In separate excitation type of dc machine, the field coils are activated with a separate DC source.
In self-excitation type of dc machine, the flow of current throughout the field-winding is supplied with the
machine. The principal kinds of DC machine are classified into four types which include the following.
• Separately excited DC machine

• Shunt wound/shunt machine.
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• Series wound/series machine.

• Compound wound / compound machine.
Separately Excited DC Machine

In Separately Excited DC Machine, a separate DC source is utilized for activating the field coils.
Shunt Wound DC Machine

In Shunt wound DC Machines, the field coils are allied in parallel through the armature. As the shunt field
gets the complete o/p voltage of a generator otherwise a motor supply voltage, it is normally made of a huge
number of twists of fine wire with a small field current carrying.
Series Wound DC Machine

In series wound D.C. Machines, the field coils are allied in series through the armature. As series field winding
gets the armature current, as well as the armature current is huge, due to this the series field winding includes
few twists of wire of big cross-sectional region.
Compound Wound DC Machine

A compound machine includes both the series as well as shunt fields. The two windings are carried-out with
every machine pole. The series winding of the machine includes few twists of a huge cross-sectional region,
as well as the shunt windings, include several fine wire twists.
The connection of the compound machine can be done in two ways. If the shunt-field is allied in parallel by
the armature only, then the machine can be named as the ‘short shunt compound machine’ & if the shunt-
field is allied in parallel by both the armature as well as series field, then the machine is named as the ‘long
shunt compound machine’.
Activity 4
1. What is a DC Machine?
2. Give at least 5 examples of a DC machine.
3. Draw the diagram of a DC machine, label each part then explain.
4. What is the most important part of the DC machine?
5. Describe how each differs from other types of machines.
Topic 5 Power flow and losses in DC machines

The efficiency of any dc machine either dc motor or generator is given as.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
ղ= 𝑥 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
If we define the losses that we will find that it is the difference between input and output power of dc
machines.
In the mathematical expression, it can be defined as.
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𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
ղ= 𝑥 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
There are (five) 5 main types of losses that occur in dc machines either its motor or generator.
• Copper Losses or I2R Losses
• Brush Losses
• Core Losses
• Mechanical Losses
• Stray Losses
Now we discuss all these losses one by one with the detailed.
Copper Losses
As you can understand from the name of these losses that are copper losses mean that losses occur at
the windings of machines. There are 2 types of windings first one is field winding that exists at the stator and
the second one is armature windings that exit at the rotor, at these two windings coppers losses occurs. The
value of these losses for armature and copper windings can be given as.
Armature winding losses = PA =IA2RA

Field winding losses = PF= IF2RF
Where
PA armature losses.
PF field windings losses.
IA is current passing through the armature winding.
IF is current passing through the stator windings.
RA is armature resistance.
RF is field windings resistance.
Brush Losses
These losses occur at the carbon brushes that are connected with the output terminals
and commutators of machines. The mathematical expression for these brushes is given as.
PBD=VBDIA
Where
PBD loss at the carbon brushes.
VBD voltage losses at the brushes.
IA armature current.
The purpose that the brush losses are found in this way is that the voltage drop at the brushes remains
same at the different values of currents.
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Core Losses in DC Machines

There are two types of copper losses in dc machines: the first one is eddy current losses and the
second one is hysteresis losses.
Eddy Current losses

Faraday law states that the rate of change of flux in any conductor produces a voltage in that
conductor.
EMF =dø/dt
If this law applies on dc machine, it can be understood that when the rotor of the machine rotates in the
field, then voltage induces current which starts to flow through the armature winding. This current was known
as eddy current.
The mathematical expression for these currents is given as.
2
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓 2𝑡 2𝑉
Where
Pe power losses due to eddy currents.
Ke constant for these currents.
B flux density.
f frequency.
t thickness of the materials used.
V volume of the core of machines
Hysteresis loss
The cause of these losses is the energy required to magnetize and demagnetize the core of the
machine.
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With the increment in current for magnetization of core, the value of flux also increases. But when we
decrease the current that was used for magnetization, the value of corresponding flux will not decrease with
the current. When the value of the current becomes zero, then there is some value of flux that exits in the
core. To minimize the flux in the core, external force is applied causes hysteresis losses. The opposite polarity
of field is provided to the core minimizes the ramming flux in the machine. The negative magnetization
depends on the material used for the construction of core.
The mathematical expression for these losses is given as.
ℎ
𝑃ℎ = ղ𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑓𝑉
Where
Pb denotes the hysteresis losses
h Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient. Its value is from 1.5 to 2.5l
Bmax flux density.
f frequency.
V volume of material used for core construction.
Mechanical Losses
These losses occur in dc machines due to the mechanical effects that occur in dc machines. These are 2
main facts that cause to mechanical losses first one is friction and second is windage
Friction losses occur due to the bearings that exit the shaft of machines. The windage losses occur due
to the air among the rotatory portion and their casing.
These losses changes with the cube of speed of revolution of the machine.
DC Machines Power-Flow Diagram
One of the simple methods to find the values of different losses in dc machines is to draw their power flow
diagram.
In the given figure, you can see the power diagram of dc generator.
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In this figure the mechanical power is input and after eliminating stray losses, mechanical losses (friction
and windage losses), core losses than we have an electrical output that is given here.
1. Mechanical Efficiency
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎

ղ𝑚 = =
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒
2. Electrical efficiency
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝐼

ղ𝑒 = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎
3. Overall or Commercial efficiency
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

ղ𝑐 =
𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
It is obvious that overall efficiency ղ𝑐 = ղ𝑚 𝑥 ղ𝑒 . For good generators, its value may be as high as 95%.
But this is not the power that gets at the output terminals. Before reaching the output terminal copper
losses and brush losses also subtract from it.
In the given figure the dc motor power flow diagram is given. It is the reverse of dc generator power flow
figure.
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Sample Problems
1. The hysteresis and eddy current losses of a DC machine running at 1000 rpm are 250 watts and
100 watts, respectively. If the flux remains constant, at what speed will the total iron loss be halved?
𝑃ℎ = 𝑘ℎ 𝑁
𝑃ℎ2 𝑁2 𝑁
= 𝑃ℎ2 = 𝑃ℎ1 ( 2 )
𝑃ℎ1 𝑁1 𝑁1
𝑁2
𝑃ℎ2 = 250 ( ) = 0.25𝑁2 ------ 1
1000
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑘𝑒 𝑁 2
𝑃𝑒2 𝑁 2 𝑁 2
= ( 2) 𝑃𝑒2 = 𝑃𝑒1 ( 2 )
𝑃𝑒1 𝑁1 𝑁1
𝑁2 2
𝑃𝑒2 = 100 ( ) = 0.0001𝑁22 ------ 2
1000
1
𝑃ℎ2 + 𝑃𝑒2 = (𝑃ℎ1 + 𝑃𝑒1 ) ------ 3
2
Substitute Eq. 1 and Eq. 2 in Eq.3:

0.25𝑁2 + 0.0001𝑁22 = 0.5 (250 + 100)
𝑁22 + 2500𝑁2 − 1750000 = 0
Using quadratic formula:
−2500 ± √25002 − 4(1)(−1750000)

𝑁2 =
2(1)
−2500 ± 3640
𝑁2 =
2
Positive
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−2500 + 3640
𝑁2 = = 570 𝑟𝑝𝑚
2
2. A 10kW, 250V, 6 pole DC shunt generator runs at 1000 rpm when delivering full load. The armature
has 534 lap connected conductors. Full load Cu loss id 0.64 kW the total brush drop is 1 volt.
Determine the flux per pole. Neglect shunt current.
Since shunt current is negligible, there is no shunt Cu loss. The copper loss in armature only.
10 𝑘𝑊
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑎 = = 40𝐴
250𝑉
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 = 402 𝑥 0.4 = 0.64 𝑥 103 𝑊
𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 0.4 𝑥 40 = 16𝑉
Brush drop = 2 x 1 = 2V
Generated emf 𝐸𝑔 = 250 + 16 + 1 = 267𝑉
𝜙𝑍𝑁𝑃 𝜙𝑥534𝑥1000𝑥6
Now, 𝐸𝑔 = = 267 =
60𝑎 60(6)
𝜙 = 30𝑚𝑊𝑏
3. A 220V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.2 ohm and field resistance of 110 ohm. The
motor draws 5A at 1500 rpm at no load. Calculate the speed and shaft torque if the motor draws
52A at rated voltage.
220𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = 2𝐴
110 Ω
𝐼1 = 5 − 2 = 3𝐴
𝐼2 = 52 − 2 = 50𝐴
𝐸𝑏1 = 220 − 3(0.2) = 219.4𝑉
𝐸𝑏2 = 220 − 50(0.2) = 210𝑉
𝑁2 210
=
1500 219.4
𝑁2 = 1436 𝑟𝑝𝑚
For finding the shaft torque, we will find the motor output when it draws a current of 52A. First, we will
use the no – load data for finding the constant losses of the motor.
No load motor input = 220 x 5 = 1000W; 𝑃𝑎 = 32 (0.2) = 2𝑊
Constant or standing losses of the motor = 1100 – 2 =1098W
When loaded, 𝑃𝑎 = 502 (0.2) = 500𝑊
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Hence, total motor losses = 1098 +500 = 1598W

