Bio-Corrosion in Concrete Sewer Systems - Mechanisms and Mitigation Strategies - ScienceDirect

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Science of The Total Environment

Volumen 921, De 15 De Abril De 2024, 171231
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Bio-corrosión en el hormigón de los sistemas de

alcantarillado: Mecanismos y estrategias de mitigación
Pramanik Sagor Kumar enlaces de Autor abrir panel superposición, Mahoma Bhuiyan una , Dilan Robert una, Rajeev Roychand una,
Li Gao b, Iván Cole una, Biplob Kumar Pramanik un
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.171231
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Under a Creative Commons license open access
Highlights
• Bio-corrosion escalates costs and reduces sewer lifespan.
• Hydrogen sulfide to sulfuric acid is key in concrete deterioration.
• Climate, concrete quality and wastewater impact corrosion rates.
• Coatings and better concrete mixes enhance sewer durability.
Abstract
The deterioration of concrete sewer structures due to bio-corrosion presents critical and escalating challenges from
structural, economic and environmental perspectives. Despite decades of research, this issue remains inadequately
addressed, resulting in billions of dollars in maintenance costs and a shortened service life for sewer infrastructure
worldwide. This challenge is exacerbated by the absence of standardized test methods and universally accepted
mitigation strategies, leaving industries and stakeholders confronting an increasingly pressing problem. This paper
aims to bridge this knowledge gap by providing a comprehensive review of the complex mechanisms of bio-corrosion,
focusing on the formation and accumulation of hydrogen sulfide, its conversion into sulfuric acid and the subsequent
deterioration of concrete materials. The paper also explores various factors affecting bio-corrosion rates, including
environmental conditions, concrete properties and wastewater characteristics. The paper further highlights existing
corrosion test strategies, such as chemical tests, in-situ tests and microbial simulations tests along with their general
analytical parameters. The conversion of hydrogen sulfide into sulfuric acid is a primary cause of concrete decay and its
progression is influenced by environmental conditions, inherent concrete characteristics, and the composition of
wastewater. Through illustrative case studies, the paper assesses the practical implications and efficacy of prevailing
mitigation techniques. Coating materials provide a protective barrier against corrosive agents among the discussed
techniques, while optimised concrete mix designs enhance the inherent resistance and durability of the concrete
matrix. Finally, this review also outlines the future prospects and challenges in bio-corrosion research with an aim to
promote the creation of more resilient and cost-efficient materials for sewer systems.
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Keywords
Bio-corrosion; Concrete; Hydrogen sulfide; Sewer system; Strength
1. Introduction
Sewer systems play a crucial role in managing municipal wastewater, comprised over 95 % water and contaminants
from domestic, industrial and urban sources. Domestic wastewater typically contains a mixture of microorganisms and
chemicals, while industrial wastewater often includes more complex and hazardous substances such as heavy metals,
inorganic and organic compounds (Sun, 2015). An intricate network, made up of pipes, inlets, pumps and manholes,
channels wastewater to treatment facilities or discharge points (Wu et al., 2021c). Broadly, these systems are generally
categorized into two main types: fully-filled pressure sewers operating under anaerobic conditions, and partially-filled
gravity sewers that allow for re-aeration (Fig. 1) (Li et al., 2017). Within this framework, a sewer pipe encompasses five
principal phases: suspended wastewater, wetted sewer biofilms, sediments, sewer air and a biofilm on the pipe surface
exposed to sewer air, the latter two being unique to gravity sewers (Hvitved-Jacobsen et al., 2013). These systems also
function as biological reactors, supporting microbial activity primarily within biofilms and sediments (Li et al., 2017).
Despite the presence of oxygen in gravity sewers, biofilms and sediments under the water surface can be partially or
entirely anaerobic due to limited oxygen penetration. Such an environment encourages anaerobic fermentation and
sulfate reduction in deeper layers, leading to the generation and release of hydrogen sulfide gas (Hvitved-Jacobsen et
al., 2013; Madraszewski et al., 2022). This gas presents multiple challenges: it poses health risks, produces an
unpleasant odor, and accelerates corrosion within the sewer system, further complicating wastewater management.
Fig. 1. Visual representation of sewer network infrastructure layout.
Modern sewer networks have evolved considerably since the 19th century due to increasing public health concerns,
remaining largely unseen due to their underground nature. For instance, in response to public health concerns in the
mid-19th century, London embarked on constructing an extensive sewer system featuring six main interceptors
covering over 160 km (Goodman and Chant, 1999). Concurrently, Hamburg in Germany and several American cities
established their own sewer systems. Today, these systems have expanded into expansive, capital-intensive projects
essential to cities worldwide (Parande et al., 2006). Prominent examples include Singapore's Deep Tunnel Sewerage
System (DTSS), initiated in 2000, encompassing a deep sewer tunnel of over 40 km and an additional 60 km of linking
sewers (Anwar et al., 2022). Similarly, Qatar's Inner Doha Re-sewerage Implementation Strategy (IDRIS) boasts a 16 km
main trunk sewer, while the Thames Tideway Tunnel, currently under construction in the UK, will stretch 25 km (Wu et
al., 2020). Despite their massive scale, these mostly concrete structures face challenges, such as the DTSS contending
with high concentrations of corrosive hydrogen sulfide and accompanying odor concerns due to sulfide production.
The economic burden of bio-corrosion in these systems is high. Some countries including the United States, the United
Kingdom, Australia and Germany allocate significant budgets for maintenance and repairs (Table 1). Considering the
pivotal role of wastewater systems and the significant maintenance expenses involved with them, there is a pressing
need to enhance their durability, aiming for a service life spanning at least 50 years while curbing repair expenditures
(O'Connell et al., 2010).
Table 1. Costs associated with rehabilitation and maintenance of sewer infrastructure.
Location Costs Key notes References
Australia $69.7 billion Overall estimated cost of the wastewater resource during 2011–12. Anwar et al. (2022)
(AUD)
$125 billion Predicted annual repair costs for water and sewer pipelines over next
(AUD) 20 years.
Location Costs Key notes References
New $15.8 billion Projected cost for replacing 24,000 km of sewer infrastructure
Zealand (NZD)
$17 million Annual costs for repairing and maintaining sewer pipeline networks
(NZD) because of network failures.
United $3.3 billion Rehabilitation cost of sewer wastewater network in 2009. Saucier and Herisson (2016)
States
$390 billion Costs for maintaining current wastewater infrastructure and constructing Gutiérrez-Padilla et al. (2010)
new facilities over next 20 years.
UK £ 85 million – Berger et al. (2016)
Germany €450 million Annual costs for rehabilitating wastewater infrastructure in 2016
Belgium €5 million Cost for repairing sewer pipes, making up 20 % of the overall wastewater Zhang et al. (2008); Vincke et
treatment and collection expenses. al. (2002)
Los Angeles $200 million Annual cost for maintaining and repairing sewer systems damaged by Hewayde et al. (2007)
corrosion
Concrete, the most prevalent building material globally and the second-most consumed resource after water, holds an
indispensable role in sewer networks due to its robustness and cost-efficiency (Mehta and Monteiro, 2014). Such
systems extensively utilize concrete for a range of structural elements, including drainage systems, pipe networks,
treatment stages, digestion and septic tanks, pumping stations and other chemical treatments (Barbosa et al., 2002; Li
et al., 2017). However, despite its widespread use, concrete structures within sewer systems encounter complex
degradation issues due to chemical, microbiological and mechanical factors (George et al., 2012). Underground
structures are particularly at risk, facing a twofold deterioration mechanism: external stresses from adjacent soil and
internal damage due to aggressive microbial activities (Chaudhari et al., 2022). Such conditions promote the
penetration of detrimental chemicals into the cement matrix, potentially catalysing its disintegration and subsequent
emergence of cracks and spalls due to external pressures. The rate of concrete degradation is influenced not only by the
external influencing factors (such as buried soil conditions) but also by the internal corrosive environment within
sewer structure (Leemann et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020). Table 2 displays the durability of concrete
under different operating conditions. Although protective measures such as chemical coatings, polymer linings,
chemical additives, surface washing, supplementary cementitious materials and alternative binder systems (such as
calcium aluminate cement, sulfate resistance cement, polymer modified concrete and geopolymer concrete) have been
employed, their long-term durability remains questionable (Noeiaghaei et al., 2017). Furthermore, repair operations
often disrupt the functionality of wastewater facilities, adding another layer of complexity. As a result, enhancing the
durability of concrete in sewer infrastructure remains a significant area of ongoing research in civil engineering.
Table 2. Concrete durability under different operating condition.
Material Operating condition Corrosion rate References

(mm/year)
Ordinary Portland cement H2S: 65–722 ppm, Temperature: 2.5–22.5 °C, Relative 11.2 Grengg et al. (2020)
(OPC) mortar humidity: 69–100 %
Calcium aluminate cement 5.4

(CAC) mortar
Material Operating condition Corrosion rate References
(mm/year)
Geopolymer 3.8
Dolomite aggregate + OPC H2S: 10–40 ppm, Temperature: 12–26 °C 1.12–1.57 Kiliswa et al. (2019)
concrete
CAC concrete 0.35–0.60
CAC mortar H2S: 0–880 ppm, Temperature: 13.7–34.1 °C, Relative 2.25 Khan et al. (2019)
humidity: 78–100 %
CAC mortar H2S: 150 ± 30 ppm, Temperature: 30 ± 2 °C, Relative 3.71 Ding et al. (2017)
humidity: >99 %
OPC concrete H2S: 0.1–367 ppm, Temperature: 15–20 °C 1–10 Grengg et al. (2015)
OPC Concrete H2S: 7–411 ppm, Temperature: 22–29 °C, Relative 9–12 Wells and Melchers
humidity: 88–100 % (2014)
Siliceous aggregate + OPC H2S: 40–75 ppm >5 Alexander and Fourie
concrete (2011)
Siliceous aggregate + CAC 0.8–1.2

concrete
Mortar H2S: 30 ± 20 ppm 4.8 ± 1.8 Satoh et al. (2009)
Concrete H2S: 0–1000 ppm, Temperature: 3–20 °C 3.1 Vollertsen et al. (2008)
Mortar H2S: 30 ± 20 ppm 3–4 Okabe et al. (2007)
Concrete – 1.1–1.8 Vincke et al. (2002)
Concrete H2S: 5–400 ppm, Temperature: 10–30 °C 1.4 Mori et al. (1992)
Bio-corrosion resistance in concrete structures is an urgent global concern due to its significant economic and
environmental consequences. Over the years, researchers have explored various strategies to enhance the resistance of
concrete exposed to bio-corrosion. These include the use of supplementary cementitious materials (House, 2013;
Reiterman and Tomek, 2016), nanomaterials (Mahdikhani et al., 2018), geopolymers (Bouguermouh et al., 2017),
antimicrobial agents (Caicedo-Ramirez, 2018), limestone aggregates, with studies demonstrating the superior
performance of dolomite over calcite aggregates (Kiliswa et al., 2019; Xiao et al., 2016), and enhanced performance
observed with the use of CAC clinker as aggregates (Bassuoni et al., 2007). Surface treatments such as epoxy resins,
polyurethane, PVC liners, high-density polyethylene and fiberglass have also been investigated (Almusallam et al.,
2003; Noeiaghaei et al., 2017), along with chemical spraying techniques involving magnesium hydroxide, hydrogen
peroxide, free nitrous acid and sodium hydroxide (Jiang et al., 2013; Sun, 2015; Wang et al., 2020) and surface washing
technique (Li et al., 2021). However, bio-corrosion in sewer systems remains a controversial topic. This is mainly due to
the lack of standardized evaluation methods and a comprehensive understanding of the problem, which often lead to
inconsistent research findings. For example, some studies have employed sulfuric acid solution for specimen
immersion (Caselles et al., 2023; Gevaudan et al., 2021), while others have utilized simulation chambers (House, 2013;
Roghanian and Banthia, 2019) or in-situ tests (Herisson et al., 2013; Lors et al., 2018). Given the diverse range of
approaches, there is a pressing need to combine existing knowledge and identify areas requiring further investigation.
Therefore, an up-to-date, comprehensive review is urgently needed to capture the latest advancements and highlight
potential avenues for future research in this critical field. Such a review would help researchers to better understand
the complexities of bio-corrosion, develop more effective mitigation strategies and ultimately extend the longevity of
concrete infrastructures in sewer environments.
The aim of this review is to explore the existing knowledge on bio-corrosion control in mineral-based construction
materials used within sewer systems, while also highlighting research gaps and future opportunities. The paper begins
with a succinct introduction to the complex biochemical processes leading to bio-corrosion, followed by an analysis of
the various factors influencing bio-corrosion rates. The review then delves into current techniques for assessing the
resistance of concrete in biogenic environments, emphasizing the pivotal role of evaluation indexes in assessment
outcomes. The paper also presents a range of global case studies related to bio-corrosion and evaluates existing
protective strategies for concrete sewer infrastructure. The review concludes by identifying emerging challenges and
outlining potential research directions in this evolving field.
2. Mechanisms of bio-corrosion in sewer systems

Bio-corrosion in sewer systems starts with the formation of aqueous H2S, which is a by-product of sulfur compounds
present in wastewater (Roberts et al., 2002; Wu et al., 2020). The aqueous H2S is released from wastewater and
accumulates at the crown of the concrete surface, setting the stage for the bio-corrosion process (Li et al., 2020). In the
sewer environment, the exposed concrete section is then neutralized by gaseous H2S and CO2, creating a favorable
environment for sulfide-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) to colonize (Roberts et al., 2002). These bacteria oxidize the dissolved
H2S on the moist concrete surface, producing sulfuric acid. This reaction leads to a drastic reduction in surface pH,
often dropping to levels between 1 and 2, and in extreme cases, as low as 0.5 (Wu et al., 2020). This acidic environment
dissolves the hydration products in the concrete, initiating a decalcification process that leads to the formation of
gypsum and ettringite, while also causing the dissolution of aggregates. (House and Weiss, 2014). Due to their
expansive nature, these compounds induce microcracks in the concrete, thereby compromising its durability
(Roychand et al., 2021). While many sewer systems experience a corrosion rate of up to 12 mm/year, corrosion tests
have shown even higher rates, reaching up to 14 mm/year (Wu et al., 2018). Fig. 2 provides an overview of the various
phases involved in the bio-corrosion process.

Fig. 2. Schematic overview of the concrete bio-corrosion within sewer environment.
2.1. Generation and accumulation of hydrogen sulfide

The deterioration of cementitious material in sewer structures is a complex phenomenon involving multiple chemical
and biological processes. The process begins with the presence of sulfur in wastewater, which exists in both organic
and inorganic forms. While organic sulfur has a negligible concentration of about 0.2 ppm, the majority of inorganic
sulfur is present as sulfates (Sun, 2015). Wastewater also contains other components such as organic carbon, ammonia,
phosphate magnesium, calcium and iron. In this environment, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are particularly
prevalent, especially within biofilm layers. These SRB become active under anaerobic conditions and initiate sulfate
respiration (Eq. (1)) (Grengg et al., 2018). They reduce sulfate ions to sulfide ions, utilizing organic matter in the sewage
as their energy source. The breakdown of carbohydrates, glucose, lipids and proteins through fermentation leads to a
decrease in both oxygen and nitrate concentrations in the sewage (Eqs. (2), (3), (4), (5), (6), (7)) (Sharma et al., 2008).
This sulfate reduction and subsequent organic nutrient oxidation are carried out by a diverse group of SRB species,
including Desulfobacterium, Desulfonema, Desulfomaculum, Desulfomicrobium, Desulfobulbus and Desulfovibrio (Santo
Domingo et al., 2011; Sun, 2015).
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
In anaerobic environments, the coexistence of methanogenic microorganisms and SRB leads to the generation of
various sulfide groups (H2S, S2−, HS−) along with carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) (Eqs. (8), (9), (10)) (Kleinjan
et al., 2003). The produced H2S transitions from the biofilm into the wastewater system in the form of hydrogen ions
(H+) and bisulfide ions (HS−). Simultaneously, CO2 partially dissolves, yielding carbonate and bicarbonate ions (Kaushal
et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020). The interaction of sulfide ions (S2) with dissolved hydrogen in wastewater leads to the
formation of H2S (aq). Additionally, it is important to acknowledge that in certain conditions, dissolved oxygen may be
present in sewage, offering an alternative pathway for the oxidation of sulfides, including those released from biofilms.
This oxidation process can mitigate the concentration of hydrogen sulfide in the sewer atmosphere, potentially
influencing the rate and extent of bio-corrosion. This H2S has the potential to transition into its gaseous phase,
especially in the upper sections of sewer structures, with its behavior influenced by wastewater pH, temperature and
flow turbulence, as further discussed in Section 3. Once released, gaseous H2S accumulates in the sewer headspaces,
playing a pivotal role in the bio-corrosion process (Hewayde, 2006; Roberts et al., 2002). The reaction mechanism is
depicted as follows:
(8)
(9)
(10)
2.2. Generation of sulfuric acid