Motor input on load = 220 x 52 = 11440W; output = 11440 – 1598 = 9842W
9.55 𝑥 𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑢𝑡 9.55 𝑥 9842
𝑇𝑠ℎ = = = 65.5 𝑁 − 𝑚
𝑁 1436
Activity 5
1. The hysteresis and eddy current losses of a DC Machine running at 1000 rpm are 250 watts and 100
watts, respectively. If the flux remains constant, at what speed will the total iron loss be halved?
2. The eddy current loss in a DC machine is 600 watts when the total flux is 2, 000, 000 maxwells per
pole and the machine is running at 1000 rpm. Determine the loss when the excitation of the machine
is adjusted to produce 2, 500, 000 maxwells per pole and the speed is increased to 1200 rpm.
3. In a DC generator, the iron losses at 1000 rpm are 10 kW at a given field current. At a speed of 750
rpm and at the same field current, the total iron losses become 6 kW. Assume the hysteresis loss is
directly proportional to the speed and the eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the speed.
Determine the iron losses at 500 rpm.
4. The shaft power of a motor is 7.8 hp. It draws 50A from 120V. The field winding draws 1.2 A. What
is the efficiency of the motor?
References
This contains the list of references/readings which students can explore.
Rojas, R. 2001. 1001 Solved Problems in electrical Engineering, Published by Jaime R. Tiong
Siskind, C. 1966. Electrical Machines Direct & Alternating Current, McGraw – Hill Book Company, Inc.
Theraja, B.L. 2005. A Textbook of Electrical Technology in S.I. Units Volume II AC&DC Machines, S.
Chand & Company LTD
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Chapter 2: DC Motor
Introduction
A DC motor (direct current motor) has a lot of applications in today’s field of engineering and
technology. From electric shavers to automobiles – DC motors are everywhere. To cater to this wide
range of applications – different types of DC motors are used depending on the application.
The types of DC motor include:
• Permanent Magnet DC Motor (PMDC Motor)
• Separately Excited DC Motor
• Self-Excited DC Motor
• Shunt Wound DC Motor
• Series Wound DC Motor
• Compound Wound DC Motor
• Short shunt DC Motor
• Long shunt DC Motor
• Differential Compound DC Motor
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Starters are used to protect DC motors from damage that can be caused by very high current and
torque during startup. They do this by providing external resistance to the motor, which is connected in series
to the motor’s armature winding and restricts the current to an acceptable level.
Harry Ward introduced Ward Leonard Control System Method in 1891 for controlling the DC motor speed.
This method is a basic armature control method. There are two different types of voltage control methods
they are multiple voltage control method and ward Leonard control system methods or armature voltage
control. This article discusses the way of achieving the speed control by adjusting the voltage using the Ward
Leonard Control System method.
Learning Outcome
• Know the types of dc motors in general use
• Understand the equivalent circuit of a dc motor
• Discuss how to derive the torque-speed characteristics of separately excited, shunt, series and
compounded dc motors
• Understand how to control the speed of different types of dc motors
• Explain the special characteristics of series dc motors and the applications that they are especially
suited for.
• Give the methods of starting dc motors safely.
Learning Content
It contains readings selection and discussion questions and sets of activities that students can
Topic 1 Equivalent circuit of a DC motor
Topic 2 Magnetization curve of a DC machine
Topic 3 Separately excited and shunt DC motors
Topic 4 Permanent magnet DC motors
Topic 5 Series motor
Topic 6 Compounded DC motor
Topic 7 DC motor starters
Topic 8 Ward – Leonard system and solid – state speed controllers
Topic 9 DC motor efficiency calculations
Topic 1 Equivalent circuit of a DC motor
A Motor is a machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. There is no difference
between a DC motor and DC generator from a construction point of view. The only difference is that the
generators are usually operated in more protected locations and, therefore, their construction is generally of
the open type.
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On the other hand, motors are generally used in locations where they are exposed to dust, moisture,
fumes and mechanical damage. Thus, the motor requires protective enclosures.
For example – Motor requires drip-proof, fire-proof, etc. enclosure according to the requirement. The
DC motors are very useful where a wide range of speeds and good speed regulation is required, such as in
the electric traction system.
The construction of DC Motor is similar to DC Generator discussed in the next chapter. There are
various types of DC Motors. They are Shunt motor, Series motor and Compound motor.
The EMF equation of DC Motor is given by the equation shown below:
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁
𝐸𝑏 =
60𝑎
Where,
Eb induced emf of the motor
N speed
P number of poles
ϕ flux per pole.
Z total number of conductors
a number of parallel paths
Equivalent Circuit of a DC Motor Armature
The armature of a DC Motor can be represented by an equivalent circuit. It can be represented by three
series-connected elements E, Ra and Vb. The element E is the back emf, Ra is the armature resistance
and Vb is the brush contact voltage drop.
The equivalent circuit of the armature of a DC motor is shown below:
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In a DC motor, the current flows from the line into the armature against the generated voltage. By applying
KVL,
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 (1)
Where,
V – Motor terminal voltage
Eb – Back EMF
Ia – Armature current
Ra – Armature circuit resistance
The equation (1) written above is called the fundamental motor equation. It is seen that the Back EMF of the
motor is always less than its terminal voltage V. The equation can also be written as shown below:
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑉𝑏 (2)
The equation (2) is considered or applicable when the voltage drop Vb in the brushes is also taken into
account.
Sample problem
1. The armature of a 4-pole lap wound DC motor has 850 conductors and draws an armature current
of 70A when the speed is 500 rpm. If the flux per pole is 60mWb, determine the horse power
developed in the armature.
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑍𝜙𝑁

𝐸𝑏 = = =
60𝑎 60(𝑚𝑃) 60𝑚
500(850)(60𝑚𝑊𝑏)
𝐸𝑏 = = 425𝑉
60(1)
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 425(70)
𝑃𝑑 = = = 39.88 ℎ𝑝
746 746
2. A 6 – pole lap wound shunt motor takes 300A when the speed is 500rpm. The flux per pole is 0.06
Wb and the armature has 870 turns. Neglecting the shunt field current, calculate the brake horse
power of the motor. Assume a constant loss of 4%.
𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑍𝜙𝑁 500(870)(0.06)
𝐸𝑏 = = = = = 435𝑉
60𝑎 60(𝑚𝑃) 60𝑚 60(1)
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 435(300)
𝑃𝑑 = = = 175 ℎ𝑝
746 746
𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 = (0.96)(175)
𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 168 ℎ𝑝
Note: 𝑃𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

46 | Page
Topic 2 Magnetization curve of a DC machine

The internal generated voltage in the motor
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐾𝜙𝑁
From the equation, 𝐸𝑏 is directly proportional to the flux (𝜙) in the motor and the speed of the motor
(N). The field current (𝐼𝑓 ) in DC machines produces a field magnetomotive force (mmf). The magnetomotive
force (mmf) produces a flux (𝜙) in the motor in accordance with its magnetization.
The Magnetization curve of a

ferromagnetic material (𝜙 vs F)
𝐼𝑓 > mmf > flux
Since the field current (𝐼𝑓 ) is directly proportional to magnetomotive force mmf and 𝐸𝑏 is directly proportional
to the flux, the magnetization curve is presented as plot 𝐸𝑏 versus field current for a given speed.
Note: To get the maximum possible power, the motors and generators are designed to operate near the
saturation point on the magnetization curve (at the knee of the curve).
The induced torque developed by the motor is given as

𝑇 = 𝑘𝜙𝐼𝑎
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Sample Problem
1. A 200V series motor has a field resistance of 0.2 ohm and an armature resistance of 0.1 ohm. The
motor takes 30A of current at 900 rpm while developing full load torque. What is the motor speed
when this motor develops 70% of full load torque?
Note: In a series motor, since the flux is proportional to the armature current, therefore the torque is
directly proportional to the square of the armature current.
𝑇1 𝐼𝑎1
= ( )²
𝑇2 𝐼𝑎2
𝑇1 0.7𝑇1
𝐼𝑎2 = 𝐼𝑎1 √ = 30√ = 25.1𝐴
𝑇2 𝑇2
𝐸𝑏1 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝑎1 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 ) = 200 − 30(0.1 + 0.2)
𝐸𝑏1 = 191𝑉
𝐸𝑏2 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝑎2 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 ) = 200 − 25.1(0.1 + 0.2)
𝐸𝑏1 = 192.47𝑉
Thus, 𝐸 = 𝑘𝑁𝐼𝑎
𝐸𝑏1 𝑁1 𝐼𝑎1
=
𝐸𝑏2 𝑁2 𝐼𝑎2
𝐸𝑏2 𝑁1 𝐼𝑎1 192.47(900)(30)