A series of chemical and biological reactions, involving both abiotic and biotic, are initiated when gaseous H2S
infiltrates the moisture layers on the exposed concrete sections situated above the water level in the sewer
environment (Grengg et al., 2018). These reactions play a pivotal in the formation of sulfuric acid, which acts as the
primary promoter in the process of concrete corrosion within sewer structures. A model is often used to explain the
corrosion process, highlighting the critical role of sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (SOB) (Fig. 3) (Anwar et al., 2022; Grengg et
al., 2018; Wu et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2020). In the first phase of bio-corrosion, the concrete surface exposed to air
undergoes neutralization due to the combined effects of gaseous H2S and CO2. This neutralization is crucial as it sets
the stage for the subsequent colonization and proliferation of SOB (Roberts et al., 2002). Freshly constructed concrete
generally possesses an alkaline pH, ranging from 11 to 13. This alkalinity restricts the growth of most microbial species,
including SOB (Chaudhari et al., 2022; Mehta and Monteiro, 2014). This alkalinity disrupts microbial cell membranes
and enzymatic processes, making it difficult for many microbes to survive and reproduce. However, microbial
colonization is initiated when the pH decreases to approximately 9. Various mechanisms contribute to the initial pH
decrease in concrete sewer structures. The carbonation of the concrete surface is a chemical reaction that lowers pH
levels (Davis et al., 1998; Sun, 2015). Additionally, the chemical oxidation of H2S, leading to the formation of weak acids
such as thiosulfuric and polythionic acids, further contributes to this phenomenon (Bagreev and Bandosz, 2005; Joseph
et al., 2012). The alkaline materials in the concrete are targeted by these acids, leading to a consistent drop in the pH of
the surface (Kleinjan et al., 2003).
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Fig. 3. (a) Biogenic deterioration process within sewer environments along with the contributing factors, modified from
Wells and Melchers (2014); (b) Schematic overview of concrete degradation due to bio-corrosion (Anwar et al., 2022).
The exact role of microbial activity in the initial pH neutralization stage remains a point of ongoing debate (Grengg et
al., 2018). While it is commonly believed that the strongly alkaline conditions limit microbial activity at this stage,
some research suggests that biological reactions might occur earlier than previously thought. For instance, a study
conducted in a sewage system with elevated H2S concentrations (>600 ppm) found that bacteria could oxidize H2S to
produce sulfuric acid, thereby reducing the pH (Yamanaka et al., 2002). Another finding by Okabe et al. (2007) showed
that the rate of pH decrease on concrete surface was four times greater than what would be expected from solely
chemical reactions (Okabe et al., 2007). This substantial pH drop was associated with the presence of various bacterial
species on these surfaces (Fig. 3a). The bacterial species present on the concrete surfaces actively contribute to the
rapid pH decrease by metabolizing compounds and producing acids, thereby accelerating the deterioration process
beyond what would be caused by chemical reactions alone. Furthermore, there is evidence suggesting certain fungi
might contribute to the early stages of pH reduction by producing acids such as glucuronic, acetic and oxalic acids
(Wang et al., 2020). The duration of this initial stage is variable, potentially ranging from a few months to several years,
depending on the severity of the environmental conditions of the wastewater system (Sun, 2015; Wang et al., 2020;
Wu et al., 2020).
As the process progresses to the second phase, a diverse array of microbiological species come into play, including
neutrophilic sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms (NSOM), autotrophic nitrifying bacteria, fungi, protozoa and algae (Fig.
3a) (Sanchez-Silva and Rosowsky, 2008). Among these, autotrophic nitrifying bacteria are key players in driving the
nitrification process within wastewater treatment plants, leading in the production of nitric acid (Eqs. (11), (12))
(Leemann et al., 2010). Interestingly, the corrosion caused by nitric acid is comparable that of biogenic sulfuric acid
attack. These bacteria flourish at pH levels between 7 and 9 but are suppressed when the pH drops below 4 (Anwar et
al., 2022). When the pH drops below 9, these bacteria begin to colonize the concrete surfaces. During this colonization,
H2S gas present within the condensed film covering the concrete exterior undergoes oxidation, forming various sulfur
states like elemental sulfur (S), thiosulfate (S2O3) and sulfite ( ) (Eqs. (13), (14), (15), (16), (17), (18)) (Sun, 2015).
The specific forms of sulfur produced are depending upon the existing pH at the location. These oxidation products
serve as an energy source for the subsequent production of biotic sulfuric acid, which further reacts with the concrete
surfaces to decrease the pH (Grengg et al., 2018). The described reaction mechanism is presented as follows (Eqs. (11),
(12), (13), (14), (15), (16), (17), (18)):
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
As the pH drops to around 6, concrete surfaces begin to be progressively colonised by various NSOM species including
Starkeya novella, Thiobacillus thioparus, Thiobacillus intermedius, and Halothiobacillus neapolitanus (George et al., 2012;
Herisson et al., 2012; Valdebenito-Rolack et al., 2011). In moist environments, their metabolic activity generates
sulfuric acid, which subsequently interacts with the cementitious matrix (Eqs. (19), (20)) (Wu et al., 2021c). This
interaction results in a further pH reduction on the surface to approximately 3.5–5. The ongoing metabolic activity and
the consequent generation of biogenic H2SO4 contribute to the deterioration of the concrete infrastructure, diminishing
both its mass and strength (Grengg et al., 2017). The timeframe for this second phase of corrosion is subject to
variations, with factors like H2S gas concentration and ambient humidity playing influential roles. On average, this
phase spans between 13 and 24 months (Anwar et al., 2022).
(19)
(20)
The third stage begins when the pH of the concrete surface drops to approximately 4 (Fig. 3a). In this phase, the
metabolic dominance of NSOM slowly diminishes, and acidophilic sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms (ASOM), notably
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans and Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans, become the primary drivers of biogenic concrete
deterioration (Grengg et al., 2018; Gutiérrez-Padilla et al., 2010; Jiang et al., 2016; Roberts et al., 2002). While the
former is predominantly found in the anaerobic zones of the corrosion layer, the latter dominates in oxygen-rich areas
(Okabe et al., 2007). These ASOM species persistently oxidize dissolved H2S and other sulfur derivatives, generating
sulfuric acid. This activity further drops the concrete surface pH, often to levels between 1 and 2, and in some extreme
instances, as low as 0.5 (Wu et al., 2020). Concrete deterioration within sewage system is primarily due to the
generation of H2SO4, with optimal temperatures ranging from 20 °C to 30 °C (Anwar et al., 2022). In sewage systems of
Western countries, where temperatures often remain below 20 °C, microbial activity and the subsequent generation of
H2SO4 are typically reduced. However, when temperatures approach the optimal range of 20 °C to 30 °C, the acid
generation intensifies, amplifying concrete degradation. The rate of concrete corrosion during this stage depends on
the production and dispersal of sulfuric acid on the concrete surface. Depending on the environmental conditions,
corrosion rates can vary widely, from severe losses of up to 12 mm per year in harsh environments to minimal losses of
1 mm per year in milder conditions (Wells and Melchers, 2014).
2.3. Deterioration of concrete materials

Concrete constructed from Ordinary Portland Cements (OPC) is vulnerable to acid attack due to its inherent alkaline
nature. Sulfuric acid, produced by both ASOM and NSOM, significantly corrodes these cement-based materials. The
impact of this biogenic corrosion on concrete deterioration is illustrated in Fig. 3b. Upon hydration, an OPC paste
contain various components. For instance, calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) constitutes approximately 50 % to 60 % of the
mix, calcium hydroxide (CH) accounts for 20 % to 25 %, while other hydrates including ettringite, monosulfate and
calcium aluminate hydrate constitute the remaining 15 % to 20 % (Leemann et al., 2010; Shi and Stegemann, 2000; Wu
et al., 2021c). Concrete deterioration begins when the pH level drops from 12.5 to below 8.8, leading to the gradual
dissolution of these hydration products (Leemann et al., 2010). Due to its porous nature, concrete allows biogenic
sulfuric acid to penetrate, reacting with these components to create calcium sulfate (Shi and Stegemann, 2000). Over
time, gypsum precipitates directly from solution upon reaching supersaturation, primarily dependent on the
concentrations of calcium and sulfate ions present (Eqs. (21)) (Grengg et al., 2018). This direct precipitation leads to the
formation of a thick, soft white layer of gypsum on the concrete surface, contributing to volume expansion (120–220 %)
but not enhancing the structural integrity of the cementitious material (Idriss et al., 2001). Similarly, ettringite
formation is a result of direct precipitation from a supersaturated solution involving tricalcium aluminates and sulfate
ions, driven by thermodynamic stability (Eqs. (22), (23)). Such reactions can result in a dramatic volume increase
ranging from 227 % to 700 %, exacerbating the deterioration (Idriss et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2020). However, the
scientific community remains divided on the impact of ettringite formation. Some researchers argue that it poses a
greater risk than gypsum, leading to increased expansion and promoting the ingress of acid via internal cracks
(Abdelmseeh et al. (2006). On the other hand, others believe it acts as a temporary intermediate, dissolving once it
encounters a solution with a pH <10.7 (Sun, 2015; Wang et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2020).
(21)
(22)
(23)
In addition to the formation of ettringite and gypsum layers, the precipitation of iron rust becomes pivotal in the
progression of concrete deterioration once cracking or diffusion has allowed aggressive species to reach the rebar layer.
This process triggers micro-cracking on intact concrete surfaces, thereby facilitating further damage (Lou et al., 2021).
Iron rust formation commences with the dissolution of ferrous ions, particularly when pH levels climb above 3.
Subsequently, the iron rust interacts with sulfuric acid, yielding aggressive compounds like ferric and ferrous sulfate,
which quicken the deterioration of concrete (Eqs. (24), (25)) (Yongsiri et al., 2005). Such chemical activity imposes
severe microstructural damage on the concrete, exceeding its tensile strength and leading to the formation of internal
cracks. These cracks serve as entry points for acids, bacteria, moisture and other harmful substances, further
accelerating the deterioration process (Anwar et al., 2022). Moreover, the continuous flow of sewage can wash away
the non-cohesive layers of gypsum and ettringite, exposing new surfaces that are more susceptible to rapid
deterioration (Mittermayr et al., 2015). Over time, the cumulative effects of these processes compromise the structural
integrity of the concrete. This diminishes its load-bearing capacity and can eventually lead to catastrophic failure of
wastewater sewerage infrastructure (Li et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2008).
(24)
(25)
3. Factors influencing concrete deterioration in sewer infrastructure

The deterioration rate of concrete in sewer infrastructure is multifaceted, influenced by factors ranging from
wastewater properties and the compositional characteristics of the concrete to environmental conditions,
microorganisms and hydraulic dynamics (Fig. 4). Environmental aspects like atmospheric and wastewater temperature,
pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand and aqueous H2S concentration play pivotal roles (Fig. 4)
(Anwar et al., 2022; Madraszewski et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2020). A comprehensive understanding of these factors offers
invaluable insights for accurately predicting corrosion rates, thereby facilitating effective planning for the required
rehabilitation and maintenance of concrete structures. (Wu et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2020). The factors influencing the
bio-corrosion rate in concrete sewer systems are detailed in Table 3.
Fig. 4. Overview of concrete bio-corrosion factors in sewer systems. The diagram illustrates the interaction between
wastewater characteristics (including turbulence, flow velocity, temperature, DO, pH, SO4, H2S(aq), and CO2 (aq)),
microbial influences (SRB and SOB), inherent concrete properties; alkalinity, porosity, water cement ratio (w/c), pH,
and atmospheric conditions (temperature, relative humidity, H2S(g), and CO2(g)). Together, these factors underline the
complexity of the biogenic concrete deterioration phenomenon.
Table 3. Various influential factors affecting the bio-corrosion rate in concrete sewer systems.
Characteristics Different factors influencing Key details of the factors Effect on References
bio-corrosion process bio-
corrosion
processa
Factors affecting Sewer temperature Increased temperatures stimulate the growth Positive Sun (2015); Wu et
the sewer of microorganisms on concrete surfaces, al. (2018)
environment accelerating the bio-corrosion rate
particularly in the crown and tidal region.
Atmospheric H2S Higher H2S gas content leads to a more Positive Madraszewski et
concentration intense biogenic attack, with concentrations al. (2022); Li et al.
exceeding 0.5 ppm within the upper region (2019)
reflecting an intensive attack. At very high
H2S levels, abiotic conditions may prevail,
changing corrosion dynamics.
Relative humidity (RH) High humidity levels stimulate headspace Positive Wu et al. (2018);
condensation, leading to an intensified Islander et al.
corrosion
processa
formation of H2SO4, with the maximum rate (1991)

of carbonation observed within the 50 % to
75 % RH range.
Drying wetting cycle Drying and wetting cycles in sewer structures Positive Madraszewski et
contribute to material expansion and al. (2022); House
contraction, leading to cracks and concrete (2013)
degradation. They also facilitate the entry of
corrosive agents, accelerating corrosion and
structural damage.
Microbial impacts SRB The upsurge in SRB population enhances the Positive Anwar et al.
formation of H2S in the aqueous (2022); Mori et al.
environment, amplifying the severity of bio- (1992)
corrosion.
SOB The proliferation of SOB population results in Positive Wu et al. (2020);

elevated bio-corrosion rates by facilitating Mori et al. (1992)
the conversion of H2S in the sewer
atmosphere into sulfuric acid.
Others (Algae/fungi/protozoa) The presence of bacteria, including SRB and N.A. Sun (2015); Mori
SOB, can promote biogenic activity and serve et al. (1992); Gu et
as catalysts for the biogenic attack al. (1998); Lavigne
mechanism, whereas the impact of other et al. (2016)
microorganisms is yet to be fully understood.
Characteristics of Sewage H2S and CO2 The biogenic attack becomes more severe Positive George et al.
wastewater concentration with an elevated H2S and CO2 content in the (2012); Anwar et
wastewater, with a total sulfide content of al. (2022)
over 1.0 mg/L indicating a significant chemical
attack.
Sulfate content Higher levels of sulfate content promote the Positive O'Connell et al.
growth and metabolic activity of SRB, leading (2010); House
to an increased formation of sulfide. When (2013); Sun (2015)
the sulfate content exceeds 200 mg/L, the risk
of biogenic attack intensifies.
Sewage temperature The bacterial growth in the biofilm layer is Positive Zhang et al.
stimulated by an increase in temperature (2008); House
(20-30 °C), leading to a surge in the formation (2013); Wu et al.
of H2S in its aqueous form. (2018)
Biochemical Oxygen Demand The presence of a high BOD indicates the Positive George et al.
(BOD) abundance of organic matter that serves as a (2012); House
nutrient source for bacteria, leading to the
corrosion
processa
depletion of dissolved oxygen and the (2013); Wu et al.

subsequent production of sulfide. (2018)
DO A higher concentration of DO, exceeding Negative Madraszewski et

1.0 mg/L, enhances the oxidation of H2S in its al. (2022); House
aqueous form and diminishes the level of H2S (2013)
gas in the sewer atmosphere.
pH When pH concentration is lower, H2S Positive Zhang et al.

vaporization from liquid to gaseous phase (2008); House
increases, increasing the biogenic attack and and Weiss (2014)
consequently elevating the risk of concrete
bio-corrosion, especially when pH is below
6.5.
Factors of Retention time (RT) Prolonged retention time in wastewater Positive House (2013); Wu
hydraulics within results in a higher consumption of DO and an et al. (2018)
design processes increased release of hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
into the sewer atmosphere.
Ventilation facility Properly installed and maintained ventilation Negative Anwar et al.
systems play a vital role in lowering the H2S (2022); House
gas concentration within the atmospheric (2013)
zone, thus reducing the extent of biogenic
attack.
Turbulence (Flow velocity) Surface abrasion and an expansion of the Positive Anwar et al.
tidal area, which maximizes the production (2022); House
of H2S (gas), are caused by an increase in flow (2013)
velocity.
Flow velocity may have varying effects on the N.A.

biofilm layer thickness and the generation of
sulfide.
Concrete Alkalinity The presence of high alkalinity ensures a Negative Scrivener and De
properties and greater availability of substances capable of Belie (2013); De
constituents reacting with biogenic acids, leading to a Belie et al. (2004);
slowdown in the bio-corrosion rate and a House (2013)
decrease in the depth of penetration.
Water/cement ratio Higher water/cement ratio increases porosity, Positive Fattuhi and
facilitating the ingress of corrosive agents and Hughes (1988);
promoting bio-corrosion. Hewayde et al.
(2007)
corrosion
processa
Supplementary cement-based Although composites exhibit resistance Negative Monteny et al.

products (metakaolin, silica towards bio-corrosion, a thorough (2000); House
fume, blast furnace slag, fly investigation is still necessary to fully and Weiss (2014)
ash) understand their susceptibility to bio-
corrosion.
Geopolymer Geopolymer concrete outperforms OPC, Negative Provis et al.

demonstrating enhanced durability and a (2015); Grengg et
reduced susceptibility to acidic attacks. al. (2018); Shi and
Stegemann (2000)
Calcium aluminate cement The higher alumina gel content in CAC results Negative Ehrich et al.
(CAC) in improved performance compared with (1999); Sand et al.
OPC by effectively preventing bacterial (1994); Herisson
influence and reducing the likelihood of bio- et al. (2013)
corrosion.
Sulfate resistant cement (SRC) SRC demonstrates a notable increase in its Negative Khademi and Sar
ability to resist sulfate attack by means of (2015);
adjusting the mineral composition of the Harbulakova et al.
cement clinker, specifically by reducing the (2017)
content of C3A.
Polymer modified cement The incorporation of polymers into concrete Negative Ghassemi and
can significantly improve its resistance to Toufigh (2020);
corrosive substances by reducing Assaad (2018); Shi
permeability and impeding the penetration et al. (2020)
of aggressive chemicals and microorganisms.
a
Symbols are used to indicate the impact of factors on the bio-corrosion rate: ‘Positive’ suggests an increase and acceleration,
‘Negative’ indicates a decrease, and ‘N.A.’ is assigned when the effect is not clearly established.
3.1. Impacts of environmental conditions on hydrogen sulfide formation

Environmental conditions, including relative humidity and atmospheric temperature, play a crucial factor in the
deterioration of concrete within sewer structures. Variations in relative humidity and temperature across different bio-
corrosion studies are displayed in Table 4. The activity of microorganisms in sewer systems is greatly influenced by
sewage temperature, which can vary widely depending on the location and the season. For example, in Tokyo, Japan,
temperatures in sewer systems fluctuate between 10 and 30 °C, while Denmark experiences seasonal temperature
changes ranging from 3 to 20 °C (Joseph et al., 2010; Mori et al., 1992; Vollertsen et al., 2008). In contrast, Queensland,
Australia, maintains a constant sewage temperature of 19–22 °C year-round (Anwar et al., 2022). These temperature
variations directly impact the process of oxidizing sulfur compounds, thereby influencing the rate of bio-corrosion.
Increased atmospheric temperatures can enhance microbial activity, leading to a more rapid rate of bio-corrosion. For
example, microbial activities associated with sulfide oxidation slow down at temperatures below 15.6 °C. Conversely,
an increase in temperature from 20 to 25 °C results in a 15 % rise in the sulfide oxidation rate (Anwar et al., 2022;
Sublette et al., 1998). Moreover, wastewater temperature also plays a crucial role in H2S formation, with high
temperatures (>25 °C) promoting the conversion of liquid H2S to its gaseous form. This conversion, in turn, can increase
microbial activity in the biofilm layer, leading to higher oxygen consumption and ultimately creating anaerobic
conditions (Noeiaghaei et al., 2017).
Table 4. Bio-corrosion testing parameters and bacterial cultures used in various laboratory simulation techniques.
References Relative Temperature H2S Microorganisms Key notes

humidity (°C) concentration
Neutrophilic Acidophilic
(%) (ppm)
sulfur-oxidizing sulfur-oxidizing
microorganisms microorganisms
Wang et al. 100 30 ± 3 500 (±100) T. ferrooxidans Incubation of bacteria with the
(2023) cultivation medium was
carried out at a temperature of
30 °C in a 1:10 ratio for a
duration of 15 days.
Khan et al. 85 ± 1 30 – T. intermedius A. thiooxidans Inoculum of each bacterial

(2022) species was mixed with culture
medium in separate tubes at
30 °C with specific pH: T.
intermedius (7.2) and A.
thiooxidans (3.5).
Kang and Ye – 30 – – A. thiooxidans The bacterial solution

(2022) underwent a 14-day
incubation in a temperature-
controlled shaker (125 rpm,
30 °C), leading to increased
turbidity of the liquid medium
due to bacterial growth.
Xie et al. – 25 650–750 – T. ferrooxidans Regular replacement and

(2019) (pH 1.1), 300– adjustment of the corrosion
450 (pH 1.6) solution, which contained a
10 % bacterial solution
inoculated with the culture
medium, took place every
14 days.
Roghanian 85 ± 2 – 50 T. thioparus A. thiooxidans, T. thioparus and A. thiooxidans,

and Banthia two species used for modeling
(2019) bio-corrosion processes, were
cultivated following ATCC
medium 125 and 290S6.
(%) (ppm)
Grandclerc et 100 30 30,100 – – Microorganisms from activated

al. (2018) sludge were used without
strain analysis to replicate
sewer conditions and study
biodeterioration.
Herisson et al. 100 30 – – Acidithiobacillus Specimens were exposed to

(2018) spp., A. thiooxidans weekly spraying of bacterial
solution for six weeks, while
the other group received
mineral nutrient solution
(pH 7) spraying.
Ding et al. >99 30 ± 2 150 ± 30 T. intermedia, T. A. thiooxidans The specimens were exposed
(2017) thioparus, H. to a bacterial growth solution
neapolitanus for a period of 2 weeks before
testing.
Marquez- 62 ± 5 30 ± 1 100 H. neapolitanus, A. thiooxidans Centrifugation at 4 °C and

Peñaranda et 13,000 rpm for 15 min allowed
al. (2016) the separation of cells from the
growth medium. The cells
were triple washed with
sulfur-free mineral medium
and then suspended for
inoculating the mortar
samples.
Jiang et al. 90, 100 17, 25, 30 0, 5, 10, 15, 25, A total of 36 corrosion
(2014); Jiang 50 chambers were constructed to
et al. (2015) replicate the conditions found
in real sewers.
Madraszewsk – 30 20 T. intermedia, S. A. thiooxidans The availability of referenced

i et al. (2022) novella, H. bacterial strains ensures that
neapolitanus this test can be replicated in
laboratories worldwide,
regardless of geographical
location.
Joseph et al. 85–95, 15–18, 25, 30 0, 5, 10, 15, 25, – – A total of 36 corrosion
(2010) 100 50 chambers were constructed to
investigate the effects of
temperature, humidity and H2S
levels on corrosion.
(%) (ppm)
Gutiérrez- – 25 300–600 T. thioparus, H. A. cryptum, A. Partial submersion of the

Padilla et al. neapolitanus thiooxidans samples performed in a
(2010); bacterial solution mixed with
Bielefeldt et artificial wastewater.
al. (2010)
Ehrich et al. 98 30 10 ± 5 H. neapolitanus, T. A. thiooxidans Inoculation of bacteria onto

(1999) intermedia, S. the specimens occurred prior
novella to the test, and a spray
containing a sum of 1013 cells
was applied to the samples for
90 days.
De Belie et al. – 28 250 Thiobacillus spp. – Partial submersion of the

(2004); specimens in a bacterial
Vincke et al. solution occurred for a period
(2002) of 10 days during each cycle
Gu et al. – 30 – T. intermedia – A medium containing bacteria

(1998) and fungi was consistently
sprayed onto the surface of the
specimens.
Schmidt et al. – 20–30 – – A. thiooxidans A bacterial medium was

(1997) periodically introduced to
flood the specimens.
Mori et al. – ambient 400 – A. thiooxidans For the test's initial two
(1992) temperature months, the surface of the
specimen was consistently
inoculated bi-weekly with A.
thiooxidans, which was
extracted from a damaged
concrete sewer pipe.
Sand (1987) >95 30 10.76 S. novella, T. A. thiooxidans Each inoculation cycle involved
intermedia, H. spraying an aerosol of the
neapolitanus mixture, comprising a total
count of 1013 cells, onto the
surface of concrete blocks.
Sand and >95 30 10 Thiobacillus spp. Nozzles are used to inject air
Bock (1984) into a concentrated bacterial
suspension, generating a fog
with high bacterial content.
The corrosion behavior in the sewer atmospheric section is directly impacted by relative humidity. The difference in
temperature between sewer atmosphere and sewage plays a role in determining the relative humidity, which
subsequently affects the moisture present in the sewer atmosphere (Noeiaghaei et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2020). When the
sewage temperature exceeds that of the sewer atmosphere, this leads to an increase in relative humidity and
consequently causes condensation to form on the cooler concrete walls, influenced by the cooling mechanism resulting
from the adjacent soil. This condensation promotes microbial proliferation and creates the necessary environment for
bio-chemical reactions (Joseph et al., 2012; Wells et al., 2009). Optimal carbonation occurs when the relative humidity
ranges between 50 % and 75 %. Exceeding this range limits CO2 penetration and reduces the rate of carbonation (Wu et
al., 2018). For bacterial colonization to flourish, atmospheric conditions must maintain a relative humidity and concrete
moisture content above 87 % and 4 %, respectively (Anwar et al., 2022). Relative humidity varies significantly within
sewer systems, ranging from 60 to 80 % in USA to 90–94 % in Sydney, Australia. Moreover, high levels of relative
humidity accelerate the production of H2SO4, with the highest amounts being produced at a relative humidity range of
95 % to 100 % (Anwar et al., 2022). These high humidity levels intensify the bio-acidification process, leading to a
reduction in surface pH levels on the concrete, while lower humidity levels (85–95 %) have less pronounced effects.
Additionally, increased relative humidity exacerbates mass loss in the concrete, thereby amplifying its degradation.
3.2. Impact of hydrogen sulfide in sewer system

Bio-corrosion initiates with the formation of aqueous H2S in sewer wastewater, primarily through the metabolic
activities of SRB in anoxic environments. These bacteria are commonly found in biofilms, sediments and a specialized
layer known as the slime layer, located beneath the waterline (Kong et al., 2018; O'Connell et al., 2010). The depth of
the slime layer varies between 0.3 and 1.0 mm and is influenced by flow dynamics as well as abrasion from wastewater
solids (Bowker et al., 1989; House and Weiss, 2014; Wu et al., 2018). Higher flow velocities can lead to increased shear
stress on the slime layer, which might erode or thin it out. Conversely, lower flow rates allow for sedimentation and can
result in a thicker slime layer as particles settle and become embedded. Turbulence in the flow can also introduce
oxygen, disrupting the anoxic conditions favorable for SRB and thereby affecting the composition and depth of slime
layer. Additionally, the abrasive effects of suspended wastewater solids can wear down the slime layer, especially in
areas of high particulate flow. Understanding these dynamics is essential as the integrity and thickness of slime layer
can influence the rate of bio-corrosion in the sewer system.
Slime layer is divided into three regions: an inert region, an intermediate anaerobic region and an aerobic region (Fig.
5a) (Wu et al., 2020). The topmost layer exposed to sewage, termed the aerobic zone, is rich in dissolved oxygen (DO),
creating an optimal environment for SOB to thrive. The consumption of oxygen in this aerobic zone leads to the
formation of a secondary anaerobic sulfate-reducing zone, providing an ideal environment for SRB growth (House and
Weiss, 2014). In this region, SRB convert sulfate and organic substances into aqueous H2S. As nutrients are utilized by
SRB while diffusing through the slime layer, their concentration drops, approaching zero near the concrete wall. This
results in a nutrient-depleted zone adjacent to the concrete, known as the inert layer (Chaudhari et al., 2022; Wu et al.,
2018). In this inert zone, bacterial activity is minimal due to the limited availability of sulfate and organic matter. The
specific dynamics and interactions of these distinct zones in the slime layer play a crucial factor in the deterioration of
concrete within sewer structures.
Fig. 5. (a) Interaction between H2S generation and slime layer in sewer system under sufficient and limited dissolved
oxygen levels (Wu et al., 2020); (b) Impact of pH changes on sulfide species distribution (Wu et al., 2018); (c) Schematic
overview showcasing the microbial activities in sediment layer (Grengg et al., 2018).
The concentration of aqueous H2S in wastewater is influenced by a range of factors, including DO level, temperature,
microbial activity, pH, BOD, wastewater turbulence and flow retention time (Hewayde, 2006; House and Weiss, 2014).
Among these factors, a pivotal factor is the DO level in sewage wastewater, as it is closely linked to the release of H2S
from the slime layer (Wu et al., 2018). When DO levels are elevated, SOB in the aerobic zone efficiently oxidize H2S,
minimizing its release into the sewage (Fig. 5a). Conversely, low DO levels allow H2S to diffuse through the aerobic
zone, leading to its dispersion in the sewage (Fig. 5a). The optimal DO level for sulfide accumulation remains a subject
of debate (Wu et al., 2020). Some suggest that sulfide can only be generated in a completely oxygen-free environment
(Nielsen et al., 2008), while others argue for a minimum DO level of 0.1 mg/L (Hewayde et al., 2006). Higher values, up
to 0.5 mg/L, have also been reported, although these higher numbers have drawn criticism (Ayoub et al., 2004; Bowker
et al., 1989). Other factors, such as sewage retention time, flow speed and BOD, indirectly affect H2S generation by
altering DO levels (House and Weiss, 2014). For example, an extended sewage retention time can gradually deplete DO
due to slow oxygen dissolution from the atmospheric headspace. Conversely, an increase in flow speed can induce
wastewater aeration. High BOD levels signify increased bacterial activity, which in turn leads to a more significant
depletion of DO in wastewater. Overall, while several factors influence the concentration of aqueous H2S in wastewater,
the primary determinant is the DO level. Its interaction with other variables, such as flow rate and BOD, underscores
the complexity of the processes governing H2S generation and dispersion in sewage systems.
The biogenic attack mechanism in sewer systems is significantly influenced by the release of CO2, sulfide species, and
microbial activities (Grengg et al., 2018). These factors are especially sensitive to changes in pH (Fig. 5b). In sewer
environments, CO2 can originate from various sources, including the decomposition of organic matter and the
respiration processes of bacteria and other microorganisms present in the sewage. Once formed, CO2 can dissolve in
the wastewater and the moisture present on the concrete surfaces, forming carbonic acid. This weak acid can then
react with the calcium hydroxide in the concrete, leading to the formation of calcium carbonate and water. This
reaction, known as carbonation, reduces the pH of the concrete from its initial highly alkaline state (typically around
pH 12–13) to a more neutral pH level. Within the biofilm layer SRB are most active at pH levels ranging from 6.5 to 7.5
(Anwar et al., 2022). However, their activity declines by approximately 30 % and 50 % when the pH levels rise to 8.6 and
9.0, respectively, compared to their metabolic rates at a pH of 7.5 (Fig. 5b) (Gutierrez et al., 2009). Different regions of
the biofilm contain distinct microbial communities. The outermost layer is predominantly populated by SRB, while
methane-producing prokaryotes (MPP) are more commonly found in the inner region (House and Weiss, 2014). Both
MPP and SRB have similar growth rates at pH levels between 7.0 and 7.5. When the pH levels fall below 7, the MPP
species exhibit a higher growth rate, surpassing SRB species. This is likely due to MPP species being better adapted to
acidic conditions than SRB. Under such conditions, the metabolic enzymes and internal cellular processes of MPP
operate more efficiently. Conversely, SRBs gain dominance over MPPs when the pH rises above 7.5 (O'Connell et al.,
2010). Recent research suggests that the generation and release of H2S are not significantly influenced by the presence
of MPP species within the biofilm region (Zan et al., 2020). This is possibly because MPPs focus primarily on
methanogenesis, and their metabolic pathways have a limited impact on H2S release. The presence of MPPs in the
biofilm is more related to methane production than H2S generation.
Changes in sewage pH levels trigger the release of a variety of sulfur compounds, such as S2−, HS− and H2S (Fig. 5c)
(Grengg et al., 2018; Kleinjan et al., 2003). When the pH below 6, most sulfur species exist in the form of aqueous H2S.
Conversely, S2 and HS− become increasingly prevalent when pH level rise above 8.0 and 12.0, respectively (House and
Weiss, 2014). Considering the typical pH range for municipal wastewater is between 6 and 8, the presence of sulfur
species like S2− and HS− is relatively rare, and these compounds are generally unable to cross the boundary between air
and water (Firer et al., 2008; Rathnayake et al., 2021). As a result, aqueous H2S is the primary sulfur species capable of
transitioning from the liquid phase to the gaseous phase, leading to the emission of gaseous H2S into the sewer
atmosphere. Concentrations of H2S in wastewater play a vital role in dictating the extent of corrosion in sewer systems.
The H2S presence is relatively low in the range of 0.1 to 0.5 mg/L. At these levels, the sulfuric acid produced due to the
oxidation of H2S is limited, which means that the concrete or sewer materials come into contact with less aggressive
agents, leading to minor corrosion. However, when H2S concentrations reach or exceed 1.0 mg/L, the production of
sulfuric acid increases. This acid aggressively attacks the calcium hydroxide in concrete, forming gypsum, which then
expands, causing the concrete to crack and deteriorate (Anwar et al., 2022). After release, gaseous H2S accumulates in
sewer headspaces, playing a critical role in bio-corrosion process. Although higher concentrations of H2S gas are
generally associated with increased rates of corrosion, the exact relationship between the two remains uncertain
(Apgar and Witherspoon, 2008; Vollertsen et al., 2008; Wells et al., 2009).
4. Corrosion test methods