𝑁2 = = = 1084𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐸𝑏1 𝐼𝑎2 (191)(25.1)
48 | Page
Topic 3 Separately excited and shunt DC motors
A separately excited DC motor is a motor whose field circuit is supplied from a separate constant –
voltage power supply, while a shunt DC motor is a motor whose field circuit gets its power directly across the
armature terminals of the motor. When the supply voltage to a motor is assumed constant, there is no practical
difference in behavior between these two machines.
When the load increases, the output torque required to drive the load will increase. Hence, the motor
speed will slow down. Consequently, the internal generated voltage drops (𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘𝜙𝑁 ↓), increasing the
𝑉𝑠 −𝐸𝐴 ↓
armature current in motor 𝐼𝐴 = . As armature current increases, the developed torque increases
𝑅𝐴
(𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝑘𝜙𝐼𝐴 ↑) and finally the developed torque will be equal the load torque at a lower mechanical speed
of rotation N.
Mechanical Load ↑ → N↓, 𝐼𝐴 ↑, 𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑣 ↑
Torque vs armature current
Generally, the developed torque is directly proportional to armature current (𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝑘𝜙𝐼𝐴 ) and
the relationship is in the form of a straight line, assuming the field flux ϕ to be constant as the supply
voltage is constant.
Since, heavy starting load needs high starting current, shunt motor should never be started on a
heavy load.
Speed vs armature current
𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘𝜙𝑁 ≫ 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑘𝜙𝑁 + 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 ≫ 𝑁 =
𝑘𝜙
As flux 𝜙 is assumed constant, the speed decreases with armature current increase. But
practically, due to armature reaction, 𝜙 decreases with increase in armature current and hence the speed
decrease slightly. Hence, a shunt motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor.
Torque vs Speed
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As flux Φ is assumed constant, the speed decreases with developed torque increase. But practically,
due to armature reaction, Φ decreases with increase in armature current, and hence the speed decrease
slightly. Thus, at heavy loads, the motor speed is almost constant.
Speed control of Separately excited and Shunt DC Motors
𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝑁=
𝑘𝜙
1. Adjusting the supply voltage applied to the armature without changing the voltage applied to the field.
Hence, the flux is kept constant. This can be applied to separately excited motors only. Hence, at a
certain load, since the flux is fixed, increasing the armature voltage, increases the motor speed
𝑉
2. Adjusting the field resistance 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑠 (and thus the field flux). This can be applied to separately
𝑅𝐹
excited and shunt motors Hence, for a constant supply voltage, at a certain load, increasing the flux
decreases the motor speed.
3. Inserting a resistor in series with the armature circuit. This can be applied to separately excited and
shunt motors Hence, for a constant supply voltage and fixed flux, at a certain load, increasing 𝑅𝐴
decreases the motor speed.
Separately excited DC motors are often used as actuators in trains and automotive traction
applications.
For their constant speed characteristics, shunt DC motors are used in fixed speed applications
such as fans.
Sample Problem
1. A 25 hp separately excited motor is operating at a speed of 250 rpm. It is supplied from a 120V supply
and draws 5.6A. The total armature circuit resistance is 0.473 ohms. Find the torque constant for the
machine.
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 = 120𝑉 − 5.6𝐴(0.473Ω) = 117.35𝑉
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐸𝐴 𝐼𝐴 = 117.35𝑉(5.6𝐴) = 657.17𝑊
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑇𝜔
2п
Convert rpm to rad/sec 𝜔= (250𝑟𝑝𝑚) = 26.167𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
60
𝑃𝑒 657.17𝑊
Find the torque 𝑇= = = 25.1𝑁 − 𝑚
𝜔 26.167 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2. A separately excited motor runs at 1045rpm, with a constant field current, while taking an armature
current of 50A at 120V. The armature resistance is 0.1 Ω if the load on the motor changes such that
it now takes 95A at 120V, determine the motor speed at this load.
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘𝜙𝑁
𝐸1 𝜙1 𝑁1
= the field current is constant and the core is assumed unsaturated
𝐸2 𝜙2 𝑁2
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𝜙1 = 𝜙2
𝐸1 𝑁1
=
𝐸2 𝑁2
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴
𝐸1 = 120 − 50(0.1) = 115𝑉
𝐸2 = 120 − 95(0.1) = 110.5𝑉
115 1045
=
110.5 𝑁2
𝑁2 = 1004.1 𝑟𝑝𝑚
3. A 20hp, 250V shunt motor with Ra=0.22 Ω, Rf=170 Ω. At no-load and rated voltage, the speed is
1200 rpm and the armature current is 3 A. At full-load and rated voltage, the line current is 55A. What
is the full-load speed?
At No – load
𝑉𝑠 250
𝐼𝑓 𝐹𝐿 = = = 1.47𝐴 , 𝑁𝐹𝐿 = ? ?
𝑅𝑓 170
𝑁𝑁𝐿 = 1200𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝐸𝑁𝐿 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 = 250 − 3(0.22) = 249.34𝑉
At Full – load
𝑉𝑠 250
𝐼𝑓 𝐹𝐿 = = = 1.47𝐴 , 𝑁𝐹𝐿 = ? ?
𝑅𝑓 170
𝐸𝐹𝐿 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝐼𝐴 𝑅𝐴 = 250 − 55(0.22) = 238.22𝑉

𝐸𝑁𝐿 𝐼𝑓 𝑁𝐿 𝑁𝑁𝐿
=
𝐸𝐹𝐿 𝐼𝑓 𝐹𝐿 𝑁𝐹𝐿
249.34 1200
=
238.22 𝑁𝐹𝐿
𝑁𝐹𝐿 = 1146.5 𝑟𝑝𝑚
Self – Assessment Questions
1. A 230V shunt motor delivers 30hp at the shaft at 1800rpm. If the motor has an efficiency of 85% at
this load, determine:
a) The total input power.
b) The line current.
2. Given the following specifications of a separately excited DC motor: voltage = 250 V, field voltage =
250 V, armature resistance = 0.03 Ω, field resistance = 250 Ω. Initially the motor was running at
speed = 1103 rpm while supplied by the rated terminal voltage and the armature current = 120 A.
While supplying constant torque, what is the speed of the motor if the terminal voltage is reduced to
200 V?
51 | Page
3. A 20 hp, 250 V DC shunt motor drives a load that requires a constant torque regardless the speed
of operation. The armature resistance is 0.1 Ω. When this motor is running at full load, the armature
current is 65 A at a speed of 1100 rpm. If the flux is reduced to 75% of its original value, find the
armature current and the speed of the motor at this new condition?
4. The speed of 500 v shunt motor is to be raised from 700 rpm to 1000 rpm by field weakening the
total torque remaining unchanged, the armature and the shunt field resistance are 0.8Ω ,750 Ω
respectively and the supply current at lower speed is 12 A, calculate the additional shunt field
resistance required.
5. A 500V, 10 HP, shunt motor has full load efficiency of 85% .for the same torque it is desired to reduce
its speed by 30% by insertion of resistance in the armature circuit assuming that all the losses except
copper losses vary directly with speed, calculate the value of the inserted resistance and the
efficiency of the motor when running at the reduced speed, the resistance of the field and armature
are 400 Ω and 0.25 Ω
Topic 4 Permanent magnet DC motor
A DC Motor whose poles are made of Permanent Magnets is known as Permanent Magnet
DC (PMDC) Motor. The magnets are radially magnetized and are mounted on the inner periphery of the
cylindrical steel stator. The stator of the motor serves as a return path for the magnetic flux. The rotor has a
DC armature, with commutator segments and brushes.
The cross-sectional view of the 2 pole PMDC motor is shown in the figure below.
The Permanent Magnet DC motor generally operates on 6 V, 12 V- or 24-Volts DC supply obtained

from the batteries or rectifiers. The interaction between the axial current carrying rotor conductors and the
magnetic flux produced by the permanent magnet results in the generation of the torque. The circuit diagram
of the PMDC is shown below.
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𝑉 − 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 0
In conventional DC motor, the generated or back EMF is given by the equation shown below.
𝑍𝑃𝑜𝑁
𝐸=
60𝑎
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘𝜙𝑁 --------- 1
The electromagnetic torque is given as
𝑍𝑃𝑜𝐼𝑎
𝐸=
2𝑝𝑖 𝑎
𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝑘𝜙𝐼𝐴 --------- 2

In Permanent Magnet DC motor, the value of flux ϕ is constant. Therefore, the above equation (1)
and (2) becomes
𝑘1 = 𝑘(𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥)
𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘1 𝑁 --------- 3
𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝑘1 𝐼𝐴 --------- 4
Considering the above circuit diagram, the following equations are expressed.
𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 --------- 5
Putting the value of E from the equation (3) in equation (5) we get
𝑉 = 𝑘1 𝑁 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 or
𝑉− 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝑁=
𝑘1
Where 𝑘1 = 𝑘𝜙 and is known as speed – voltage constant or torque constant. Its value depends upon the
number of field poles and armature conductors.
The speed control of the PMDC motor cannot be controlled by using flux control method as the flux
remains constant in this type of motor. Both speed and torque can be controlled by armature voltage control,
armature rheostat control, and chopper control methods. These motors are used where the motor speed
below the base speed is required as they cannot be operated above the base speed.
Types of Permanent Magnet Materials

There are three types of Permanent Magnet Materials used in PMDC Motor. The detailed information is given
below.
Alnicos
Alnicos has a low coercive magnetizing intensity and high residual flux density. Hence, it is used where low
current and high voltage is required.
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Ferrites
They are used in cost sensitive applications such as Air conditioners, compressors, and refrigerators.
Rare earths
Rare earth magnets are made of Samarium cobalt, neodymium-iron-boron. They have a high residual flux
and high coercive magnetizing intensity. The rare earth magnets are exempted from demagnetizing problems
due to armature reaction. It is an expensive material.
The Neodymium iron boron is cheaper as compared to Samarium cobalt. But it can withstand higher
temperature. Rare earth magnets are used for size-sensitive applications. They are used in automobiles,
servo industrial drives and in large industrial motors.
Applications of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor
The PMDC motors are used in various applications ranging from fractions to several horsepower. They are
developed up to about 200 kW for use in various industries. The following applications are given below.
• PMDC motors are mainly used in automobiles to operate windshield wipers and washers, to raise the lower
windows, to drive blowers for heaters and air conditioners etc.
• They are also used in computer drives.
• These types of motors are also used in toy industries.
• PMDC motors are used in electric toothbrushes, portable vacuum cleaners, food mixers.
• Used in a portable electric tool such as drilling machines, hedge trimmers etc.
Advantages of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor

Following are the advantages of the PMDC Motor.
• They are smaller in size.

• For smaller rating Permanent Magnet reduces the manufacturing cost and thus PMDC motor are cheaper.
• As these motors do not require field windings, they do not have field circuit copper losses. This increases
their efficiency.
Disadvantages of the Permanent Magnet DC Motor

The disadvantages of the PMDC motor are given below.
• Permanent magnets cannot produce a high flux density as that as an externally supplied shunt field does.
Therefore, a PMDC motor has a lower induced torque per ampere turns of armature current then a shunt
motor of the same rating.
• There is a risk of demagnetization of the poles which may be caused by large armature currents.
Demagnetization can also occur due to excessive heating and also when the motor is overloaded for a long
period of time.
• The magnetic field of PMDC motor is present at all time, even when the motor is not being used.
• Extra ampere turns cannot be added to reduce the armature reaction.
Topic 5 Series motor

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In DC series motor, the flux is directly proportional to the armature current. As the motor load
increases, the armature current increases hence the flux increases.
Torque vs armature current

𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝑘𝜙𝐼𝐴 ≫ 𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑣 = 𝑘𝑐𝐼𝐴 ²
The developed torque is directly proportional to the square of the armature current.
Speed vs armature current
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘𝑐𝐼𝐴 𝑁 ≫ 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑘𝑐𝐼𝐴 𝑁 + 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 ) ≫
𝑉𝑠 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 )
𝑁= −
𝑘𝑐𝐼𝐴 𝑘𝑐
Hence, for series motor, the speed is inversely proportional to the armature current. When armature
current is very small the speed becomes dangerously high. That is why a series motor should never be started
without some mechanical load.
Speed Control of Series Motors
𝑉𝑠 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 )
𝑁= −
𝑘𝑐𝐼𝐴 𝑘𝑐
1. Adjusting the supply voltage applied
At a certain load, increasing the supply voltage, increases the motor speed.
2. Inserting a series resistor into the motor circuit
At a certain load and certain supply voltage, increasing the circuit resistance, decreases the
motor speed.
Since the series motors can give high torque per ampere (since their toque is directly
proportional to the square of armature current), they can be used in applications that require high
starting torque. Examples of these applications include; starter motors in cars, and elevator motors.
Sample Problem
55 | Page
1. A 220 V d.c series motor has armature and field resistances of 0.15 Ω and 0.10 Ω respectively. It
takes a current of 30 A from the supply while running at 1000 rpm. If an external resistance of 1 Ω
is inserted in series with the motor, calculate the new steady state armature current and the speed.
Assume the load torque remains constant.
Since the load torque remains constant in both cases, we have:

𝑇1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇𝐿
2
𝑜𝑟, 𝑘𝑡 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑘𝑡 𝐼𝑎2 ²
𝑜𝑟, 302 = 𝐼𝑎2 ²
𝐼𝑎2 = 30A
Now equations involving back emfs
𝐸𝑏1 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎1 (𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝑅𝑎 )
𝑘𝐼𝑎1 𝑁1 = 220 − 30(0.1 + 0.15)
𝑘(30)(1000) = 212.5𝑉
In the second case:
𝐸𝑏2 = 𝑉 − 𝐼𝑎2 (𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 )
𝑘𝐼𝑎2 𝑁2 = 220 − 30(0.1 + 0.15 + 1)
𝑘(30)(𝑁2 ) = 182.5𝑉
Thus, taking the ratio of 𝐸𝑏2 and 𝐸𝑏1 we get:
𝑘(30)(𝑁2 ) 182.5
=
𝑘(30)(1000) 212.5
𝑁2 = 859 𝑟𝑝𝑚
2. A 220 V d.c series motor has armature and field resistances of 0.15 Ω and 0.10 Ω respectively. It
takes a current of 30 A from the supply while running at 1000 rpm. If an external resistance of 1 Ω
is inserted in series with the motor, calculate the new steady state armature current and the speed.
Assume the load torque is proportional to the square of the speed i.e., 𝑇𝐿 ∝ n².
This problem is same as the first one except for the fact load torque is not constant but proportional to
the square of the speed. Thus;
56 | Page
𝑇2 𝑇𝐿2
=
𝑇1 𝑇𝐿1
𝑇2 𝑁2 ²
=
𝑇1 𝑁1 ²
𝐼𝑎2 ² 𝑁2 ²
=
𝐼𝑎1 ² 𝑁1 ²
𝐼𝑎2 ² 𝑁2 ²
=
30² 1000²
or, 𝑁22 = 1.11(𝐼𝑎2
2
)
𝑁2 = 1.05(𝐼𝑎2 )
Ratio of back emfs give

𝐸𝑏2 220 − 𝐼𝑎2 (1.25)
=
𝐸𝑏1 212.5
𝑘𝐼𝑎2 𝑁2 220 − 𝐼𝑎2 (1.25)
=
𝑘𝐼𝑎1 𝑁1 212.5
𝑘𝐼𝑎2 𝑁2 220 − 𝐼𝑎2 (1.25)
=
𝑘(30)𝑁1 212.5
𝐼𝑎2 (1.05𝑥𝐼𝑎2 ) 220 − 𝐼𝑎2 (1.25)
=
𝑘(30)(1000) 212.5
1.05(𝐼𝑎2 )2 = 141.18(220 − 𝐼𝑎2 (1.25))
1.05(𝐼𝑎2 )2 + 176.48𝐼𝑎2 − 31059.6 = 0
Solving we get, 𝐼𝑎2 = 107.38𝐴
Hence speed, 𝑁2 = 1.05(𝐼𝑎2 )
𝑁2 = 1.05(107.38)
𝑁2 = 112.75𝑟𝑝𝑚
1. A DC series motor drives a load, the torque of which varies as the square of the speed. Assuming
the magnetic circuit to be remain unsaturated and the motor resistance to be negligible, estimate
the percentage reduction in the motor terminal voltage which will reduce the motor speed to half the
value it has on full voltage. What is then the percentage fall in the motor current and efficiency?
Stray losses of the motor may be ignored.
Topic 6 Compounded DC motor
The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining the operational
characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. The compound wound self-excited DC motor or
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simply compound wound DC motor essentially contains the field winding connected both in series and in
parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure below:
The excitation of compound wound DC motor can be of two types depending on the nature of
compounding.
Cumulative Compound DC Motor
When the shunt field flux assists the main field flux, produced by the main field connected in series to the
armature winding then it is called cumulative compound DC motor.
∅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 + ∅𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡
Differential Compound DC Motor
In case of a differentially compounded self-excited DC motor i.e., differential compound DC motor, the
arrangement of shunt and series winding is such that the field flux produced by the shunt field winding
diminishes the effect of flux by the main series field winding.
∅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∅𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 − ∅𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡

The net flux produced in this case is lesser than the original flux and hence does not find much of a
practical application.
The compounding characteristic of the self-excited DC motor is shown in the figure below.
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Both the cumulative compound and differential compound DC motor can either be of short shunt or long
shunt type depending on the nature of arrangement.
Short Shunt DC Motor
If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series field winding then it is
known as short shunt DC motor or more specifically short shunt type compound wound DC motor.
The circuit diagram of a short shunt DC motor is shown in the diagram below.
E and 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 be the total supply voltage and current supplied to the input terminals of the motor. And 𝐼𝑎 , 𝐼𝑠𝑒 ,
𝐼𝑠ℎ be the values of current flowing through armature resistance 𝑅𝑎 , series winding resistance 𝑅𝑠𝑒 , and
shunt winding resistance 𝑅𝑠ℎ , respectively.
From the diagram above,
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒
Since the entire supply current flows through the series field winding. And like in the case of a DC shunt
motor,
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
Using Kirchhoff’s Law to the circuit,
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
Long Shunt DC Motor
If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field winding then it’s known
as long shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply long shunt DC motor.
The circuit diagram of a long shunt DC motor is shown in the diagram below.
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Let E and 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 be the total supply voltage and current supplied to the input terminals of the motor.
And 𝐼𝑎 , 𝐼𝑠𝑒 , 𝐼𝑠ℎ be the values of current flowing through armature resistance 𝑅𝑎 , series winding resistance
𝑅𝑠𝑒 and shunt winding resistance 𝑅𝑠ℎ respectively.
In shunt motor,
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
And in series motor,
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒
Therefore,
𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
The voltage equation is
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑏 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
Sample problem
1. A long shunt compound motor draws a line current of 42A from a 230V dc source. The armature
resistance is 0.1 ohm while the series and shunt field resistances are 0.2 ohm and 50 ohms
respectively. If the iron and friction losses amount to 500W, determine the overall efficiency of
the machine.
𝑉𝑆 230
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 4.6𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 50
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑚 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 42 − 4.6 = 37.4𝐴
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐼𝑎 ²𝑅𝑎 = (37.4)2 (0.1) = 139.876𝑊
𝑃𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎 ²𝑅𝑠𝑒 = (37.4)2 (0.2) = 279.752𝑊
𝑃𝑠ℎ = 𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝑉𝑠 = 4.6(230) = 1058𝑊
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑠𝑒 + 𝑃𝑠ℎ + 𝑃𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛&𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 139.876 + 279.752 + 1058 + 500
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𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 1977.628𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑚 = 230(42) = 9660𝑊
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 9660 − 1977.628

ղ= = =( ) 𝑥100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 9660
ղ = 79.53%
2. A 220V short shunt compound motor has an armature resistance of 0.4 ohm, a sunt field
resistance of 110 ohms and a series field resistance of 0.6 ohms. If this motor draws an armature
current of 50A at rated load, determine
a. The counter emf
b. Horsepower developed in the armature
𝑉𝑠 −𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑠𝑒 220−𝐼𝑚 (0.6)

a. 𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 2 − 0.005454𝐼𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ 110
𝐼𝑚 = 𝐼𝑎 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑚 = 50 + (2 − 0.005454𝐼𝑚 )
𝐼𝑚 = 51.718𝐴
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑉𝑠 − 𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑠𝑒 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐸𝑏 = 220 − 51.718(0.6) − 50(0.4) = 168.97𝑉
𝐸𝑏 𝐼𝑎 168.97(50)
b. 𝑃𝑑 = =
746 746

1. A long shunt machine, 230V, has the following parameters:𝑅𝑎 = 2.0Ω, 𝑅𝑠ℎ = 460Ω and 𝑅𝑠𝑒 =
0.25Ω. When the machine is run at no load at its normal speed and rated voltage, the armature
draws 0.6A. Determine the armature current drawn if the machine delivers an output of 5bhp.
2. A 25hp, 250V long shunt compound motor takes 5A when running light and runs 1150rpm. Armature
resistance, 0.15Ω, shunt field resistance, 200Ω and series field resistance, 0.05Ω. At rated load the
motor takes 86.5A and runs at 720rpm. Determine the ratio of torque developed from no-load to full-
load.
3. A 200V shunt motor has armature and shunt field resistances of 0.15Ω and 125Ω, respectively.
When running light, it takes 6A and runs 1200rpm. A series winding of 0.05Ω is added to make it
long shunt cumulatively compounded. This winding increases the flux per pole by 25% when the
motor is taking its full load current of 100A.Neglecting armature reaction, solve for the operating
speed as a compound motor.
4. A 220V DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.4Ω, a shunt field resistance of 175 ohms and a
series field resistance of 4 ohms. This machine is connected as a short shunt compound motor to
220V mains. Calculate the power developed by the armature if the armature current is 30A. Neglect
the brush drop.
5. The input current to a 220V, short shunt compound motor at no load is 6A. The shunt field circuit
resistance is 220 ohms; the armature resistance is 0.10 ohm and series field resistance is 0.08 ohm.
What is the stray power loss?
Topic 7 DC motor starters
▪ Manual Starters
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▪ Automatic Starters
▪ Definite Time Starters
▪ Counter EMF Starter
▪ Current-Limit Starter
Each type of starter along with its circuit diagram is described in detail in this section.
Manual Starters
Recalling the equivalent circuit of a DC motor, shown in Figure 1, there is no counter EMF (Ea) when
the motor is at rest. Thus, when the voltage is applied to the terminals, all of the voltage drops will appear
across the armature resistance, Ra.
Because Ra is designed to be small, applying full voltage to it could result in current several times
the rated current of the machine. Such a high current could cause serious commutation problems because
the commutator must reverse the current in a coil during the time the brushes are shorting out the coil.
If the current is too high, it will not reverse during the commutation interval and arcing will occur at
the brushes.
In general, the motor starting current should be limited to twice the rated full-load current to
prevent excessive commutator arcing.
In general, the motor starting current should be limited to twice the rated full-load current to
prevent excessive commutator arcing.
FIGURE 1: Equivalent circuit of a DC shunt motor.