A variety of approaches have been introduced to determine the resistance of concrete samples to the bio-corrosion
process. Experimental evaluation techniques, such as chemical tests, in-situ tests, and microbiological tests, are the
most frequently adopted (Table 5). Each experimental method is designed to simulate distinct stages of the bio-
corrosion process. For instance, chemical technique focuses on the final phase of bio-corrosion, whereas numerous
microbiological methods emulate phases 2 to 3. This section provides an overview of these experimental evaluation
methods and delves into the criteria for selecting evaluation indexes.
Table 5. A summary of corrosion determination and assessment techniques.
References Test details Material Test Assessment Key Observations

period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
Chemical test
Gevaudan et Samples were Geopolymer Cylinders (Ø13 x – Compressive Iron mineral additives like
al. (2021) subjected to three paste 20) mm strength, hematite enhance the acid
cycles of exposure to a concentration of resistance of high Na:Al
sulfuric acid solution elements in geopolymer formulations,
with a pH of 2.0 ± 0.07 leachate media leading to reduced
until pH equilibrium compressive strength loss,
was reached. limited porosity increase,
and stabilization of the
cementitious binder
during sulfuric acid
exposure.
Cao et al. Test conducted with a OPC and Cubes 180 Physical The addition of Nano-SiO2
(2023) liquid-to-solid volume sulfoaluminate (160 × 40 × 40) mm appearance, mass to OPC-SAC composites
ratio of 4:1. pH values: cement (SAC) change, strength improves their resistance
tap water (7.77), 0.05 % change, to sulfuric acid corrosion
sulfuric acid solution mineralogical and by enhancing hydration,
(2.31), 0.5 % sulfuric microstructural compactness, and the
acid solution (1.40). analysis development of a
Liquid replaced every protective barrier, with
seven days with pH gypsum being the primary
adjustments once per degradation product
cycle. regardless of Nano-SiO2
content.
Caselles et al. Test performed using a Geopolymer Cylinders (Ø30 x 30 Mass change, Geopolymer paste samples
(2023) 20:1 liquid-to-solid pastes 60) mm mineralogical and displayed minimal
volume ratio. Acidic microstructural degradation, forming
solutions were not analysis, leaching altered layers of 2–8 mm
renewed during the behavior thickness during sulfuric
test. The pH value of acid exposure, while also
the immersion showing low leaching,
solutions was suggesting potential
maintained close to 1. durability against sulfuric
acid.
Roychand et Samples submerged in OPC concrete Cubes 56 Compressive Increased levels of free
al. (2021) a high concentration and (100 × 100 × 100) strength, mass lime intensify acid-base
H2SO4 solution using supplementary mm loss, mineralogical reactions and lead to
pH 0.2. Acid solution cementitious and greater mass loss in
pH was regularly materials concrete corrosion, while
period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
checked on a weekly microstructural zero-cement concrete, by

basis and maintained analysis consuming free lime,
at a constant level. improves durability in
acidic environments.
Sturm et al. The acid resistance Geopolymer (40 × 40 × 160) mm 70 Mineralogical and The mortars exhibited a
(2018) was determined in mortars microstructural high resistance against
accordance with the analysis sulfuric acid attack. This
German standard might be due to
DIN19573:2016-03. precipitation of silica gel at
Samples submerged in the acid-mortar interface,
a H2SO4 solution using which formed a
pH 1. Acid solution was mechanically stable layer
replaced with new acid that protected the
once per week. subjacent mortar and thus
inhibited further
degradation.
Xiao et al. Samples immersed in OPC concrete Cylinders (Ø50 x 194 Mass change, Utilizing marble
(2016) high sulfuric acid 100) mm corrosion depth aggregates in the concrete
concentration with provided protection
brushing and wetting- against deterioration in
drying cycling. Acidic the immersion test, with
solution applied only the quality of fine
to sidewalls of the aggregates significantly
sample (pH 0.93–0.97). impacting concrete
The acidity of the degradation.
solution was
controlled on a daily
basis.
Wu et al. Immersion of small OPC mortar Cylinders 75 Visual The introduction of

(2021a) samples in high (Ø100 × 200) mm observation, cellulose nanocrystals
sulfuric acid mechanical (CNC) in OPC mortars led
concentration. strength test, to improved
Samples underwent ultrasonic pulse microstructures and
15-day cycles of acid velocity, reduced deterioration by
soaking, comprising mineralogical and minimizing permeable
14 days of soaking and microstructural voids, with the most
1 day of air drying. The analysis effective acid resistance
pH of the acid solution seen at 0.4 vol% CNC
was altered at five-day addition, resulting in
intervals. minimal changes in mass
and length.
period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
Gevaudan et Samples underwent Geopolymer Cylinders 7 Depth of Copper and cobalt doping
al. (2019) immersion in a 1 % paste (Ø24 × 15 and corrosion, in geopolymer led to
sulfuric acid solution Ø14 × 15) mm concentration of decreased corrosion depth
(v/v) at a volume-to- elements in during sulfuric acid
surface ratio of 30 to leachate media exposure by forming a
determine corrosion passivation barrier
depth, and a 10:1 involving Fe, Cu, and Co
proportion of volume cations, inhibiting acid
to surface to evaluate degradation.
leaching behavior.
Grengg et al. The specimens were Geopolymer Cubes 5 Elemental The incorporation of
(2021) submerged in a H2SO4 paste (160 × 40 × 40 and analysis, visual copper had an adverse
solution, and the pH of 75 × 75 × 37) mm observation effect on the geopolymer
the solution was paste's resistance to
maintained at 2.0 by sulfuric acid, primarily due
continuously adding a to increased porosity and a
3 M H2SO4 solution higher diffusion rate,
using a peristaltic resulting in greater
pump. corrosion.
Ariffin et al. A H2SO4 solution with OPC and Cubes (100 × 100 18 Compressive OPC concrete displayed
(2013) a pH of 1 was used to Geopolymer × 100) mm strength, mass greater deterioration in
submerse the concrete change, terms of mass loss and
specimens, and mineralogical and compressive strength
concentrated acid was microstructural compared to blended ash
periodically added to analysis geopolymer concrete, with
maintain the desired OPC experiencing
acidity. Monthly degradation and gypsum
replacement of acid precipitation
solution with fresh
solution.
Bassuoni and Testing in the H2SO4 OPC and Self- Cylinders (Ø75 12 Compressive By decreasing the OPC
Nehdi (2007) solution involved two consolidating × 150) mm strength, mass concentration in SCMs
sequential stages. concrete (SCC) change, mixtures, there is a
Stage 1: acid microstructural noticeable improvement in
immersion with pH analysis performance when
controlled below 2.5; exposed to H2SO4 solution,
Stage 2: fresh acid primarily by lowering the
solution with pH calcium hydroxide levels.
maintained below 1.0.
Regular stirring for
uniform distribution
period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
Hewayde et The samples were OPC concrete Cylinders (Ø75 91 Mass change, Higher cement content in
al. (2007) subjected to wetting- × 150) mm visual appearance concrete increases
drying cycling in high vulnerability to sulfuric
concentration H2SO4 acid attack, while lower
solutions exhibiting water-to-cement ratios
pH values between 0.3 enhance durability.
and 3.0. Additionally, increasing
coarse aggregate content
has a minimal effect on
mass loss when exposed to
sulfuric acid.
De Belie et al. The samples were Mortar, concrete Cylinders (Ø270 108 Change in radius Samples exhibited radial
(2002) subjected to 9 cycles of × 70) mm and expansion during
immersion, air drying, roughness immersion, particularly
and brushing, with when containing silica
each cycle lasting fume, followed by radial
12 days using a 0.5 % contraction after brushing.
H2SO4 solution. The
developed equipment
was used to set up
cylinder specimens,
following the TAP test
procedure.
Microbiological test
First Lab reactor operated Concrete Blocks 270 MPN technique, The varying cell numbers
Hamburg under controlled (600 × 110 × 70) pH-indicator- of T. thiooxidans on
Chamber conditions: mm sticks, weight loss concrete specimens were
created by temperature (30 °C), associated with different
Sand (1987) humidity (>95 %), H2S levels of sulfuric acid
gas concentration production and corrosion,
(10 ± 1 ppm). Concrete offering a more accurate
samples were pre- corrosion indicator than
inoculated with strains pH measurements.
of Thiobacillus bacteria
before conducting the
tests.
Customized Controlled OPC, Calcium Cubes 400 Weight loss, CAC mortars outperformed
Hamburg environment in the lab aluminate (20 × 20 × 20) mm surface pH other cement types with
chamber reactor: temperature cement (CAC) higher neutralization
period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
developed by (30 °C), humidity electrode Ion capacity and lower

Ehrich et al. (∼98 %), H2S gas chromatography biogenic acid production,
(1999) concentration while biogenic simulation
(10 ± 5 ppm). Mortar experiments proved more
samples were reliable in predicting long-
inoculated with term sewerage network
Thiobacillus strains, performance compared to
totaling cells chemical corrosion tests.
sprayed over a three-
month period.
Fraunhofer Lab reactor operated OPC, CAC (2 × 2 × 2) cm3 Weight loss, CAC showed greater
UMSICHT test under controlled surface pH, durability compared to
by Herisson conditions: 30 °C mineralogical and those based on OPC.
et al. (2018) temperature, 100 % microstructural Additionally, the use of a
was humidity, and 50 ppm analysis pore blocker in OPC
described by H2S gas concentration. formulations exhibited
Wack et al. Specimens are limited enhancement of
(2018) inoculated with A. durability. The most
thiooxidans weekly for effective solution for
the first 6 weeks and durability involved the use
sprayed with a of reactive aggregates
nutrient solution containing calcium
weekly. aluminate in conjunction
with CAC.
BAC test by Lab reactor designed CAC and blast- Pipe (200 mm Water intrusion Abundant cracking is
Lavigne et al. with precise control furnace-slag long and 80 mm porosimetry, observed in the BFSC
(2015); over temperatures cement (BFSC) in internal mineralogical and lining due to secondary
Lavigne et al. (20 °C). A solution of diameter) microstructural ettringite precipitation,
(2016) thiosulfates is used analysis whereas no cracking
instead of H2S as a occurs in the CAC lining.
sulfur source. The The CAC outer layer
specimens are consists mainly of AH3 gel,
immersed in activated and the decalcification
sludge before testing front penetrates deeper
to provide the into the BFSC matrix
appropriate species of compared to the CAC one.
bacteria.
Laboratory- Lab reactor maintained Mortar Blocks 182 Surface pH of Two distinct corrosion
scale reactor controlled parameters: (40 × 40 × 160) mm specimen, products were observed:
built by Mori temperatures (13– mineralogical and gypsum formation on the
et al. (1992) 28 °C) and H2S gas mortar surface occurred
period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
concentration microstructural when pH was below 3,

(∼400 ppm). analysis while ettringite generation
Thiobacillus thiooxidans within the specimen was
was inoculated on the observed at pH levels
mortar sample at two- exceeding 3.
week intervals over the
initial two months.
Ghent Lab reactor operated Portland Blocks 51 MPN technique, The test procedure
University under controlled cement, Blast (20 × 20 × 50) mm laboratory pH provides a practical and
setup by conditions of furnace cement electrode, weight cost-effective method to
Vincke et al. temperature (28 °C) (BFC) loss assess concrete resistance
(1999) and H2S gas against bio-corrosion in a
concentration short timeframe.
(250 ppm). Thiobacillus Additionally, when a
thiooxidans was styrene-acrylic ester
inoculated on the polymer is incorporated
surfaces of the into concrete, it shows
samples. improved resistance to
biogenic H2SO4 attack.
Simulation Lab reactor designed Concrete Prisms 360 Visual The depth of carbonation
chamber by with precise control (38 × 38 × 200) mm observations, mass had a minimal impact on
House (2013) over temperatures loss, relative bacterial sulfuric acid
(28–32 °C), relative dynamic elastic production on concrete
humidity (>99 %), and modulus, surfaces, and the concrete
H2S gas concentration corrosion depth, mixture design exhibited
(75–125 ppm). compressive little effect on surface pH
Specimens in the strength values after inoculation
growth chambers were with Thiobacillus bacteria.
regularly inoculated Instead, reducing the
with Thiobacillus water-to-cement ratio and
strains for 56 days utilizing specific materials
using a nutrient enhanced resistance to
aerosol spray. bio-corrosion.
Simulation Lab reactor operated concrete Coupons 1440 Surface pH, sulfate Substantial sulfate levels
chamber by under controlled (100 × 70 × 70) mm concentrations on were identified in
Jiang et al. conditions: corroding concrete corrosion layers on
(2014) temperature (17– surface, concrete concrete coupons,
30 °C), relative coupon corrosion particularly in partially
humidity (90–100 %), rate submerged ones, resulting
and H2S gas in limited corrosion loss
concentration (0–
period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
50 ppm). No for gas-phase coupons

supplementary after 3.5 years of exposure.
bacteria were added,
relying solely on the
existing bacterial
content in the
collected sewage.
In-situ tests
Grengg et al. The specimens were OPC, Prisms 540 Microstructural The site experienced
(2020) positioned in a storage Geopolymer (80 × 40 × 40) mm and mineralogical fluctuating H2S levels (65-
basin connected to the and calcium analyses, 722 ppm), temperatures
main power outlet in aluminate microbial (2.5–22.5 °C), and
the area of Leoben, mortars community humidity (69–100 %),
Austria, where they structures influencing biofilm
were exposed to the analyses composition, with CO2
aggressive biogenic impacting later-stage
corrosion present in microbial reactions.
the regional
wastewater network.
Kiliswa et al. Samples were OPC and CAC Blocks 3600 Microstructural Site H2S levels fluctuated
(2019) positioned in the (20 × 20 × 20) mm and mineralogical between 10 and 40 ppm,
Virginia experimental analyses with temperatures ranging
sewer of South Africa. from 12 to 26 °C, causing
The experimental line accelerated bio-corrosion
was situated 600 m in OPC-based binders due
away from a rising to CH and C-S-H
main. It comprised consumption by acid,
three manholes leading to gypsum and
containing distinct ettringite formation and
concrete pipe sections. matrix degradation
through cracking and
spalling.
Khan et al. Specimens were CAC mortar and Cubes 730 Visual • The site faced varying
(2019) exposed to the Sulphate (50 × 50 × 50) mm observations and conditions, with H2S
operational North resistant optical imaging, levels from 0 to
Head wastewater Portland microstructural 800 ppm, temperatures
treatment plant in cement (SR) and mineralogical between 13.7 and
Manly, Sydney, mortar analyses, material 34.1 °C, and humidity
Australia for a duration properties from 78 to 100 %.
of 24 months to
period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
investigate the • Mortars with CAC

influence of natural demonstrated superior
biogenic activity on resistance to bio-
mortar corrosion. corrosion compared to
SR mortars.
Lors et al. Two mortar collars OPC and CAC Cylinders (Ø29 1826 Microstructural CAC mortar outperforms in
(2018) were installed in the mortars × 63) mm and mineralogical terms of reduced sulfur-
wastewater collector analyses, oxidizing bacteria and acid
of the Urban microbial neutralization. Bioleaching
Community of Lille, community mimics real-world
France. The collector analyses biodeterioration under
had an average H2S similar pH conditions,
−3
content of 7 mg m affected by NSOB/ASOB
and intermittent direct prevalence and H2S
contact with the concentration.
samples due to the
collector being nearly
filled with wastewater.
Grengg et al. Samples were OPC and Sulfate – Microstructural • Variations in H2S levels
(2015) collected from rural resistant and mineralogical (0.1–367 ppm) and
areas near Graz, concrete analyses, temperatures (15–
Austria, including microbial 20 °C) were noted at
corroded manholes in community the site.
the gravity sewer analyses
• Low pH values (0.7–
section and liquid
3.1) due to H2SO4
samples from the
accumulation caused
storage basin. Drill
cement matrix
cores were taken from
dissolution and
damaged and intact
aggregate breakdown,
concrete for
resulting in substantial
composition and
sewer system
corrosion rate analysis.
deterioration within
9 years, despite using
sulfate-resistant
concrete.
Wells and Samples of both new Concrete – 945 Microstructural • The site experienced
Melchers and pre-corroded and mineralogical varying H2S levels (7-
(2014) concretes were tested analyses 411 ppm),
in an aggressive sewer temperatures (22–
period Parameters
Type Size (Days)
environment in Perth, 29 °C), and relative

Western Australia for a humidity (88–100 %)
period of 31 months.
• Concrete experiences a
three-stage corrosion
process in aggressive
sewer environments,
marked by a decrease
in surface alkalinity
and the subsequent
development of long-
term, stable corrosion.
4.1. Chemical test