One way to limit the inrush current is to reduce the voltage that is applied to the motor and then
bring it up slowly to rated voltage. Of course, that requires a variable-voltage DC supply. Although such a
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supply is frequently available in the laboratory, it is usually not in the workplace. Thus, we must limit the
current by other means.
In particular, we can change the voltage applied to the motor by placing the resistance in series with
it, as shown in Figure 1.
By placing a large resistance in the circuit at starting and reducing it in steps as the speed increases,
the motor may be started quickly without excessive armature current. Both manual and automatic starters
are used to do this.
Figure 2 shows a manual starter circuit diagram. The arm is spring loaded and is rotated in the
clockwise direction, gradually reducing the armature resistance as the motor accelerates. This starter is a so-
called three-point starter.
The electromagnet that holds the starter in the run position is in the field circuit. This type of starter
can be used for shunt and compound motors, and if the field is lost, the starter drops out, protecting the motor
against runaway.
FIGURE 2: Three-point manual DC motor starter circuit diagram
The disadvantage of this type of starter is that it may drop out if field resistance control is used to
weaken the field for increased motor speed. This type of starter cannot be used for a series machine.
Figure 3 shows a four-point starter circuit diagram. Here, the electromagnet is connected directly
across the line voltage. It does not drop out at low values of field current on the shunt machine and thus does
not protect against runaway. However, the fuses in the motor circuit would probably blow before the machine
reached dangerous speed. It can also be used for starting series motors.
FIGURE 3: Four-point manual DC motor starter circuit diagram
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An automatic starter operates in a similar fashion, except that automatic relays short out sections of
the starter resistance either by a time sequence or when the armature current drops to a selected value.
Automatic DC starters
Figure 4 shows the automatic DC starter circuit diagram. Contactor M is closed to start the machine.
After suitable time delays, contactors 1A and then 2A close, reducing the armature circuit resistance in steps.
More than two steps of starting resistance could be included by adding additional contactors.
Note that the field rheostat is shorted out until the final starting resistor is shorted. This keeps the
field current at a maximum value to help create torque to accelerate the motor and load. There are three
common techniques used to short out the individual resistors in the starting resistance.
FIGURE 4: DC motor with starting resistors in armature circuit.

Definite Time Starters
Figure 5 shows definite time starter circuit diagram. Relays TD1 and TD2 have independently
adjustable time delays.
When relay TD1-1 closes, power is applied to coil 1A, which closes 1A in the armature circuit (shown
in Figure 4), eliminating R from the circuit.
After the second time delay, relay TD2-1 closes, energizing coil 2A, which closes 2A in the armature circuit,
shorting out R2.
This type of starter would be suitable if the motor is always expected to start the same load, which
would allow the calculation of the proper time delays for shorting out the resistors.
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FIGURE 5: Definite-time DC motor starter circuit diagram
Counter EMF Starters

One way to ensure the armature current is held to a reasonable level is to measure the counter EMF
and remove starting resistors at predetermined values of EMF. Figure 6 shows the counter EMF starter circuit
diagram.
The coils PI and P2 are selected to have pickup voltages at the desired values of counter EMF. When
the armature terminal voltage reaches the pickup value of PI, relay PI closes, applying the voltage to coil 1A,
which closes relay 1A, shorting out resistance R l, etc.
FIGURE 6: Counter EMF DC motor starter circuit diagram
Current-Limit Starters
This type of starter uses the actual current in the armature circuit to determine when to remove the
starting resistors. Figure 7 shows the current limit starter circuit diagram.
Current sensors are placed in series with each of the starting resistors. When the armature current
drops to a low enough value, the current sensor S1 causes relay S1 in the control circuit to close, thus
energizing coil 1A and shorting out resistor Rl.
The process repeats for the next starting resistor until all segments of the starting resistance are
shorted out.
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FIGURE 7: Current-limit DC motor starter circuit diagram
Motor Starting
At starting, the armature draws a high current due to back emf of the motor at the instant of starting
is equal to zero. (𝐸𝑏 = 0)
Remedy: A rheostat is inserted in series with the armature windings to control the armature starting
current to a safe value. After the motor develops speed, the rheostat resistance is slowly reduced to zero.
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝐼𝑎(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡) = 𝑅= − 𝑅𝑎
𝑅𝑎 +𝑅 𝐼𝑎(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡)
Where
𝐼𝑎(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡) Armature starting current (ampere)
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𝑅𝑎 equivalent resistance of the armature circuit (ohm)

𝑉𝑠 supply voltage
𝑅 resistance of the starting rheostat
Sample problem
1. A 10hp power 220V DC shunt motor has an armature and field resistance of 0.25 ohm and 100 ohms
respectively. The full load efficiency is 83%. Determine the value of starting resistance in order that
the starting resistance in order that the starting current will not exceed 200 percent of full – load value.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 10(746)
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = = = 8987.952𝑊
ղ 0.83
𝑃𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 8987.952
𝐼𝑚 = = = 40.854𝐴
𝑉𝑠 220
𝑉𝑠 220
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 2.2𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 100
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑚 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 40.854 − 2.2 = 38.654𝐴
𝑉𝑠 220
𝑅= − 𝑅𝑎 = − 0.25
𝐼𝑎(𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡) 2(38.645)
𝑅 = 2.59Ω
Activity 9
1. A 220V shunt motor delivers 40hp on full load and 950rpm and has an efficiency of 88%. The
armature and field resistance are 0.2 ohm and 110 ohms, respectively. Determine the starting
resistance such that the starting armature current does not exceed 1.6 times the full load current.
2. A 120V DC motor rated at 5hp has a full load efficiency of 86%. The field and armature resistances
are 60 ohms and 0.75 ohm, respectively. What starter resistance will be required to limit the armature
current at starting to 200% of its armature current.
3. The nameplate rating of a shunt motor is 150hp, 600V, 205A, 1700 rpm. The resistance of the shunt
field circuit is 240 ohms and the total armature circuit resistance is 0.15 ohm. If the motor is to be
deliver full load torque at 1200 rpm, what value of resistance must be added to the armature circuit.
4. A 120V shunt motor draws a current of 77A t rated load. The armature and shunt field resistances
are 0.2 ohm and 60 ohms respectively. A multi – tap starter rheostat is inserted in the armature circuit
to limit the starting current. If the rheostat has a resistance of 1.732 ohms, determine the percentage
tap used such that the starting current will be limited to 150% of its full load value?
5. A 10hp power 220V DC shunt motor has an armature and field resistance of 0.25ohm and 100 ohms
respectively. The full load efficiency is 83%. Determine the value of starting resistance in order that
the starting current will not exceed 200% of full load value.
Topic 8 Ward – Leonard system and solid – state speed controllers