One of the foremost methods considered for experimental assessment is the pure chemical test, which submerses
samples in a solution of H2SO4. The primary cause of concrete corrosion in the bio-corrosion process is sulfuric acid,
making this test a suitable means of assessing corrosion resistance. This test replicates the third phase of the bio-
corrosion process to a certain extent (Wang et al., 2020). This testing method employs the addition of concentrated
sulfuric acid to maintain solution acidity, either through regular intervals (Ariffin et al., 2013; Mehta and Siddique,
2017; Sturm et al., 2018) or automated titration (Irico et al., 2020; Koenig and Dehn, 2016). The interval of acid addition
and the acid quantity to specimen surface area ratio can influence the degradation rate by affecting the pH changes and
gypsum precipitation in the immersion solution (Alexander et al., 2013). However, the test duration can be excessively
long (Monteny et al., 2000). Therefore, numerous methods of test acceleration have been developed.
Brushing samples is a widely used method to speed up the testing process. It removes the soft gypsum cover that
develops on the specimen surface during a sulfuric acid attack, allowing the acid to directly interact with the
undamaged areas of the sample (Gu et al., 2018; Irico et al., 2020; Joorabchian, 2010). Another technique involves using
a more concentrated sulfuric acid solution, which boosts the neutralization reaction rate, resulting in faster corrosion
(Zalts et al., 2008). The wetting-drying cycle technique, where samples are periodically dried during immersion,
induces sulfate crystallization. This causes micro-cracking and more pronounced deterioration, and can also increase
internal corrosion due to capillary acid suction when samples are re-immersed (Hong, 1998; Tsegaye and Dinku, 2018).
Raising the testing temperature is another way to accelerate immersion tests, as it can weaken the bond between the
aggregate and cement paste, leading to greater mass loss (Mahmoodian and Alani, 2017). Additionally, using smaller
samples can accelerate tests because their notable surface-area-to-volume ratio offers an increased relative area for
acid reaction, promoting corrosion (Attiogbe and Rizkalla, 1988; Wafa, 1994).
Accelerated immersion tests have gained prominence due to their ability to provide insights into corrosion resistance
in a relatively shorter duration. Wu et al. (2019) and Bertron et al. (2005) found an exponential relationship between
immersion acid pH and mass loss, suggesting that low pH acid could lead to faster results. However, it is essential to
recognize that while expedited tests are valuable, the implications of such rapid acid interactions on long-term
material durability might not always reflect real-world conditions, where pH fluctuations are prevalent. Furthermore,
Xie et al. (2004) and De Belie et al. (2002) employed techniques like wetting-drying cycling and sample brushing.
While these methods bring researchers closer to simulating real environmental wear-and-tear, they may also introduce
additional variables. The act of brushing, for instance, might simulate the effect of environmental abrasions but could
potentially exaggerate the corrosive effects when combined with acidic immersion. The introduction of the TAP
method by De Belie et al. (2004) was revolutionary in combining both techniques. Yet, their claim about limestone
aggregates provide superior protection raises questions about the general applicability of this finding to various
materials and real-world acidic conditions. Additionally, Grengg et al. (2021) introduced an automated titration device
for H2SO4 exposure testing, which allowed precise pH control. However, controlled lab conditions may not always
reflect real-world pH variations. Lastly, Mahmoodian and Alani (2017) further emphasized the role of temperature,
stating that elevating temperatures led to increased mass loss in concrete samples. However, replicating the exact
temperature variations encountered in real-world scenarios in a laboratory setting remains a challenge.
Chemical immersion tests are valued for their straightforward approach and quick assessment of resistance to sulfuric
acid attacks. Their controlled environment ensures consistent results, as highlighted by Soleimani et al. (2013), who
noted uniform trends in specimen deterioration. However, the method has limitations such as differences in
acceleration techniques make cross-study comparisons tricky, which often necessitating new and time-intensive tests
(De Belie et al., 2004; Hong, 1998; Tsegaye and Dinku, 2018). Acceleration techniques can also modify the corrosion
process, introducing issues like sulfate crystallization. The corrosion layer, mainly gypsum, has dual roles: while it
protects against acid in tests, it can foster bacterial growth in real-world scenarios, intensifying the corrosion (Caicedo-
Ramirez, 2018; Irico et al., 2020; Joorabchian, 2010; Kuliczkowska, 2016; Wells et al., 2009). As this layer thickens, it can
limit oxygen availability, essential for aerobic bacteria (Scrivener and De Belie, 2013). Moreover, these tests fail to fully
replicate the variable acid production seen in actual bio-corrosion, impacting corrosion rates (Gu et al., 2018). In real-
world scenarios, bacterial activities produce sulfuric acid, with production rates fluctuating based on environmental
conditions (Scrivener and De Belie, 2013). The resistance shown in an immersion test for a mixture may vary from its
actual bio-corrosion resistance in real-world conditions, underscoring the importance of incorporating microbial
influences in these evaluations (Schmidt et al., 1997).
4.2. Microbiological test

Over the years, numerous testing methods have been developed to unravel the complex mechanisms of bio-corrosion
and offer insights into its mitigation. One of the earliest and most innovative approaches was the Hamburg test,
introduced in the 1980s (Sand and Bock, 1984). This test utilized a specialized chamber to expose concrete samples to a
humid environment rich in hydrogen sulfide, thereby encouraging the growth of Thiobacillus bacteria. The aim was to
simulate conditions similar to actual sewage systems. However, the test had limitations, such as the lack of abrasion
and the use of pure water instead of real wastewater, which hindered its ability to accurately replicate real-world
scenarios. To address these issues, the Hamburg test underwent several modifications, including the addition of a
mineral salt solution and bacterial spray to create a more diverse microbial environment (Sand, 1987). Further
adjustments, like pH reduction and carbonation, were incorporated to better mimic the early stages of bio-corrosion.
Despite these enhancements, the test still faced challenges in accurately replicating high H2S concentrations and the
dynamics of abrasion. Concurrently, the Fraunhofer UMSICHT institute introduced a modification of the Hamburg test,
focusing on the final stage of bio-corrosion. While it maintained conditions conducive to bacterial growth, it neglected
key stages like carbonation and acidification (Ehrich et al., 1999; Herisson et al., 2013). Another significant contribution
came from Mori et al. (1992), who modified the Hamburg test to include both large and small-scale testing
environments. While their method represented conditions conducive for bacterial growth, it employed an
unrealistically high H2S concentration and a single bacterial strain, limiting its real-world applicability and failing to
simulate genuine sewer conditions accurately.
A multitude of alternative methods have been proposed to simulate the bio-corrosion process, each bringing a unique
approach and perspective to the study of bio-corrosion, but none entirely encapsulating the actual sewer environment
conditions. For example, the Heidelberg test focuses on biofilm growth but favors more towards a chemical test due to
its immersion routine (Schmidt et al., 1997). Gu et al. (1998) included both bacteria and fungi in their bio-corrosion
test, but the lack of H2S concentration data restricts its applicability. Davis et al. (1998) and Vincke et al. (2002)
managed to control the environment accurately, but their experiment used H2S levels that considerably exceeded the
typical concentrations found in actual sewer environments. This excessive H2S concentration may lead to results that
are disproportionately aggressive compared to real-world scenarios, potentially limiting the practical applicability of
their findings. Gutiérrez-Padilla et al. (2010) and the combined works of Joseph et al. (2012) and Jiang et al. (2014)
share an emphasis on nutrient-rich conditions. Yet, the former encounters the challenge of heightened H2S
concentrations, potentially distorting their findings. In contrast, the latter two studies present minimal microbial data,
raising uncertainties about the wider microbial relationships and their role in the bio-corrosion process. Herisson et al.
(2013) have developed a method that successfully mimics the atmospheric conditions of a sewer but falls short
because of an absence of essential nutrients that are crucial for microbial development. This omission could lead to a
biased understanding of microbial behaviors and their contributions to bio-corrosion. Lavigne et al. (2015) diverge
from the standard by utilizing thiosulfates instead of H2S. While this can offer insights into alternative corrosion
pathways, the real question remains: how does this method compare in terms of reproducing the complexity and
interactions of H2S-induced corrosion in actual sewers? Marquez-Peñaranda et al. (2016) and Huber et al. (2016)
offered different approaches focusing on direct H2S exposure and the exploration of biogenic acid corrosion,
respectively. Despite their focused methodologies, there are gaps such as the high H2S concentrations and the omission
of gaseous H2S which make their results less reflective of actual sewer conditions. Lastly, Grandclerc et al. (2018) and
Roghanian and Banthia (2019) provided robust simulations focusing on different aspects of bio-corrosion, such as the
abiotic phase and bacterial inoculation. However, certain crucial factors such as abrasion were neglected, preventing a
full reflection of real sewer conditions in their simulations.
In summary, while there has been notable advancement in simulating bio-corrosion in laboratory settings,
considerable challenges remain. Accurately mirroring the intricate dynamics of real-world sewer environments is
particularly challenging. Given the critical importance of understanding bio-corrosion for the durability and longevity
of concrete sewer infrastructure, there is an urgent need for refining and enhancing these test methods.
4.3. In-situ test

In-situ test provides a valuable means for assessing concrete corrosion, closely mirroring actual sewer conditions.
Generally, two primary strategies for in-situ testing exist (Wang et al., 2020). The first involves installing concrete
samples, known as coupons, in sewer structures exhibiting severe corrosion. For example, Kiliswa et al. (2019)
performed a ten-year study comparing OPC and calcium aluminate cement (CAC) concrete in an experimental South
African sewer. The study revealed that OPC concrete corroded more rapidly than its CAC counterpart. This is likely
because calcium silicates in OPC are more susceptible to acid attack by sulfur-oxidizing bacteria than the acid-resistant
calcium aluminates present in CAC. Similarly, Herisson et al. (2013) examined the performance of CAC and OPC via
installing samples in sewer systems and tracking their degradation over time. The study concluded that the type of
cement used had a substantial impact on bacterial activity, with CAC concrete showing greater resistance to microbial
growth compared to OPC. This can be attributed to the unique chemical composition of CAC, characterized by its high
aluminate content, which creates a less conducive environment for sulfur-oxidizing bacteria compared to the calcium
silicates in OPC. Khan et al. (2019) placed CAC mortars and sulfate-resistant Portland cement mortars in a sewer
structure in Sydney. After 2 years of exposure, CAC mortars demonstrated superior resistance to corrosion than the
sulfate-resistant Portland cement samples. This can be attributed to the unique hydration chemistry of CAC, which
results in a denser concrete matrix, making it less permeable to aggressive ions and gases in sewer environments.
Grengg et al. (2020) evaluated the performance of CAC, geopolymer, and OPC concrete in bio-corrosion conditions,
discovering that the bacterial composition in the biofilm varied depending on the material type. Additionally, they
noted an important role of CO2 in metabolic reactions of microbes during the subsequent phases of bio-corrosion.
The second strategy for in-situ testing takes a more direct approach, emphasizing real-time analysis of samples taken
directly from specific corrosion sites. For example, a study conducted in a Sydney sewer system revealed that fungal
metabolism could produce organic acids across a pH range of 2–8 (Valix et al., 2012). Furthermore, the growth of
Thiobacilli was observed at pH levels below 3, which led to the production of sulfuric acid. Another investigation in an
Austrian sewer system, Grengg et al. (2015) reported a surprisingly high corrosion rate of over 1 cm per year, resulting
in significant structural degradation within just nine years. A subsequent study by Grengg et al. (2017) delved into the
corrosion mechanisms in structures with such pronounced rates. Contrary to earlier beliefs that sulfur oxidizing
bacteria like Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans were only present in oxygen-rich surface layers, their analysis showed that
these bacteria were distributed throughout the 4 cm thick corrosion layers. Interestingly, at depths >3 cm where oxygen
levels were lower, a different sulfur oxidizing bacteria, Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans, was found to be prevalent. The
growth of this bacteria is thought to be linked to the accumulation of iron.
However, in-situ tests come with their limitations. For instance, the results from one location may not be universally
applicable due to variations in field conditions (Wang et al., 2020). The lack of control over key parameters like
temperature, relative humidity and H2S concentration similarly impacts the repeatability of these tests (Vincke et al.,
2002). Additionally, the long duration required for in-situ testing makes it less suitable for the rapid development of
new materials (Islander et al., 1991; Wu et al., 2021c).
4.4. Key analytical parameters for concrete corrosion assessment

Evaluating bio-corrosion resistance in concrete materials is challenging due to the absence of direct measurement
methods. As a result, various indirect indicators such as weight loss, strength reduction and dimensional changes are
commonly employed. These indicators often include changes in mass, dimensions and strength, ultrasonic pulse
velocity (UPV) as well as acid consumption, corrosion depth and the quantity of leached elements from specimens
(Huber et al., 2017; Jeon et al., 2020). However, the choice of these indicators can significantly influence evaluation
outcomes. For instance, some studies suggest that a smaller loss in mass does not necessarily correlate with reduced
strength loss, highlighting the need for a more comprehensive approach to parameter selection (Hadigheh et al., 2017;
Huber et al., 2017; Koushkbaghi et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2021a).
4.4.1. Compressive strength change

The evaluation of concrete degradation often relies on changes in compressive strength. However, its effectiveness is
questionable in H2SO4 immersion because of the conflicting impacts of acid corrosion and cement hydration (Wu et al.,
2021a). Acid corrosion can reduce compressive strength by dissolving cement hydration products, while ongoing
cement hydration can increase it (Makhloufi et al., 2014; Siad et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2019). To address this uncertainty,
Long et al. (2020) proposed delaying acid exposure until after cement hydration reaches its peak, while Fan et al. (2010)
suggested using water-immersed samples as a reference for strength change calculations. Interestingly, acid-immersed
samples often show greater strength increases than their water-immersed counterparts, possibly due to pore-filling by
corrosion products like gypsum (Tsubone et al., 2016). However, the strength calculated post-acid exposure might only
represent the uncorroded part of the sample, leading to the proposal of assessing loading capacity using the original
cross-sectional area of the sample (Lou et al., 2021).
4.4.2. Flexural strength change

Flexural strength changes have been explored as an alternative evaluation metric to evaluate sample deterioration
(Dashti and Nematzadeh, 2020; Shen et al., 2019). For example, polymer concrete could significantly loss flexural
strength than cement concrete when exposed to sulfuric acid (Gorninski et al., 2007). The conventional method for
measuring flexural strength involves a three-point bending test, usually conducted on large specimens. This poses
challenges in laboratory settings due to the size and handling requirements, limiting its widespread application for
assessing deterioration from sulfuric acid exposure (Shen et al., 2019). As an alternative, the B3B test has shown greater
sensitivity in detecting early stages of deterioration (Erbektas et al., 2019; Erbektas et al., 2020). However, the
suitability of flexural strength changes as an index for evaluating sulfuric acid-induced deterioration remains an open
question, and it may have issues similar to those in compressive strength evaluation.
4.4.3. Mass change

Change in mass is another commonly used parameter, primarily because it directly reflects the extent of material
deterioration. This metric is influenced by a combination of factors, including acid corrosion and continuous cement
hydration (Wu et al., 2019). When exposed to sulfuric acid, samples typically experience a reduction in mass due to the
dissolution of hydration products and the loss of aggregates. However, in situations where there are higher concrete-
to-liquid ratios, there is a possibility of gypsum precipitation (Lebedev and Kosorukov, 2017). This leads to an increase
in mass and the development of a protective corrosion layer on the surface of the concrete specimen. This layer
effectively prevents the penetration of sulfuric acid. To obtain accurate measurements, researchers often brush off the
gypsum and ettringite layers from the samples before weighing them (De Belie et al., 2004; Erbektas et al., 2020).
However, the reliability of mass change as an indicator diminishes when significant deterioration has occurred, largely
due to the variability introduced by aggregate loss (Gu et al., 2019). This variability also affects measurements of
dimensional changes, which can be biased by surface roughness (Gu et al., 2018).
4.4.4. Ultrasonic pulse velocity

Numerous studies have adopted UPV tests to evaluate sample deterioration (Diab et al., 2019; Jeon et al., 2020;
Nematzadeh and Fallah-Valukolaee, 2017; Siad et al., 2016). This non-destructive technique measures the speed of
ultrasonic pulses as they traverse the material, with higher UPV values indicating a denser microstructure
(Kewalramani and Gupta, 2006). However, its accuracy can be compromised by factors such as surface roughness and
the removal of the gypsum layer during the bio-corrosion process (Adamatti et al., 2017; Attiogbe and Rizkalla, 1988;
Yuan et al., 2013). As a result, while changes in UPV can provide some insights, they may not fully capture the extent of
deterioration in concrete samples, particularly those that have undergone significant damage.
4.4.5. pH reduction
Concrete materials, being inherently alkaline, can undergo a reduction in pH when subjected to biogenic sulfuric acid
attacks. This pH reduction serves as a direct indicator of sample deterioration. Both surface and cross-sectional pH
measurements are crucial for assessing the extent of this deterioration (Huber et al., 2016; Wu et al., 2021b). The pH on
the surface is commonly assessed using a pH electrode, and a decrease in pH typically signifies surface damage. Cross-
sectional pH assessments become particularly informative when the surface undergoes complete deterioration. The
distribution of pH across the sample can be visualized by applying a phenolphthalein solution to its cross-section,
thereby providing a clear representation of pH levels (Wu et al., 2021b).
4.4.6. Mineralogical and microstructural analysis

The analytical parameters previously discussed may not be effective for evaluating samples in environments with low
levels of deterioration. Under such circumstances, more sensitive evaluation indexes become necessary. These include
measuring acid consumption, conducting mineralogical and elemental analyses and detecting calcium leaching (Wu et
al., 2021c). Erbektas et al. (2019) illustrated this approach in their study, where they employed a microbiological test to
evaluate the impact of antimicrobial agents on paste disks exposed to a moderately acidic environment. Notably, the
specimens treated with these agents showed no apparent signs of deterioration. However, more sensitive testing
methods revealed a significant difference in calcium leaching between the treated and untreated samples, with the
former exhibiting minimal leaching. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive X-ray
analysis (EDX) analyses of the untreated samples showed a rise in sulfur composition and a corresponding drop in
calcium composition, indicative of corrosion. Conversely, the antimicrobial-treated samples maintained consistent
levels of calcium and sulfur, indicating a resistance to corrosion. Lavigne et al. (2016) developed a method to simulate
cementitious product biodeterioration in sewers using BFSC and CAC linings. After 107 days in biogenic acid concrete
setups, SEM-EDX analysis revealed significant cracking in BFSC linings attributed to secondary ettringite precipitation,
while CAC linings remained unharmed. Depths of degradation measured 700 μm for BFSC and 150 μm for CAC linings.
Xie et al. (2019) examined AAC and OPC to compare their corrosion resistance mechanisms. They utilized XRD, FT-IR,
and SEM-EDS to analyze hydration and corrosion products. The findings indicated substantial degradation of OPC's
primary products, Ca(OH)2 and C-S-H, leading to significant gypsum formation. Conversely, AAC exhibited weaker bio-
corrosion effects, with minimal impact on its primary products.
5. Strategies for enhancing concrete durability and corrosion resistance
5.1. Concrete surface protection techniques