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Ward Leonard Method of speed control is achieved by varying the applied voltage to the armature.
This method was introduced in 1891. The connection diagram of the Ward Leonard method of speed control
of a DC shunt motor is shown in the figure below.
In the above system, M is the main DC motor whose speed is to be controlled, and G is a separately
excited DC generator. The generator G is driven by a 3-phase driving motor which may be an induction motor
or a synchronous motor. The combination of an AC driving motor and the DC generator is called the Motor-
Generator (M-G) set.
The voltage of the generator is changed by changing the generator field current. This voltage when
directly applied to the armature of the main DC motor, the speed of the motor M changes. The motor field
current 𝐼𝑓𝑚 is kept constant so that the motor field flux ∅𝑚 also remains constant. While the speed of the
motor is controlled, the motor armature current 𝐼𝑎 is kept equal to its rated value.
The generated field current 𝐼𝑓 is varied such that the armature voltage Vt changes from zero
to its rated value. The speed will change from zero to the base speed. Since the speed control is
carried out with the rated current Ia and with the constant motor field flux, a constant torque is directly
proportional to the armature current, and field flux up to rated speed is obtained. The product of
torque and speed is known as power, and it is proportional to speed.
Thus, with the increase in power, speed increases automatically.
Topic 9 DC motor efficiency calculations
To calculate the efficiency of a dc motor, the following losses must be determined:
• Copper losses (I²R losses)
• Brush drop losses
• Mechanical losses
• Core losses
• Stray losses
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Electrical or Copper losses: Copper losses are the losses that occur in the Armature and field windings
of the machine. The copper losses for the armature and field winding are given by:
Armature Loss 𝑃𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴 ²𝑅𝐴
Note: Must consider 𝑅𝑆 for series
Field Loss 𝑃𝐹 = 𝐼𝐹 ²𝑅𝐹 and compound DC Motors
The resistance used in these calculations is usually the winding resistance at normal operating
temperature
Brush Losses: The brush drop loss is the power loss across the contact potential at the brushes of the
machines. It is given by the equation:
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 𝐼𝐴
Magnetic or core loss: These are the hysteresis and eddy current losses occurring in the metal of the
motor.
Mechanical loss: These are friction and windage losses.
• Friction losses include the losses caused by bearing friction and the friction between the brushes
and commutator.
• Windage losses are caused by the friction between rotating parts and air inside the DC machine’s
casing.
Stray losses (or Miscellaneous losses): These are other losses that cannot be placed in one of the
previous categories. (Is about 1% of full load)
Rotational losses are when the mechanical losses, Core losses and Stray losses are lumped together. It
also considers as combination between mechanical and core losses at no load and rated speed.
Motor efficiency:
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Speed Regulation
The speed regulation is a measure of the change speed from no-load to full load. The percent speed
regulation is defined
+Ve SR means that the motor speed will decrease when the load on its shaft is increased.
-Ve SR means that the motor speed increases with increasing load.
Sample problem
1. A 50hp, 550V shunt wound motor draws a line current of 4.5A at no load. The shunt field resistance
is 275 ohms and the armature resistance exclusive of brushes, is 0.3 ohm, the brush drop at full load
is 2V. At full load, the motor draws a line current of 84A. Calculate the efficiency at full load.
𝑉𝑠 550
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 2𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 275
𝐼𝑎𝑁𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚𝑁𝐿 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 4.5 − 2 = 2.5𝐴
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑎𝑁𝐿 − 𝐼𝑎𝑁𝐿 ²𝑅𝑎
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 550(2.5) − 2.52 (0.3)
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 1373.125𝑊
𝐼𝑎𝐹𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚𝐹𝐿 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 84 − 2 = 82𝐴

𝑃𝑖𝑛𝐹𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑚𝐹𝐿 = 550(84) = 46200𝑊
𝑃𝑎𝐹𝐿 = 𝐼𝑎𝐹𝐿 ²𝑅𝑎 = 822 (0.3) = 2017.2𝑊
𝑃𝑠ℎ𝐹𝐿 = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 550(2) = 1100𝑊
𝑃𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏 𝐼𝑎𝐹𝐿 = 2(82)164𝑊
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝐹𝐿 = 𝑃𝑎𝐹𝐿 + 𝑃𝑠ℎ𝐹𝐿 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 + 𝑃𝑏
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝐹𝐿 = 2017.2 + 1100 + 1373.125 + 164 = 4654.325𝑊
70 | Page
𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 46200 − 4654.325

ղ= = 𝑥100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 46200
ղ = 89.92%
2. A 100V shunt motor is developing 6hp while operating at an overall efficiency of 86%. The armature
and shunt field resistances are 0.06 and 50 ohms respectively. Determine stray power losses.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 6(746) = 4476𝑊
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 4476
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = = = 5204.65𝑊
ղ 0.86
𝑃𝑖𝑛 100
𝐼𝑚 = = = 2𝐴
𝑉𝑠 50
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑚 − 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 52.04 − 2 = 50.04
𝑃𝑎 = 𝐼𝑎 ²𝑅𝑎 = 50.04²(0.06) = 150.24𝑊
𝑃𝑠ℎ = 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 100(2) = 200𝑊
𝑃𝑖𝑛 = 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑠ℎ + 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦
5204.65 = 4476 + 150.24 + 200 + 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦
𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑦 = 378.41𝑊
3. The shaft power of a shunt motor is 7.8 hp. It draws a 50A from120V. The field winding draws 1.2A
What is the efficiency of the motor?
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 7.8(746)
ղ= = = 𝑥100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑚 120(50)
ղ = 96.98%
1. The input and output powers of a 220V, shunt motor are 30 and 28 kW respectively. The field and
armature circuit resistances are 40 ohms and 0.0125 ohm respectively. Determine the efficiency of
the motor if the output power is reduced to 10kW.
2. A long shunt compound motor takes a current of 42A from a 230V source. The generator parameters
are 𝑅𝑎 = 0.1Ω, 𝑅𝑠ℎ = 50Ω and 𝑅𝑠𝑒 = 0.2Ω. If the friction and windage losses amount to 400W,
determine the overall efficiency of the machine.
71 | Page
References
Chapman, S. 2007. Electric Machinery Fundamentals 5th edition, published by McGraw-Hill
Rojas, R. 2001. 1001 Solved Problems in electrical Engineering, published by Jaime R. Tiong
Siskind, C. 1966. Electrical Machines Direct & Alternating Current published McGraw – Hill Book
Company, Inc.
Theraja, B.L. 2005. A Textbook of Electrical Technology in S.I. Units Volume II AC&DC Machines
published by S. Chand & Company LTD
72 | Page
Chapter 3: DC Generator
Introduction
There are two types of generators–DC generators and AC generators. Both DC and AC generators
convert mechanical power to electrical power. A DC generator produces direct power, while an AC generator
produces alternating power. Both of these generators produce electrical power based on the principle of
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
This law states that when a conductor moves in a magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines of force, which
induces an electromagnetic force (EMF) in the conductor.
Hence the most basic two essential parts of a generator are:
• The magnetic field
• Conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
Single Loop DC Generator
In the figure above, a single loop of a conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two opposite
poles of a magnet. The rectangular loop of the conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the magnetic field
about its axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its horizontal position, it cuts the flux lines
of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e., AB and CD of the loop cut the flux lines there will be an
EMF induced in both of the sides (AB and BC) of the loop.
As the loop gets closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of
the current can be determined by Fleming’s right-hand Rule. This rule says that if you stretch the thumb,
index finger, and middle finger of your right-hand perpendicular to each other, then thumbs indicate the
direction of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction of the magnetic field, i.e., N – pole to
S – pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of flow of current through the conductor.
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Applying this right-hand rule at horizontal position of the loop, current will flow from point A to B and
on the other side of the loop, the current will flow from point C to D.
Allowing the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now the upper side of
the loop will be CD, and the lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous vertical position).
At this position, the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to the flux lines of the field.
Hence there will be no question of flux cutting, and consequently, there will be no current in the loop. If the
loop rotates further, it comes again in a horizontal position. But now, said AB side of the loop comes in front
of N pole, and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e., just opposite to the previous horizontal position as shown in
the figure beside.
Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines; hence rate of flux
cutting is maximum here, and according to Fleming’s right-hand Rule, at this position current flows from B to
A and on another side from D to C. Now if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis. Every time the side
AB comes in front of S pole, the current flows from A to B. Again, when it comes in front of N pole, the current
flows from B to A.
Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front of the S pole the current flows from C to D. When
the side CD comes in front of the N pole the current flows from D to C. Observing the phenomenon differently,
we can conclude, that each side of the loop comes in front of N pole, the current will flow through that side in
the same direction, i.e., downward to the reference plane. Similarly, each side of the loop comes in front of
the S pole, the current through it flows in the same direction, i.e., upwards from the reference plane. From
this, we will come to the topic of the principle of DC generator.
The loop is opened and connected with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split rings, made of
a conducting cylinder, get cut into two halves or segments insulated from each other. Connect the external
load terminals with two carbon brushes which rest on these split slip ring segments.
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The working principle of a DC generator
The first half of the revolution current always flows along ABLMCD, i.e., brush no 1 in contact with
segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure, the direction of the induced current in the coil is reversed.
But at the same time the position of segments a and b are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes
in touch with segment b. Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The waveform of
the current through the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.
The above content is the basic working principle of the DC generator, explained by the single loop
generator model. The positions of the brushes of the DC generator are so that the changeover of the
segments a and b from one brush to another takes place when the plane of the rotating coil is at a right angle
to the plane of the lines of force. It is to become in that position, the induced EMF in the coil is zero.
Learning Outcomes
• Understand the equivalent circuit of a dc generator
• Explain how a dc generator can start without an external voltage source
• Understand how to derive the voltage – current characteristics of separately excited, shunt, series
and compounded dc generators.
Learning Content
It contains reading selection and discussion questions and sets of activities that students can
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Topic 1 Separately Excited Generator
Topic 2 Shunt DC Generator
Topic 3 Series DC Generator
Topic 4 Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator
Topic 5 Differentially Compounded DC Generator
In this segment topics 1-5 are being discussed in Module 3.
Topic 1 Separately Excited Generator
The field winding of the generator is excited from a separate source usually a battery.
𝑬 = 𝑽𝑳 + 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂
𝑷𝒈 = 𝑬𝑰𝒂
𝑷𝑳
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑽𝑳
Where
E generated emf(volt)
𝑉𝐿 load or terminal voltage(volt)
𝑃𝑔 power generated in the armature
𝑅𝑎 armature equivalent resistance

𝐼𝑎 armature current
𝐼𝐿 Load current
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Sample Problem
1. A dc generator has no-load output voltage of 120V.Its armature circuit resistance is 0.95 ohm and its
field coils are separately energized. If the load is 2000W at 115V. Neglecting the effect of armature
reaction, what power could be delivered to the load.
𝑉𝐿2 1152
𝑅𝐿 = = = 6.6Ω
𝑃𝐿 2000
𝐸 120
𝐼𝐿 = = = 15.894𝐴
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝐿 0.95 + 6.6
𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿 ²𝑅𝐿 = 15.894²(6.6) = 1667.286𝑊
1. The armature of a 6 pole separately excited dc generator is lap wound with 534 conductors. This
machine delivers power to the load at 250V while being driven at 1000 rpm. At this load, the armature
circuit dissipates 640W. if the flux per pole of this generator is 30mWb, determine the kW rating of
the load served. Assume that a total brush contact drop of 2V.
2. A separately excited generator when running at 1200 rpm supplies 200 A at 125V to a circuit of
constant resistance. Armature circuit resistance is 0.10 ohm. Determine the terminal voltage when
the speed is dropped to 1000 rpm? Assume that the field current is unaltered.
Topic 2 Shunt DC Generator
The armature and field coils are connected in parallel.
𝑬 = 𝑽𝑳 + 𝑰𝒂 𝑹𝒂
𝑷𝒈 = 𝑬𝑰𝒂
𝑷𝑳
𝑰𝑳 =
𝑽𝑳
77 | Page
𝑽𝑳
𝑰𝒔𝒉 =
𝑹𝒔𝒉
𝑰𝒂 = 𝑰𝑳 + 𝑰𝒔𝒉
Where
E generated emf(volt)
𝑉𝐿 load or terminal voltage(volt)
𝑃𝑔 power generated in the armature
𝑅𝑎 armature equivalent resistance

𝑅𝑠ℎ shunt field resistance
𝐼𝑎 armature current
𝐼𝑠ℎ shunt field current
𝐼𝐿 Load current
Sample problem
1. A 200 V, 20kW shunt generator has an equivalent armature resistance of 0.05 ohm and a shunt field
resistance of 200 ohms. Determine the power developed in the armature when it delivers full load.
𝑃𝐿 20000
𝑅𝐿 = = = 100𝐴
𝑉𝐿 200
𝑉𝐿 200
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 1𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 200
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 100 + 1 = 101𝐴
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 200 + 101(0.05) = 205.05𝑉
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐸𝐼𝑎 = 205.05(101) = 20.71𝑘𝑊
2. A shunt generator supplies a load of 5,500W at 110V through a pair of feeder conductors having a
resistance of 0.02 ohm each. The armature, shunt field resistances are 0.15 ohm and 50 ohms
respectively. Find the generated emf.
𝑃𝐿 5500
𝐼𝐿 = = = 50𝐴
𝑉𝐿 110
𝑉𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 50(0.04) = 2𝑉
𝑉𝑠ℎ = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 110 + 2 = 112𝑉

𝑉𝑠ℎ 112
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 2.24𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 50
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 50 + 2.24 = 52.24𝐴
𝐸 = 𝑉𝑠ℎ + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 112 + 52.24(0.15) = 119.84𝑉
78 | Page
3. The no load voltage of 50kW, 220V, shunt generator in the FEU laboratory is 232V and rated load
voltage is 220V. The armature resistance including brushes, is 0.026 ohm and the resistance of the
shunt field resistance is 52 ohms. What is the induced electromagnetic force at rated load?
𝑃𝐿 50000
𝐼𝐿 = = = 227.27𝐴
𝑉𝐿 220
𝑉𝑠ℎ 220
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 4.23𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 52
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 227.27 + 4.23 = 231.5𝐴
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 220 + 231.5(0.026) = 226.02𝑉
1. The field current of 180kW, 250V DC shunt generator is 6A when running full load at rated voltage.
If the combined armature and brush resistance is 0.02 ohm, solve for the electrical efficiency of the
generator.
2. The field circuit of a 200, 000 watts, 230V shunt generator is 8A when running full load at rated
terminal voltage. If the combined brush and armature resistance is 0.03 ohm, solve for the electrical
efficiency of the generator.
3. The field current of a 100 kW, 250V shunt generator is 5A when delivering power at rated terminal
voltage and rated load current. The combined armature and brush resistance is 0.01 ohm. Determine
the efficiency of the generator.
4. A shunt generator is connected toa load that draws 28.8kW, Ra=0.04 ohm and Rsh= 48 ohm. If the
power developed in the armature is 106.3% of the power delivered to the load. Determine the terminal
voltage of the generator.
5. A shunt generator supplies 100A at 200V. the armature and shunt resistances are 0.025 ohm and
100 ohms, respectively. If the copper losses are equal to the iron losses at this load, find the brake
horsepower of the engine driving the generator.
Topic 3 Series DC Generator

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The armature and field coils are connected in series.
𝑃𝐿
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑉𝐿
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐸𝐼𝑎
Where
𝑅𝑠𝑒 series field resistance(ohm)
Sample problem
1. A DC series generator is supplying a current of 10A to a load trough a feeder of total resistance, 1.5
ohm. The generated voltage is 550V. The armature and series field resistances are 0.5 and 0.6 ohms
respectively. Determine the voltage
a. At the terminals of the generator
b. At the feeder
a)
𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 )
𝑉𝑇 = 550 − 10(0.5 + 0.6) = 539𝑉
b)
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑇 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝐿 = 539 − 10(1.5) = 524𝑉

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1. A 30kW series generator has an efficiency of 88% when operating at rated load. If the stray power
loss is 15% of the full load losses, calculate the maximum efficiency of the generator. Assume that
the stray power loss is constant the other losses vary as the square of the load.
Topic 4 Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator
The differentially compounded dc generator comprises of both shunt and series field windings,
connected so that the magnetomotive forces from the fields are additive.
The equivalent circuit of a cumulatively compounded dc generator in the long shunt connection.
Note that current flowing into a dot produces a positive magnetomotive force. Notice that the armature
current flows into the dotted end of the series field coil and that the shunt current 𝐼𝑓 flows into the dotted end
of the shunt field coil. Therefore, the total magnetomotive force on this machine is given by,
ℱ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ℱ𝑓 + ℱ𝑠𝑒 − ℱ𝐴𝑅
Where,
ℱ𝑛𝑒𝑡 shunt field magnetomotive force
ℱ𝑠𝑒 series field magnetomotive force
ℱ𝐴𝑅 armature reaction magnetomotive force
Equivalent effective shunt field current for this machine is given by,
𝑁𝐹 𝐼𝐹 ∗= 𝑁𝐹 𝐼𝐹 + 𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝐴 − ℱ𝐴𝑅
𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝐴 ℱ𝐴𝑅
𝐼𝐹 ∗= 𝐼𝐹 + −
𝑁𝐹 𝑁𝐹
Then the other voltage and current relationships are:
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐹 + 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 )
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𝑉𝑇
𝐼𝐹 =
𝑅𝐹
If the series field and shunt field circuit and has 𝐼𝐿 flowing through instead of 𝐼𝐴 , then it is the short-
shunt connection.
Terminal Characteristics of a Cumulatively compounded DC generator

Supposed that the load on the generator increased. Then as the load increases, the load current 𝐼𝐿
increases. Since 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐹 + 𝐼𝐿 ↑ , the armature current 𝐼𝐴 increases too. At this point two effects occur in
the generator:
• As 𝐼𝐴 increases, the 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 ) voltage drop increases as well. This tends to cause a decrease in
the terminal voltage 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 ).
• As 𝐼𝐴 increases, the series field magnetomotive force ℱ𝑆𝐸 = 𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝐴 increases too. This increases
the total magnetomotive force ℱ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑁𝐹 𝐼𝐹 + 𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝐼𝐴 which increases the flux in the generator. The
increased flux in the generator increases 𝐸𝐴 , which in turn tends to make 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 )
rise.
These two effects oppose each other, with one tending to increase 𝑉𝑇 and the other tending to decrease
𝑉𝑇 . The effect which predominates the machine depends on the number of series turns placed on the
poles of the machine like the following cases.
1. Few series turns (𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙). If there are only few series turns, the resistive voltage drop effect
wins hand down. The voltage falls off just as in shunt but not quite as steeply. This is known as
undercompounded where the full – load terminal voltage is less than the no-load terminal voltage.
2. More series turns (𝑁𝑆𝐸 larger). If there are a few more series turns of wire on the poles, then at first
the flux – strengthening effect wins and the terminal voltage rises with the load. However, as the load
continues to increase, magnetic saturation sets in and the resistive drop becomes stronger than the
flux increase effect. In a such machine, the terminal voltage first rises and then falls as the load
increases. If 𝑉𝑇 at no load is equal to 𝑉𝑇 at full load, the generator is called flat-compounded.
3. Even more series turns are added (𝑁𝑆𝐸 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒). If even more series turns are added to the generator,
the flux-strengthening effect predominates for a longer time before the resistive drop takes over. The
result is a characteristic with the full-load terminal voltage actually higher than the no-load terminal
voltage. If 𝑉𝑇 at full load exceeds 𝑉𝑇 at no load, the generator is called over-compounded.
82 | Page
It could also be possible to use a diverter resistor to realize all these voltage characteristics in a single
generator. A cumulatively compounded dc generator shown below with a relatively large number of series
turns 𝑁𝑆𝐸 . A diverter resistor is connected around the series field.
• If the resistor 𝑅𝑑𝑖𝑣 is adjusted to a large value, most of the armature current flows through the series
field coil and the generator is overcompounded.
• If the resistor 𝑅𝑑𝑖𝑣 is adjusted to a small value, most of the current flows around the series field
through 𝑅𝑑𝑖𝑣 and the generator is undercompounded.
Voltage control of Cumulatively Compounded DC Generators

1. Change the speed rotation. An increase in N causes 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘∅𝑁 to increase, increasing the
terminal voltage 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 )
𝑉
2. Change the field current. A decrease in 𝑅𝐹 causes 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑇 to increase, which increases the total
𝑅𝐹
magnetomotive force in the generator.
Topic 5 Differentially Compounded DC Generator
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A differentially compounded dc generator is a generator with both shunt and series fields, but this
time their magnetomotive forces subtract from each other. The equivalent circuit is shown below.
Note that the armature current is now flowing out of a dotted coil end while the shunt field current is flowing
into a dotted coil end. In this machine the net magnetomotive force is
ℱ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ℱ𝑓 − ℱ𝑠𝑒 − ℱ𝐴𝑅
ℱ𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑁𝑓 ℱ𝑓 − 𝑁𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐴 − ℱ𝐴𝑅
And the equivalent shunt field current due to the series field armature reaction is given by
𝑁𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐴 ℱ𝐴𝑅
𝐼𝑒𝑞 = − −
𝑁𝑓 𝑁𝑓
Then the total effective shunt field current in this machine is