The protection of concrete surfaces is crucial to ensure longevity and resistance against corrosive elements. Various
techniques have been developed and employed to combat the deterioration of concrete, addressing the complex
challenges posed by environmental factors and the specific nature of the materials involved. These techniques can be
broadly categorized into three main approaches: protective coating, surface washing and chemical spraying (Fig. 6).
Each of these methods offers unique benefits and challenges, reflecting the ongoing innovation and debate within the
field of concrete protection (Table 6). The following subsections will delve into these techniques in greater detail,
exploring their applications, effectiveness and the underlying scientific principles that guide their use.
Fig. 6. Different techniques for protecting concrete surface.
Table 6. Different control techniques applied to improve the corrosion resistance of concrete.
Corrosion control Evaluation indexes Key findings References

techniques
Concrete surface protection
Graphite-Fe2O3 modified Chemical-physical properties, The incorporation of Fe2O3 nanoparticles into epoxy Dorado et al.
epoxy coating weathering protocol, adhesion resin coatings demonstrated significant (2023)
test, abrasion test. improvements in performance and durability.
The addition of 3 wt% synthesized Fe2O3
nanoparticles showed the best adhesion values in the
epoxy resin matrix.
Polyurea coating Mechanical and fracture tests, The application of a polyurea coating on concrete Özalp et al.
abrasion resistance, pipes resulted in a noticeable enhancement in their (2023)
permeability tests, chemical ability to withstand acid attack, as well as an increase
resistance test, pull-off test, in their crush strength
crushing strength test.
techniques
Silane/Siloxane polymer, Chloride and sulphate test, Coating the concrete with a polymer containing Mahdi et al.
polymer mixed with micro compressive strength test, COD 250 mg of micro TiO2 per liter exhibits strong (2023)
TiO2 test, bacteriological test, antibacterial properties against sedimentation tank
suspended Solid test wastewater.
Higher concentrations of coatings lead to improved
compressive strength of the concrete, resulting in
enhanced protection due to the formation of a thin
film.
Nitrite spray microbial community, concrete The use of a nitrite spray on concrete surfaces led to a Li et al.
corrosion loss, sulfide uptake notable decrease in corrosion rates, ranging from 40 (2022a)
rate, corrosion product to 90 %, for a duration of 6 months.
composition, surface pH test. The effectiveness of the spray diminished after
15 months, emphasizing the necessity for bi-annual
application to extend the service life of sewers.
Resin powder composed of Chemical resistance test, Optimal performance was achieved with the 4.5 % Chang and
polyvinyl acetate, nylon fibers compressive strength, water- resin powder coating without fiber in moderate Choi (2020)
tightness test, setting time, environmental conditions, whereas in severe
freeze-thaw cycle test, sulfur conditions, a combination of resin powder and fiber
resistance test. was advised.
Surface washing on calcium Surface pH and H2S uptake rate, The combined use of calcium nitrite admixture and Li et al.
nitrite admixed concrete sulfur species, microbial surface washing can drastically reduce corrosion in (2021)
community, corrosion loss. concrete, demonstrating up to a 58 % reduction over
10 months.
Magnesium hydroxide-based Pull-off test, chemical Coatings containing 1 % wt. content of celluloses, Merachtsaki
coatings resistance test, hardness and along with methylcellulose, demonstrated excellent et al. (2020)
roughness measurements, adhesion, water resistance, and resistance to acid
mineralogical and attack
microstructural analysis.
Portland cement-based Accelerated biocorrosion test, Blended mixes and geopolymer-based coatings Roghanian
coating, geopolymer-based strength loss, pH variations, showed a maximum strength loss of 35 %, and Banthia
coating, blended mix of pull-off test, surface outperforming uncoated samples with a 73 % strength (2019)
geopolymer and magnesium morphology. loss and cement mortar-coated samples with a 52 %
phosphate coating strength reduction
Nano-silica and silica fume Chemical resistance test, The addition of silica fume and nano silica to the Zhang et al.
modified cement mortar flexural strength, compressive mortar matrix improves microstructure, pore (2018)
strength, shrinkage and structure, and the interfacial transition zone,
porosity, hydration heat, rapid resulting in enhanced compressive strength,
chloride migration. dimensional stability, and corrosion resistance.
Calcium aluminate cement Accelerated biocorrosion test, Abundant cracking, resulting from secondary Lavigne et al.
(CAC), blast furnace slag water intrusion porosimeter, ettringite precipitation, was observed in the BFSC (2016)
cement (BFSC) mineralogical and lining, while the CAC lining remained crack-free. The
techniques
microstructural analysis, outer layer of the CAC lining consisted predominantly

chemical composition profiles of AH3 gel, and the decalcification front penetrated
analysis. deeper into the BFSC matrix compared to the CAC
matrix.
Free nitrous acid (FNA) Surface pH, ATP measurement, The application of FNA treatment resulted in a Sun et al.
live/dead staining, H2S uptake significant reduction of approximately 80–90 % in the (2015)
rate measurement. sulfide uptake rate (SUR) of corroded concrete
coupons.
The FNA treatment exhibited long-lasting biocidal
effects, with no SUR recovery or bacterial re-growth
observed for nearly one year.
Epoxy coating, epoxy- Compressive strength, pull-off The performance of epoxy coatings and calcium Berndt (2011)
modified cement mortar, test, hydraulic conductivity, aluminate cement mortar was highly durable during
styrene butadiene modified accelerated biocorrosion test. laboratory and field testing.
cement mortar, calcium Epoxy- and latex-modified mortars experienced
aluminate cement mortar. some deterioration in laboratory tests.
Polyester-based polymer Hydrostatic pressure test, pull- The wet-coated concrete samples exhibited strong Liu and
concrete coating off test, chemical resistance adhesion to the concrete surface and a notable Vipulananda
test. capacity to withstand the penetration of acidic n (2001)
solutions.
Glass fiber mat reinforced hydrostatic pressure test, The reinforced epoxy-coated concrete exhibited Vipulananda
epoxy coating chemical resistance test, excellent resistance to acidic environments, with no n and Liu
failure observed for up to 20 months. (2002)
Polymer emulsion coatings, chloride permeability, chemical The epoxy and polyurethane coatings displayed Almusallam
epoxy resin coatings, resistance test, chloride exceptional durability, experiencing only minor et al. (2003)
polyurethane coatings, diffusion, water absorption. corner damage. In contrast, the other coatings
chlorinated rubber coatings deteriorated entirely, dissolving in the case of
polymer emulsion coatings and peeling off for
chlorinated rubber coatings.
Polyurethane-1 and Hydrostatic test, bonding Both coatings exhibited no failure even after 5 years Vipulananda
Polyurethane-2 strength, pinhole test-chemical of exposure. Polyurethane-1 had strong bonding on n and Liu
resistance. dry concrete surfaces but weak bonding on wet (2005)
surfaces, while polyurethane-2 had overall low
bonding strength on both dry and wet concrete
surfaces.
Concrete mixture modification
Electric arc furnace (EAF) slag Mechanical and fracture tests, Substituting natural aggregates with EAF aggregates Özalp et al.
aggregates, natural aggregates abrasion resistance, resulted in heightened mechanical performance and (2023)
permeability tests, chemical
techniques
resistance test. increased protection against acid corrosion in the

Pull-off test, crushing strength concrete.
test.
Low-calcium fly ash-based Chemical resistance test, Gypsum formation led to a significant mass loss of Ariyadasa et
geopolymer mortar compressive strength test, 49 % in OPC, while the low calcium geopolymer al. (2023)
mineralogical and experienced a much smaller loss of only 6 %.
microstructural analysis. Geopolymer mortar shows minimal pore volume
increase after acid attack, making it a promising acid-
resistant material for sewer coating.
Alkali-activated slag (AAS) Microbial corrosion test, By incorporating copper oxide or copper nitrate, the Kang and Ye
binders incorporating Cu- leaching tests, compressive hydration process of slag-based cement is intensified, (2023)
based antimicrobial agents strength test, mineralogical and leading to changes in the composition and structure
(i.e., copper oxide and copper microstructural analysis. of the C-A-S-H phase.
nitrate) Cu-doped slag-based cement exhibits excellent
antimicrobial properties, inhibiting biofilm formation
and reducing corrosion depth.
Nano-SiO2 modified OPC- Chemical resistance test, The addition of nano-SiO2 in OPC-SAC composites Cao et al.
sulfoaluminate cement (SAC) appearance and mass test, enhanced their corrosion resistance against sulfuric (2023)
composites compressive strength, acid by improving hydration, compactness, and
mineralogical and forming a protective barrier.
microstructural analysis.
Calcined clay-based Chemical resistance test, mass Geopolymer paste showed minor degradation with Caselles et al.
geopolymers loss, mineralogical and altered layers (2–8 mm) after sulfuric acid attack. (2023)
microstructural analysis, Meta-illite Na-silicate geopolymers exhibited
leaching behavior. minimal degradation due to their high alkali content,
low porosity, impurities, and the presence of a
protective Fe-rich layer.
Soda-lime waste glass powder Setting time, compressive The addition of CAC in alkali-activated cement (AAC) Ali et al.
(GP), ground granulated blast strength, acid neutralization mortars resulted in reduced acid neutralization (2022)
furnace slag (GGBS), and test, leaching test, biogenic acid potential, minimal sodium ion leaching, and
calcium aluminate cement attack, mineralogical and maintained strength after the leaching test.
(CAC) microstructural analysis. Incorporating more CAC in AACs with GP and GGBS
resulted in longer setting time and increased 90-day
strength by up to 10 %, but excessive CAC had the
opposite effect.
Sulphate resistant Portland Chemical resistance test, tank Deterioration, including mass loss, dry bulk density Khan et al.
cement mortars (SRPCm), leaching test, compressive reduction, compressive strength decline, and surface (2020)
low-calcium fly ash based strength, mineralogical and disintegration, was more prominent in SRPCm than in
geopolymer mortar (FA-GPm) microstructural analysis, FA-GPm.
biogenic acid attack. FA-GPm exhibited greater neutralization depth,
techniques
corrosion depth, and pH reduction compared to

SRPCm in both testing conditions.
Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) Visual observation, mechanical The addition of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) in OPC Wu et al.
based cement mortar strength test, ultrasonic pulse mortars improved mortar microstructures and (2021a)
velocity, mineralogical and reduced deterioration by minimizing permeable
microstructural analysis voids.
Addition of 0.4 vol% CNC showed the best resistance
to acid, with minimal changes in mass and length.
OPC and alkali-activated Visual observation, compressive Bio-corrosion induces thicker, rougher, and more Xie et al.
concrete (AAC) strength, mass change, porous corrosion layers in OPC than AAC. Both (2019)
Corrosion products, materials produce gypsum as the main corrosion
mineralogical and product, but OPC displays a greater amount. AAC
microstructural analysis. experiences a stronger bacterial effect, leading to a
shorter corrosion path than OPC.
Silane quaternary amine Visual Inspection, Surface pH The addition of a silane quaternary amine (SQA) Ding et al.
(SQA) based calcium Change, mass loss, Relative antimicrobial agent enhances the resistance to bio- (2017)
aluminate cement (CAC) dynamic elastic modulus, corrosion in moderate exposure conditions. SQA
mortar and blended cement corrosion depth, compressive effectively neutralizes pure cultures of
(BC) strength. Acidothiobacillus spp., although its effectiveness
diminishes against A. thiooxidans under highly severe
conditions.
Polyethylene terephthalate Chemical resistance test, Concrete samples containing 15 % PET particles Araghi et al.
(PET) modified concrete compressive strength test, exhibited improved durability with reduced weight (2015)
weight loss test, ultrasonic losses and increased resistance against sulfuric acid
wave velocity test. attack
Blast furnace slag (BFS), silica Compressive strength, pull-off The addition of 40 % BFS or 5–10 % SF as cement Berndt (2011)
fume (SF) test, hydraulic conductivity, substitutes enhanced the resistance to bio-corrosion.
accelerated bio-corrosion test. The use of 60 % slag replacement level in concrete
yielded similar performance to ordinary Portland or
sulphate resistant cement.
Polymer modified cement Chemical resistance test, The resistance of styrene–acrylic ester polymer Monteny et
(styrene–acrylic ester biogenic acid attack, weight concrete was higher than the reference mixture, al. (2001)
polymer, acrylic polymer, loss while styrene butadiene polymer and acrylic polymer
styrene butadiene polymer, compositions showed lower resistance.
vinyl copolymer) The vinyl copolymer composition showed contrasting
results in chemical and microbiological tests.
Geopolymer concrete (GPC) Visual appearance, compressive The outstanding performance of GPC made using Yang et al.
with binding materials (low- strength, mass loss, high-calcium fly ash and 12 M NaOH due to gypsum (2021)
calcium, high-calcium fly ash, neutralization depth, crystals, which not only obstruct the pores but also
and metakaolin) mineralogical and enhance the microstructure, hence inhibiting further
corrosion.
techniques
microstructural analysis, bio-

corrosion test.
Nano TiO2 (NT) modified Bio-corrosion test, microbial NT improves RPC by enhancing its antimicrobial Li et al.
reactive powder concrete community test, surface properties and reducing surface roughness, mass loss, (2022b)
(RPC) roughness, mass loss, and deterioration depth after exposure to sewage
deterioration depth, corrosion.
microstructure and mechanical The incorporation of NT increases the pH values of
properties. RPC and enhances its resistance to strength
deterioration in highly concentrated sewage
environments.
Cu2O-electrodeposited Microorganism inhibition test, The electrodeposition of Cu2O on cement-based Zhu et al.
mortar permeability measurement, materials demonstrated good bactericidal properties (2021)
cohesion measurement, and strong adhesion between the deposits and the
mineralogical and substrate, confirming its feasibility as an antibacterial
microstructural analysis. treatment for concrete.
Bio-concrete (with 1 % and 2 % Bio-corrosion test, microbial The addition of granular sludge reduced concrete Song et al.
granular sludge) community analysis, corrosion sewer corrosion rates by approximately 17.2 % and (2021)
products analysis, 42.8 % for 1 % and 2 % bio-concrete, respectively. This
physicochemical characteristics. was accompanied by decreased sulfide uptake rates,
lower sulfate concentrations, and increased surface
pH.
5.1.1. Protective coating and lining technique

Corrosion control in sewer systems typically involves protective coatings or linings, such as cement-based, polymer-
based, and polymer-modified mortars. Polymer-based coatings like polyurea, polyurethane, PVC liners, epoxy resin,
polyester, coal tar, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and fiberglass are preferred for their corrosion resistance,
effectively blocking acid, moisture, and gases like H2S and CO2 (Almusallam et al., 2003; Noeiaghaei et al., 2017).
Cement-based options like CAC and geopolymer stand out for their microorganism growth inhibition and reduced
porosity, enhancing concrete durability (Roghanian and Banthia, 2019; Ukrainczyk and Grengg, 2023). Polymer-
modified mortars combine polymers with cement and aggregates, boosting resilience, adhesion, and resistance to
water and corrosive agents (Aggarwal et al., 2007).
Numerous studies have been conducted with the aim of enhancing the durability of concrete by employing various
surface coating materials. For example, Chang and Choi (2020) developed resin powder coatings with polyvinyl alcohol
(PVA) and nylon fibers to enhance acid resistance, adhesion, and tensile strength. They found a mixture of PVA resin
powder and nylon fiber optimal for harsh conditions. This is due to the unique crosslinking action of nylon fibers,
which prevents cracks caused by freeze-thaw cycles and enhances compressive strength, making them ideal for harsh
conditions. Li et al. (2018) highlighted the efficacy of silanes in reducing chloride penetration, while silica-based hybrid
nanocomposites significantly reduced water absorption rates. The hydrophobic properties and pozzolanic reactivity of
the hybrid nanocomposite play a crucial role in refining pore structures and elevating the water contact angle,
resulting in enhanced surface durability for cement-based materials. Haile et al. (2008) reported that processed or
natural zeolites possess a combination of advantageous properties, such as chemical and thermal stability, unique
micropore structure and antimicrobial characteristics, making them highly suitable for use as protective coating
materials against bio-corrosion. Roghanian and Banthia (2019) reported geopolymer-based coatings effectively protect
concrete from bio-corrosion. Their resilience is highlighted by a reduced strength loss (35 %) compared to uncoated
samples (73 %) and cement mortar-coated samples (52 %). Additionally, when applied to corroded samples, these
coatings restored the structural integrity by an average of 40 %. Additionally, the ability of the geopolymer coatings to
restore strength indicates they form a strong bond with the concrete surface, effectively filling and reinforcing
damaged areas, leading to increased service life for the infrastructure. Zhang et al. (2018) employed silica fume and
nano silica to strengthen the resistance of cement mortar against chloride infiltration. This could be attributed to the
improved effectiveness of nano silica and silica fume, which refine the microstructure of the mortar, densify the
interfacial transition zone, and improve its impermeability. Vipulanandan and Liu (2005) examined two commercially
available polyurethane-based coatings. One coating displayed strong adhesion to dry concrete but weak adhesion to
wet surfaces, whereas the other exhibited consistently low bonding strength regardless of surface moisture. The
disparities could be attributed to the unique formulations and properties of each coating, or possibly the way they
interact with moisture on the surface. Further investigation into the compositions and mechanisms of each
polyurethane coating would be necessary to provide a concrete reason for the observed behaviors.
Despite the superior resistance of different coating materials against corrosion, their effectiveness is often
compromised by the existence of pores, pinholes, and other structural defects (Vipulanandan and Liu, 2005). These
pinholes, often resulting from the rupture of air bubbles within the coating, cause a significant problem. They can allow
corrosive sewer gases to penetrate, which might accelerate the development of corrosion under the coating layer
(Noeiaghaei et al., 2017). The coating system is vulnerable to premature failure when these pores traverse throughout
the entire coating layer. Studies have found small holes on certain coatings like epoxy, which appear to arise from air
bubbles released during curing (Goncharenko et al., 2019). Gases entering through these holes can exacerbate
corrosion, causing issues like blister formation, delamination and the ultimate peeling of the coating layer (Noeiaghaei
et al., 2017). Moreover, these defects can become hotspots for bacterial growth, further accelerating degradation and
risking structural integrity (Kopteva et al., 2004). However, various factors determine the efficacy of these protective
liners and coatings, such as material properties, application depth, workmanship quality and the creation of a fully
sealed system (Wang et al., 2020).
5.1.2. Chemical additive technique

Chemical additive is a method used to treat concrete surfaces without the need for prior surface preparation. This
approach uses a float equipped with a spray head to evenly distribute chemical solutions onto sewer crowns. The
primary goals are to neutralize sulfide-oxidizing microorganisms (SOM) and prevent their regrowth (Ng and Kwan,
2015; Ukrainczyk and Grengg, 2023; Yusuf et al., 2023). The chemical used for this process is varied and includes
alkaline substances and biocides such magnesium hydroxide, hydrogen peroxide, chlorine, iron salts (Fe3+ and Fe2+),
sodium hydroxide, nitrate, free nitrous acid (FNA) and permanganate (Sun, 2015; Wang et al., 2020). Spraying
magnesium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide primarily aims to boost surface pH, counteract acidic conditions and
create an alkaline environment to hinder SOM growth (Ganigue et al., 2011). Hydrogen peroxide helps maintain aerobic
conditions by oxidizing dissolved sulfides (Zhang et al., 2023). Other chemicals, like permanganate, chloride, oxygen,
iron salts, particularly ferrous (Fe2+) and ferric (Fe3+) ions can also contribute to sulfide oxidation (Okabe et al., 2007).
These chemicals act as oxidizing agents that directly interact with sulfides present, facilitating the conversion of
sulfides into sulfate or other non-harmful substances. This oxidative action helps in mitigating the activity and
proliferation of SOM, ultimately protecting the concrete surfaces from the adverse effects of the produced sulfuric acid,
such as corrosion and deterioration. Additionally, nitrite sprays can curb concrete corrosion by up to 90 % by inhibiting
SOM through the creation of free nitrous acid (Sun et al., 2015).
Chemical additive methods to reduce sulfide content in wastewater systems have proven effective, though their
efficiency can vary based on dosing strategies and external factors like weather conditions (Anwar et al., 2022).
However, some methods produce unwanted residues, such as iron salts, while others struggle to consistently control
gaseous hydrogen sulfide levels within the atmospheric portion of the sewer structure (Ukrainczyk and Grengg, 2023).
The long-term corrosion mitigation effects of chemical spraying tend to decrease over time due to the wash-off of the
chemical caused by flooding or condensation water dripping (Zhang et al., 2023). This necessitates re-spraying at
suitable intervals to ensure continuous protection, resulting in increased maintenance costs. Therefore, further
research is essential to enhance the durability of these corrosion inhibitors against wash-off.
5.1.3. Surface washing technique

Surface washing is a method used to control corrosion by removing the corrosion layer from affected concrete surfaces.
The role of these corrosion layers in bio-corrosion remains a subject of ongoing debate and uncertainty in scientific
communities (Wu et al., 2020). It is noted that these layers hinder corrosion by acting as a barrier to biogenic acids
(Wells and Melchers, 2014). However, Islander et al. (1991) and Monteny et al. (2000) pointed out that the corrosion
layers provide a favorable environment for bacterial growth because they trap moisture, accumulate nutrients, and
offer protection from environmental factors. As bacteria thrive in these layers, they produce biogenic acids, accelerating
the corrosion of the concrete. Surface washing is often favored for its cost-effectiveness compared to methods like
surface coating (Ukrainczyk and Grengg, 2023). However, its impact on OPC concrete is limited and temporary, as the
surface pH only rises to around 5 after washing, allowing sulfide oxidizing microorganisms to re-colonize (Nielsen et
al., 2008). A study by Sun et al. (2016) found no significant difference in concrete mass loss between washed and
unwashed coupons. This might be because of the high pressure washing eliminating the layer acting as a barrier
against acid attack, potentially allowing easier acid penetration into the concrete. Over time, as the corrosion layer
redevelops, the effects of washing are negated, resulting in no significant difference in concrete mass loss. To address
this, Ukrainczyk and Grengg (2023) have proposed adding calcium nitrite to concrete during manufacturing. This
results in a decrease in sulfide uptake, a rise in surface pH and a lowering of corrosion loss. A study comparing surface
washing effects on nitrite-admixed concrete and OPC found longer-lasting corrosion resistance in nitrite-admixed
concrete (Li et al., 2021). This is likely due to the inhibitory impact of nitrite, leached from the internal section of the
concrete, on the acidic surface. These findings imply that the use of corrosion-resistant concrete combined with regular
surface washing, could be a more effective strategy to mitigate sewer corrosion. This potential synergy could represent
a significant advance in corrosion control strategies, warranting further research and experimentation.
5.2. Enhancing concrete properties through mix design adjustments

Concrete deterioration control is often started in the design phase through concrete mixture modifications (Fig. 7).
Various binder materials, including calcium aluminate cement, geopolymer, sulfate resistant cement, polymer
modified cements, supplementary cementitious materials and bio-concrete have been used to mitigate bio-corrosion
in sewer structures (Grengg et al., 2018; Noeiaghaei et al., 2017; Ukrainczyk and Grengg, 2023; Wu et al., 2020). The
selection of materials depends on their effectiveness against bio-corrosion and compatibility with concrete.
Fig. 7. Various binder materials for enhancing concrete durability. FA = Fly ash, SF = Silica fume, BFS = Blast furnace slag,
MK = Metakaolin, CAC = Calcium aluminate cement, SRC = Sulfate resistant cement, PVA = Polyvinyl acetate, DOTP = Dioctyl
terephthalate, PVC = Polyvinyl chloride, PP=Polypropylene, PET = Polyethylene terephthalate, AGS = Anaerobic granular
sludge.
5.2.1. Calcium aluminate cement and geopolymer

Calcium aluminate cement (CAC) is particularly effective in bio-corrosion control due to its unique properties (Ehrich et
al., 1999; Herisson et al., 2013; Sand et al., 1994). Three main mechanisms explain its performance: large neutralization
capacity, formation of acid-resistant alumina gel during hydration, and bacteriostatic effects that inhibit sulfate-
oxidizing bacteria (Khan et al., 2019; Kiliswa et al., 2019; Scrivener and Capmas, 2003; Wu et al., 2020). Additionally,
CAC has a low tendency to bind with sulfur, reducing harmful acid formation (Herisson et al., 2012; Herisson et al.,
2013). Saucier and Herisson (2016) reported that 100 % CAC concrete performs better in sewers as it eliminates zones
for unimpeded sulfuric acid production. A key factor in the enhanced performance of CAC compared to OPC is the
development of Al(OH)3 as a secondary phase. This phase is more stable and effectively reduces porosity, in contrast to
the Al Si gel produced by the breakdown of C-(A)-S-H phases in OPC. The high acid neutralization ability of CAC,
alongside this feature, significantly boosts its resistance to bio-corrosion in sewer environments. Alternatively,
geopolymers, with their unique aluminosilicate-based structure, offer a promising alternative to conventional OPC,
especially in terms of durability and corrosion resistance (Grengg et al., 2018; Khan et al., 2020; Xie et al., 2018). The
geopolymerization process involves the dissolution, gelation, and condensation of aluminosilicates, resulting in a
strong three-dimensional matrix. This unique structure inherently reduces the permeability of geopolymers, making
them notably resistant to aggressive agents. Compared to traditional binders, geopolymers exhibit superior resistance
to acid attacks due to this reduced permeability and their ability to effectively prevent acid infiltration. A critical
element of their resilience arises from the presence of aluminate and silicate structures, which offer significant
protection against chemical assaults, particularly from acids (Grengg et al., 2020). In a study by Hewayde et al. (2006),
geopolymer concrete emerged as a promising solution for improving concrete durability. It exhibited a significant 50 %
enhancement in the 28-day compressive strength compared to OPC concrete. Furthermore, immersion tests in sulfuric
acid solutions over an eight-week duration highlighted the robustness of geopolymers; they exhibited reduced
concrete mass losses of 42 % and 30 %. While these attributes underscore the advantages of geopolymers, it is essential
to mention that there is a knowledge gap in understanding their interaction with microorganisms (Pacheco-Torgal et
al., 2014; Wu et al., 2020). This limited information is possibly attributed to their restricted use in real-world scenarios,
suggesting a need for more comprehensive research in this domain.
5.2.2. Sulfate resistant cement

Sulfate resistant cement (SRC) is designed to protect concrete in sulfate-rich environments like seaports and tunnels.
The key difference between SRC and OPC is the lower C3A content in SRC, which prevents interaction with sulfate ions
that can cause cracks and concrete destruction (Harbulakova et al., 2017; Khademi and Sar, 2015). The presence of
lower amounts of Al-containing hydration products in SRC, such as AFm phases, contributes to its improved resistance
to expansive sulfate attack. However, the efficacy of SRC in biochemically aggressive systems remains a subject of
debate. Several studies have examined the effectiveness of SRC and OPC concrete when subjected to H2SO4 immersion
(Attiogbe and Rizkalla, 1988; El Gamal et al., 2017; Estokova et al., 2019; Fattuhi and Hughes, 1988; Grengg et al., 2015;
Harbulakova et al., 2017). The results suggest that SRC concrete may show varying levels of resistance when subjected
to biological acid attack. The response of SRC to chemical versus biological sulfuric acid attacks shows notable
differences in the formation of surface compounds and leaching behaviors, with biological acid attack leading to more
pronounced surface compound formation. A study by Estokova et al. (2019) suggests that SRC concrete tends to resist
chemical sulfuric acid more effectively than its biological counterpart, possibly due to the complex processes caused by
bacteria. However, there are significant differences in the deterioration mechanisms under natural sewer conditions
and chemical sulfuric acid exposure. It suggests that lab tests based on sulfuric acid might not accurately predict real
world sewer conditions. Notably, sulfuric acid attacks generally cause more severe concrete deterioration than sulfate
attacks (Harbulakova et al., 2017; O'Connell et al., 2010).
5.2.3. Polymer modified cement

Polymers have a significant impact on the modification of cementitious materials in concrete, offering benefits such as
convenient preparation, cost-effectiveness, and effective modification effects (Assaad, 2018; Ghassemi and Toufigh,
2020; Shi et al., 2020). Polymers enhance physical properties through the improvement of interfacial transition zones
and pore structure, while chemical reactions facilitate enhanced bonding and compactness (Ukrainczyk and Grengg,
2023). Several studies have shown that introducing polymers into concrete can enhance its resistance to corrosive
substances, primarily by reducing permeability and preventing the ingress of aggressive chemicals and
microorganisms (Araghi et al., 2015; Beeldens et al., 2001; Chang and Choi, 2020; Küçük et al., 2020). However, these
benefits come with significant downsides. The addition of polymers can interfere with cement hydration, resulting in a
reduction in the compressive strength of the modified concrete, particularly when polymer-to-cement ratios are high
(Wang and Wang, 2010). Moreover, improvements typically occur within a specific polymer/cement range (3–20 %),
which significantly increases the cost of the material, limiting its feasibility in many applications (Kong et al., 2013;
Noeiaghaei et al., 2017). Additionally, Sakhakarmi (2017) pointed out that the presence of harmful solvents or
components in polymers raises health and safety concerns. However, the effectiveness of polymer-modified concrete in
mitigating bio-corrosion of concrete sewer remains uncertain due to conflicting outcomes observed in different
research studies (Araghi et al., 2015; Chang and Choi, 2020; Küçük et al., 2020; Pacheco-Torgal et al., 2014; Vincke et al.,
2002). This inconsistency may be attributed to the intricacy of the factors affecting bio-corrosion and differences in
testing methods across studies. Furthermore, the practical application of polymer-modified cement is restricted in real-
world scenarios, largely because of cost and safety concerns (Pacheco-Torgal et al., 2014).
5.2.4. Supplementary cementitious materials

The addition of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) like silica fume (SF), fly ash (FA), and ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBFS) act as partial replacements for cement clinker composition to improve concrete properties
(Noeiaghaei et al., 2017). GGBFS, similar to OPC, can replace up to 70–80 % of it (Lee et al., 2021). Whereas FA and SF,
with different compositions, can substitute 20–40 % (Islam and Islam, 2013; Kou et al., 2007; Malhotra and Mehta,
2002; Owaid et al., 2012; Yerramala and Desai, 2012) and 2.5–10 % (Tokyay, 2016; Yerramala and Desai, 2012) of OPC,
respectively. GGBFS engages in hydration reactions within the alkaline environment provided by cement hydration,
particularly in the presence of portlandite. This reaction contributes to pore refinement and enhanced durability of the
concrete matrix. FA and SF also contribute to the long-term strength and durability of concrete, although their
reactions may initially lead to delayed strength development due to their pozzolanic reactions (Tokyay, 2016). Research
findings have displayed inconsistencies. While studies by De Belie et al. (2004), Yoshida et al. (2010), Liu et al. (2017),
Alexander et al. (2013), and House et al. (2019) exhibited significant enhancement in acid resistance through SCMs like
GGBFS, others like Sand et al. (1994) and Ehrich et al. (1999) revealed limited impact or even increased corrosion under
biological testing conditions. Field tests also present varied outcomes. While some showed that SCMs might slightly
improve resistance, the broad data range leads to inconclusive interpretations (Alexander et al., 2013; De Belie et al.,
2004; Herisson et al., 2017; Kiliswa, 2016; Pluym-Berkhout et al., 1989). These variations could be due to different test
conditions and a multitude of influencing factors. Biological and in-field tests, which consider the interaction between
microorganisms and concrete surfaces, are more representative of actual conditions but also produce inconsistent
results. It is noteworthy that high-performance concretes may outperform lower-performance ones in laboratory tests,
especially in abiotic conditions. However, in sewer environments, lower-performance concretes, despite potentially
lower strength, may exhibit higher durability (Kiliswa et al., 2019). This highlights the need for comprehensive testing
methodologies that consider real-world conditions.
5.2.5. Bio-concrete
Bio-concrete is an advanced concrete integrated with specific microorganisms, enabling microbial-induced calcite
precipitation. This feature acts as a “bio-sealant”, healing cracks and making the concrete less permeable (Chahal et al.,
2011; De Muynck et al., 2008). The main advantage of bio-concrete is its ability to self-repair; when the concrete
cracks, the encapsulated bacteria become active, leading to calcite formation and crack sealing. The formation of calcite
can be attributed to several microbial processes, ranging from denitrification and urea hydrolysis to sulfate reduction,
methane oxidation and iron reduction (Seifan et al., 2016). Despite its benefits, there are some limitations to bio-
concrete, including the high production costs associated with bacterial culture and encapsulation (Silva et al., 2015).
Additionally, the ureolytic processes involved can release considerable ammonia, posing potential environmental
hazards, especially in sewer applications (Seifan et al., 2016). In a recent study, Song et al. (2021) explored the efficacy
of a particular bio-concrete variant enriched with granular sludge. Their findings highlighted a significant reduction in
concrete corrosion when granular sludge was integrated. Compared to the control concrete, 1 % and 2 % bio-concrete
variants experienced a decrease in corrosion rates by approximately 17 % and 43 %, respectively. In the future, while bio-
concrete has potential in various fields, its use in sewers needs more research. Addressing its current drawbacks, like
cost and environmental concerns, is vital for its broader acceptance.
5.3. Antimicrobial agents for enhanced concrete performance