𝐼𝑓 ∗= 𝐼𝑓 + 𝐼𝑒𝑞
Or
𝑁𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐴 ℱ𝐴𝑅
𝐼𝑓 ∗= 𝐼𝑓 − −
𝑁𝑓 𝑁𝑓
Likely the differentially compounded generator can be either connected in long-shunt or short shunt.
Terminal Characteristic of a Differentially Compounded DC Generator
• As 𝐼𝐴 increases, the 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 ) voltage drop increases as well. This increase tends to cause the
terminal voltage to decrease 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐸𝐴 − 𝐼𝐴 (𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝑆 ) .
• As 𝐼𝐴 increases, the series field magnetomotive force ℱ𝑠𝑒 = 𝑁𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐴 increases too. This increase field
magnetomotive force reduces the net magnetomotive force on the generator (ℱ𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑁𝑓 ℱ𝑓 −
𝑁𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝐴 ) which in turn reduces the net flux in the generator. A decrease in the flux decreases 𝐸𝐴 , which
in turn decreases 𝑉𝑇 .
Since both these effects tend to decrease 𝑉𝑇 , the voltage drops drastically as the load is increased on
the generator as shown below.
84 | Page
Voltage Control of a Differentially Compounded DC generators

1. Change the speed of rotation
2. Change the field current
LONG SHUNT COMPOUND GENERATOR
The series field coil is connected in series with the armature coil while the shunt field coil is connected across
the series combination.
The shunt field current

𝑉
𝐼𝑠ℎ =
𝑅𝑠ℎ
85 | Page
Series field current

𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
Terminal voltage is
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 − 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
If the brush drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 − 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒 − 2𝑉𝑏
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿

SHORT SHUNT COMPOUND GENERATOR
The series field coil is connected in series with the load while the shunt field coil is connected in parallel with
the armature coil.
Series field Current

𝐼𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼𝐿
Shunt field current
𝑉 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒 𝐸𝑔 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
𝐼𝑠ℎ = =
𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑅𝑠ℎ
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
Terminal voltage is
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒
If the brush drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is

𝑉 = 𝐸𝑔 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 − 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒 − 2𝑉𝑏
86 | Page
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃𝑑 = 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑉𝐼𝐿

Sample Problem
1. A 20 kW, 400V long shunt compound generator has an armature, shunt and series field resistances
of 0.1 ohm, 80 ohms and 0.06 ohm respectively. Determine the generated emf. Assume a brush
contact drop of 1V per brush.
𝑃𝐿 20000
𝐼𝐿 = = = 50𝐴
𝑉𝐿 400
𝑉𝐿 400
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 5𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 80
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 50 + 5 = 55𝐴
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 ) + 𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 400 + 55(0.1 + 0.06) + 2
𝐸 = 410.8𝑉
2. A long shunt compound generator has the following parameters: Ra=0.1 ohm, Rse=0.05 ohm and
Rsh=120 ohm. This machine supplies power an aggregate dc load of 10 kW. At this load the armature
generates 246V. Determine the terminal voltage.
𝑃𝐿 10000
𝐼𝐿 = =
𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿
𝐼𝑠ℎ = =
𝑅𝑠ℎ 120
10000 𝑉𝐿
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = + --------- 1
𝑉𝐿 120
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎 (𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑠𝑒 ) --------- 2

Substitute Eq. 1 in Eq. 2
10000 𝑉𝐿
264 = 𝑉𝐿 + ( + ) (0.1 + 0.05)
𝑉𝐿 120
1500
(264 = 𝑉𝐿 + + 0.00125𝑉𝐿 ) 𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝐿
1.00125𝑉𝐿2 + 1500 − 264𝑉𝐿 = 0
𝑉𝐿 ² − 263.67𝑉𝐿 + 1498.127 = 0
Using quadratic formula
𝑉𝐿+ = 257.86𝑉
3. A short shunt compound generator has an armature, series field and shunt field resistances are 0.04-
ohm, 0.03 ohm and 80 ohms respectively. The generator serves a 20kW, 200V load through a feeder
with an equivalent resistance of 0.1 ohm. Solve for the power generated by the armature.
87 | Page
𝑃𝐿 20000
𝐼𝐿 = = = 100𝐴
𝑉𝐿 200
𝑉𝑠ℎ = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿 (𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝑅𝑓 ) = 200 + 100(0.03 + 0.1)
𝑉𝑠ℎ = 213𝑉
𝑉𝑠ℎ 213
𝐼𝑠ℎ = = = 2.66𝐴
𝑅𝑠ℎ 80
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 100 + 2.66 = 102.66𝐴
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 = 213 + 102.66(0.04) = 217.106𝑉
𝑃𝑔 = 𝐸𝐼𝑎 = 217.106(102.66) = 22.29𝑘𝑊
4. A short shunt compound generator has an armature, shunt field and series field resistances of 0.02-
ohm, 80 ohm and 0.03 ohm respectively. The generator’s induced emf is 510V when the terminal
voltage is 500V. How much load current is delivered under this condition?
𝐸 = 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒
510 = 500 + 0.02𝐼𝑎 + 0.03𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑎 = 500 − 1.5𝐼𝐿 --------- 1
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝑠ℎ
𝑉𝐿 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 +
𝑅𝑠ℎ
500 + 0.03𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝐿 +
80
𝐼𝑎 = 6.25 + 1.000375𝐼𝐿
Equate Eq.1 to Eq.2
500 − 1.5𝐼𝐿 = 6.25 + 1.000375𝐼𝐿
𝐼𝐿 = 197.47𝐴
Self-Assessment Questions
1. A compound generator is to be operated, as a flat compounded long shunt compound generator. To
obtain the same rated voltage at full load and at no load when operated as a shunt generator, it is
necessary to increase the field current by 0.2A. The shunt field winding has 1000 turns per pole, and
the series field winding has 4 turns per pole. If the full load armature current of the compound
generator is 95A and the series field resistance is 0.025 ohm, calculate the diverter resistance
required.
2. The armature, series field and shunt field resistances of a 125kW, 250V long shunt cumulative
compound dc generator are 0.025-ohm, 0.01 ohm and 30 ohms, respectively. If the stray power loss
at rated load is 5kW, determine the motor brake horsepower required to drive this machine. Assume
a brush drop of 2V and a stray load loss of 1% of the output.
88 | Page
3. A long shunt compound generator delivers 100A, 250V at rated load. The resistances of the various
windings are: Ra=0.1-ohm, Rip=0.02 ohm, Rsh=100 ohm and Rse= 0.025 ohm. If the stray power
losses amount to 1.8kW solve for the overall efficiency of the generator.
4. A certain 5.5kW, 125V DC long shunt compound generator was operated as a shunt motor at no load
for determination of stray power losses. With 135V equal to the generated emf at full load applied to
the armature and at normal speed of 1700 rpm, the current input to the armature was found to be
2.5A. The armature, shunt field and series field resistances are 0.2-ohm, 25 ohm, and 0.25 ohm,
respectively. Determine the efficiency of the generator at rated load.
5. A short shunt compound generator delivers 150A at a terminal voltage is 230V. the shunt field current
is 2.5A. The resistances of the armature, series field and diverter are 0.032-ohm, 0.015 ohm and
0.03 ohm, respectively. Calculate the electrical efficiency of the generator at this load.
References
Chapman, S. 2007. Electric Machinery Fundamentals 5th edition, published by McGraw-Hill
Rojas, R. 2001. 1001 Solved Problems in electrical Engineering, published by Jaime R. Tiong
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EE 316 Electrical Machine 1 Module

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EE 316 Electrical Machine 1 Module

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Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering

EE-316 ELECTRICAL MACHINE 1

Chapter 1: DC Machinery Fundamentals

This is for the simple 2-pole machine.

1. The flux in the machine

The Induced Torque in the Rotating Loop

1. The flux in the machine

Topic 1 Commutation and armature construction in real DC machines

Commutator Construction and Working

In a DC motor, the armature current causes the set magnetic field to

Slip Ring Commutator

Slip Ring Commutator Construction

Types of Slip Rings

The Process of Commutation

Armature Winding and Armature Reaction

• The armature is used in an electric machine for generating power.

i. Number of circuits between positive and negative brushes

For wave winding 𝑌 = 𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑓

Simplex Lap Winding

Simplex Wave Winding

The advantages of simplex wave windings include:

For lap winding both 𝑌𝑏 and 𝑌𝑓 must be odd and differ by 2

Satisfying the above condition 𝑌𝑏 = 7 and 𝑌𝑓 = 5

At the back 𝑌𝑏 = 7 At the back 𝑌𝑓 = 5 At the back 𝑌𝑏 = 7 At the back 𝑌𝑓 = 5

Neutral plane shift

You can see that flux is uniform over the complete

This field of a rotor will interact with the field

So what’s the big deal about the neutral-plane shift?

Here the question arises.

How fast must this reverse occur?

There are three (3) main factors over which dc machines

• Third, is constant over which construction of dc machine rely.

𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑑 = 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 B magnetic field

The rotation speed of every conductor is given as

So, equation 1 becomes

If flux is given in unit maxwells or lines,

Z= elements/ slot x slots

4(1500)(4 𝑥 48)(2.5 x 106 )

Substitute 𝑁2 = 900 and 𝜙2 = 1.25𝜙1

The electric motor

Speed Characteristics of a DC motor

Torque developed in the armature

T torque developed (Newton – meter)

Mechanical Power Output in the Shaft

𝑍𝑃𝜙𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝑃𝜙𝐼𝑎 𝑍𝜙𝐼𝑎

600(30 𝑥 10−3 )(50)

𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑍𝑃𝜙𝑁 𝑍𝜙𝑁

44760 (𝐻𝑃) 20(44760)

Topic 4 Construction of DC Machines

Pole and Pole Core

• Separately excited DC machine

• Series wound/series machine.

Separately Excited DC Machine

Shunt Wound DC Machine

Series Wound DC Machine

Compound Wound DC Machine

Topic 5 Power flow and losses in DC machines

Armature winding losses = PA =IA2RA

Core Losses in DC Machines

Eddy Current losses

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑔 𝐼𝑎

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 𝑉𝐼

3. Overall or Commercial efficiency

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