The use of antimicrobial agents is a promising strategy for improving its resistance to bio-corrosion. These agents can
be directly mixed into the concrete or added as protective coatings (Bryukhanov et al., 2021; Noeiaghaei et al., 2017).
These agents can be broadly categorized into inorganic and organic types (Kaali et al., 2011; Qiu et al., 2020). Inorganic
antimicrobial agents inhibit the growth of microorganisms via multiple mechanisms. These include producing reactive
oxygen species that cause oxidative stress, disrupting cell membranes, or releasing metallic ions toxic to microbes
(Haile et al., 2010; Tang et al., 2009). Photocatalytic reactions and release of heat energy are other important
antibacterial methods (Ganji et al., 2016). Additionally, nanoparticles like Cu2O, CaCO3, TiO2, ZnO, CuO, Al2O3 and Fe3O4
have demonstrated notable antimicrobial properties. This is attributed to the significant increase in the surface-area-
to-volume ratio when particle dimensions are diminished to the nanoscale (Noeiaghaei et al., 2017; Sikora et al., 2018;
Singh et al., 2004; Singh et al., 2018). Organic antimicrobial agents, like phthalocyanine compounds or quaternary
ammonium compounds, tend to inhibit microbial growth by penetrating and damaging cell membranes or interfering
with their metabolic processes (Qiu et al., 2020).
Numerous studies have focused on the incorporation of antimicrobial agents into concrete. One study showcased the
effectiveness of antimicrobial additive ConBlock MIC in various concrete infrastructures (Khan et al., 2019). The
antimicrobial power of zeolite-supported silver and copper has also been highlighted in another study (Gyu-Yong et al.,
2009). Field trials involving ConShield, an antimicrobial agent, have shown its potential in preventing bio-corrosion in
sewer systems (El Gamal et al., 2017), offering promising long-term protection. However, these antimicrobial agents
come with challenges. Some inorganic antimicrobial agents might release potentially harmful substances into the
environment over the lifespan of the concrete (Yang et al., 2023). The effectiveness of organic antimicrobial agents can
be temporary, requiring reapplication or resulting in decreased effectiveness over time (Kirthika et al., 2022; Qiu et al.,
2020). Another concern is the potential for microorganisms to develop resistance to these agents over time, a
phenomenon known as antimicrobial resistance (Zhang et al., 2023). This would reduce the effectiveness of the
antimicrobial agents and could potentially lead to the spread of more resilient microorganisms (Noeiaghaei et al.,
2017). In principle, ongoing research aims to optimize antimicrobial properties in concrete, but field trials are essential
to validate the effectiveness of findings.
6. Case studies
Over a period of three decades, chemical attacks and biogenic corrosion have led to substantial deterioration of
concrete infrastructures in sewage treatment plants across cities like New Orleans, Los Angeles, and Florida. For
example, the concrete infrastructures at the West Bank sewage treatment plant in New Orleans experienced significant
deterioration because of the combined impacts of bio-corrosion and chemical attacks. The material degradation was so
profound that the concrete surface was compromised to a depth of 25–40 mm (Moradian et al., 2012). Likewise, bio-
corrosion caused extensive damage of the concrete adjacent walls in the discharge channel at Florida's Hooker's Point
advanced sewage treatment plant. The impact was quite severe, causing failure to the depth of approximately 50–
100 mm. Several cases from around the globe further illustrate the severe concrete deterioration in wastewater
systems. For example, a sewer pipe in Edmonton, Canada displayed considerable decay within just 15 years of
construction, reporting an alarming corrosion depth of up to 100 mm (Fig. 8a) (Wu et al., 2018). This catastrophic
deterioration drastically reduced the projected service life of the concrete structure from a typical range of 75–
100 years to less than two decades. The economic consequences of such premature structural failure are substantial, as
in a span of six years, costs increased from CAD $6.5 million in 2009 to CAD $16.8 million by the end of 2015.
Download : Download high-res image (1MB)
Fig. 8. (a) Severe deterioration of a sewer pipe in Edmonton, Canada (Wu et al., 2018); (b) Significant concrete damage
at a sewage treatment plant in Ahwaz, Iran (Moradian et al., 2012); (c) Deteriorated concrete wall surface at a sewage
treatment plant in Masovia, Poland (Woyciechowski et al., 2021); (d) Hamburg simulation chamber-based bio-
Corrosion analysis over a year (Saucier and Herisson, 2016); (e) Overview map of the sewer network located near Graz,
Austria (Grengg et al., 2015).
The wastewater treatment plant in Ahwaz, Iran serves as a prime example of concrete deterioration. (Moradian et al.,
2012). In this case, concrete degradation reached severe levels within just eight years of operation (Fig. 8b). The
damage was most significant at aeration tank, primary sedimentation tank and the sewage entrance channel. This was
attributed to a combination of sulfuric acid and chemical attacks, such as sulfates and chlorides. Several factors
contributed to the extensive deterioration, including the presence of a highly aggressive environment, an increase in
porosity of the concrete, a hot climate in the region, and inadequate thickness of the concrete cover. These conditions
led to swift chloride ingress and corrosion of embedded rebars, especially in high turbulence sections. Damage was
most extensive in areas continuously exposed to raw sewage, and above water level due to heightened bacterial
activity. This case study illustrates the serious impact of harsh environmental conditions on concrete strength in
sewage treatment plants.
In Poland, a sewage treatment plant in Masovia with a daily volume of 6000 m3 experienced substantial concrete
corrosion within only 36 months of operation (Woyciechowski et al., 2021). They found that the tanks, subjected to
highly aggressive and moderately aggressive elements, showed rapid deterioration (Fig. 8c). The highly corrosive
environment within the tanks, with H2S levels ranging from 14 to 33 mg/L and a pH below 4, led to rapid concrete
degradation. Additionally, the presence of an excessive sulfate content, exceeding the accepted threshold, further
contributed to the deterioration process. Moreover, even protective measures like epoxy-bituminous chemical resistant
coating and usage of sulfate-resistant cement mix were insufficient in providing adequate protection. The visible
damage to the tanks included degradation of the coating, extensive concrete destruction, and large surface defects in
the reinforcement cover. It was further observed that the damaging zone extended up to 60 cm and 50 cm in different
tanks above the wastewater level, which might progress towards the roof in the long run. A critical temperature
variation, even falling below zero in deeper tanks, further amplified the extent of damage. Thus, this study highlights
the need for improved protective strategies to strengthen and extend the lifespan of concrete infrastructures within the
challenging conditions of sewer systems.
The process of bio-corrosion in sewer atmosphere takes considerable time, making it challenging to monitor its impact
in real-life sewage systems over shorter periods. To address this issue, a team of investigators at the University of
Hamburg developed a specialized facility known as the Hamburg Simulation Chamber (HSC) (Saucier and Herisson,
2016). The HSC facilitates the accelerated testing of various cementitious materials under a simulated corrosive
environment analogous to real-world wastewater conditions. The chamber is designed to maintain optimal conditions
for bacterial growth, which leads to expedited corrosion (Fig. 8d). A year of observation within the HSC is equivalent to
witnessing the corrosion effects over twenty-four years in a conventional wastewater system. The tests indicated
varying levels of resistance to corrosion among different cementitious materials. While OPC was found to corrode
completely within a year, CAC demonstrated a significantly better performance, registering only about 20 % weight loss
in the same period (Ehrich et al., 1999; Vincke et al., 1999).
The sewer system near Graz, Austria, a combined network serving rural areas and around 13,000 citizens, has
experienced significant concrete deterioration in some parts (Grengg et al., 2015) (Fig. 8e). Comprising concrete storage
basins, cast iron and polyethylene power mains and gravity sewers with concrete-based manholes, the system was
designed with specific compressive strength and chemical resistance according to Austrian standards. However, several
manholes in the gravity sewers exhibited clear signs of degradation. In the worst cases, the top layer of the concrete
was so soft that it could be manually scraped off. The deterioration was more intense near the power main outlets and
decreased with distance from them. The concrete elements were made of precast components with a specified
compressive strength class and a water/cement ratio designed to withstand aggressive environments. Although
constructed according to these standards, the degradation seen in the concrete is concerning. The rest of the system,
including the storage basins, showed no signs of visual damage, highlighting the localized nature of the problem.
Overall, concrete deterioration in wastewater systems has been proven to be an accelerating process in multiple case
studies. These case studies illustrate the urgent need for more resilient materials and mitigation strategies to enhance
the durability of concrete structures in aggressive wastewater environments. This necessitates concentrated research
efforts to explore and develop materials and methodologies that can resist the corrosive effects inherent in such
challenging conditions.
7. Future challenges and perspectives

Understanding the constraints and potential developments of biogenic corrosion in concrete is key to optimizing the
performance and longevity of wastewater infrastructure. This knowledge assists in developing effective measures to
extend the lifespan of these systems and maintain their optimal operation. By addressing the existing limitations,
robust strategies and interventions can be developed to optimize the performance of these structures over time.
Simultaneously, outlining future perspectives provides a roadmap for advancing research in this field, guiding
researchers towards areas that demand further exploration and innovation.
7.1. Challenges
• High implementation costs and limited practical experience within the construction industry are major hindrances
to the adoption of new materials.
• The absence of established standards for new, more durable materials complicates their integration into existing
infrastructure projects, hindering widespread acceptance and application.
• The slow progression of bio-corrosion mechanisms in cement composites within wastewater systems limits
comprehensive investigations and preventive actions.
• Evaluating critical parameters in real-world wastewater sewer systems presents a significant challenge due to the
fluctuating conditions within these systems.
• Laboratory conditions often differ significantly from actual wastewater systems, leading to inconsistencies in
observed biogenic corrosion mechanisms.
• The development of bacterial community responsible for bio-corrosion is highly influenced by the concentration of
sulfides or sulfates, adding another layer of complexity.
• Differences between laboratory and field investigations, in terms of corrosion rates, further complicate the issue,
primarily due to variations in testing conditions and environmental factors.
• The lack of universally accepted test procedures and design guidelines for assessing concrete resistance to biogenic
acidic attacks in wastewater systems presents a significant challenge.
• A major challenge lies in the scarcity of comprehensive cost analyses for various sewer concrete corrosion
prevention strategies, making it difficult to compare and select the most cost-effective solutions.
• The development of microbial resistance against antimicrobial agents poses a significant challenge to the
effectiveness of antimicrobial concrete.
• The tendency of nanomaterials to agglomerate in the polymer matrix presents substantial challenges in the
production of nano-enhanced coatings.
7.2. Future perspective

• Understanding the detailed dynamics between microbial life forms and cement composites is essential. Gaining
deeper insights into these interactions is key to formulating robust strategies for mitigating and preventing bio-
corrosion.
• The development of a concrete bio-Corrosion model, considering the dominant parameters, could be beneficial in
designing durable concrete for wastewater infrastructure. A well-validated model could also aid in predicting and
preventing future corrosion.
• Future research should focus on developing comprehensive cost-benefit analyses for a range of sewer concrete
corrosion prevention measures, aiming to bridge the current gap in cost-effectiveness knowledge.
• The incorporation of antimicrobial nanomaterials into new concrete structures as admixtures or coatings presents
exciting possibilities. However, their economic viability and potential environmental and health impacts need to be
thoroughly investigated to ensure safety and sustainability.
• The introduction of corrosion-resistant bio-concrete could be a game-changer for durable sewer systems. This
material harnesses specific bacteria to produce limestone, effectively sealing cracks and enhancing its resilience
against corrosion. However, the efficacy of calcium carbonate precipitation is questionable under the acidic
conditions prevalent in environments affected by biogenic corrosion. Further research is essential to ascertain the
long-term effectiveness of bio-concrete, especially in addressing the challenges posed by acidic environments.
• Encapsulation techniques that enable controlled release of antimicrobial agents could significantly enhance the
performance of antimicrobial concrete/coating. Such innovative approaches could revolutionize the durability and
biodeterioration resistance of concrete structures.
• The incorporation of cutting-edge technologies like geopolymer technology, nanotechnology, biotechnology, 3D

printing, evaluation of damage and failure, self-assembly technology, inorganic-organic composite technology, and
multiscale simulation technology could accelerate the advancement of antimicrobial concrete.
8. Conclusions
Modern sewer infrastructures are being constructed at an unprecedented scale, making bio-corrosion an increasingly
specialized form of degradation that affects cementitious composites in these settings. Despite extensive research, bio-
corrosion remains a costly and unresolved issue, with limited impact on actual construction practices. The absence of
standardized testing methods has led to a diverse range of techniques being employed to investigate this complex
phenomenon. While chemical immersion tests provide a rapid way to evaluate acid resistance, they often fall short in
capturing the intricate dynamics of bio-corrosion. Moreover, the accelerated methods used in these tests can distort
the natural deterioration mechanisms of concrete. On the other hand, microbiological tests provide more realistic
results but are constrained by safety concerns, equipment complexity, and questions about their reliability. In-situ tests
also have their drawbacks, being time-consuming and yielding inconsistent results due to variable field conditions. An
effective bio-corrosion simulation test must consider key environmental factors such as moisture levels, abrasion,
nutrient availability, and the presence of gaseous H2S. The complexity of bio-corrosion demands a more holistic
evaluation index; single metrics like weight or dimension change fall short in fully representing its impact. Multiple
case studies confirm that concrete deterioration in wastewater systems is an accelerating issue, emphasizing the
urgent need for more resilient materials and mitigation strategies. Various approaches, including surface coating
materials, chemical spraying techniques, specific concrete mix designs, and antimicrobial agents, have been explored
to control bio-corrosion. Although these existing solutions offer some degree of protection, the quest for developing
sustainable materials that can withstand the harsh conditions of sewer environments remains a critical imperative.
CRediT authorship contribution statement

Sagor Kumar Pramanik: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation,
Conceptualization. Muhammed Bhuiyan: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Dilan Robert: Writing – review &
editing, Supervision. Rajeev Roychand: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Li Gao: Writing – review & editing,
Supervision. Ivan Cole: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Biplob Kumar Pramanik: Writing – review & editing,
Visualization, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Conceptualization.
Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Recommended articles
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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Bio-corrosión en el hormigón de los sistemas de

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• Hydrogen sulfide to sulfuric acid is key in concrete deterioration.

• Climate, concrete quality and wastewater impact corrosion rates.

• Coatings and better concrete mixes enhance sewer durability.

Download : Download high-res image (387KB)

Fig. 1. Visual representation of sewer network infrastructure layout.

Table 1. Costs associated with rehabilitation and maintenance of sewer infrastructure.

Location Costs Key notes References

UK £ 85 million – Berger et al. (2016)

Table 2. Concrete durability under different operating condition.

Material Operating condition Corrosion rate References

Calcium aluminate cement 5.4

CAC concrete 0.35–0.60

Siliceous aggregate + CAC 0.8–1.2

Mortar H2S: 30 ± 20 ppm 4.8 ± 1.8 Satoh et al. (2009)

Mortar H2S: 30 ± 20 ppm 3–4 Okabe et al. (2007)

Concrete – 1.1–1.8 Vincke et al. (2002)

2. Mechanisms of bio-corrosion in sewer systems

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2.1. Generation and accumulation of hydrogen sulfide

2.2. Generation of sulfuric acid

2.3. Deterioration of concrete materials

3. Factors influencing concrete deterioration in sewer infrastructure

formation of H2SO4, with the maximum rate (1991)

SOB The proliferation of SOB population results in Positive Wu et al. (2020);

depletion of dissolved oxygen and the (2013); Wu et al.

DO A higher concentration of DO, exceeding Negative Madraszewski et

pH When pH concentration is lower, H2S Positive Zhang et al.

Flow velocity may have varying effects on the N.A.

Supplementary cement-based Although composites exhibit resistance Negative Monteny et al.

Geopolymer Geopolymer concrete outperforms OPC, Negative Provis et al.

3.1. Impacts of environmental conditions on hydrogen sulfide formation

References Relative Temperature H2S Microorganisms Key notes

Khan et al. 85 ± 1 30 – T. intermedius A. thiooxidans Inoculum of each bacterial

Kang and Ye – 30 – – A. thiooxidans The bacterial solution

Xie et al. – 25 650–750 – T. ferrooxidans Regular replacement and

Roghanian 85 ± 2 – 50 T. thioparus A. thiooxidans, T. thioparus and A. thiooxidans,

Grandclerc et 100 30 30,100 – – Microorganisms from activated

Herisson et al. 100 30 – – Acidithiobacillus Specimens were exposed to

Marquez- 62 ± 5 30 ± 1 100 H. neapolitanus, A. thiooxidans Centrifugation at 4 °C and

Madraszewsk – 30 20 T. intermedia, S. A. thiooxidans The availability of referenced

Gutiérrez- – 25 300–600 T. thioparus, H. A. cryptum, A. Partial submersion of the

Ehrich et al. 98 30 10 ± 5 H. neapolitanus, T. A. thiooxidans Inoculation of bacteria onto

De Belie et al. – 28 250 Thiobacillus spp. – Partial submersion of the

Gu et al. – 30 – T. intermedia – A medium containing bacteria

Schmidt et al. – 20–30 – – A. thiooxidans A bacterial medium was

3.2. Impact of hydrogen sulfide in sewer system

4. Corrosion test methods

References Test details Material Test Assessment Key Observations

Type Size (Days)

Type Size (Days)

checked on a weekly microstructural zero-cement concrete, by

Wu et al. Immersion of small OPC mortar Cylinders 75 Visual The introduction of

Type Size (Days)

Type Size (Days)

Type Size (Days)

developed by (30 °C), humidity electrode Ion capacity and lower

Type Size (Days)

concentration microstructural when pH was below 3,