Complete Physics 2023 April Attempt-1

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Units & Measurements
Fundamental Units
S.no Physical quantity SI unit symbol
1 Mass kilogram kg
2 Length Meter m
3 Time Second s
4 Temperature Kelvin K
Amount Of a
5 mole mol
Substance
6 Electric current Ampere A
7 Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Supplementary units
Quantity Name of units symbol
Plane angle Radian (rad) 𝜃
Solid angle Steradian (sr) Ω

Solid Angle
Dimensions
They are the powers to which the fundamental units must
be raised in order to get the unit of derived quantity.
Quantities Dimensions
Velocity [L1 T-1]
Velocity gradient [T-1]
Force [M1 L1 T-2]
Work [M1 L2 T-2]
Torque [M1 L2 T-2]
Pressure [M1 L-1 T-2]
Stress [M1 L-1 T-2]
Self & Mutual inductance [ M1 L2 T-2 A-2]
ε0 [ M-1 L-3 T4 A2]
μ0 [ M1 L1 T-2 A-2]
λ [M0 L0 T-1]
JEE Main 25th Jan 2023, S-2
Q Choose the correct answer from the options
given below:
LIST I LIST II
A A-II, B-III, C-IV, D-I
A. Young’s I. [ML-1T-1]
Modulus(Y)
B A-III, B-I, C-II, D-IV
B. Co-efficient of II. [ML2T-1]
Viscosity(η)
C A-I, B-III, C-IV, D-II
C. Planck’s III. [ML-1T-2]
Constant(h)
D A-I, B-II, C-III, D-IV
D. Work Function(ф) IV. [ML2T-2]
Q Choose the correct answer from the options
given below:
LIST I LIST II
A A-II, B-III, C-IV, D-I
A. Young’s I. [ML-1T-1]
Modulus(Y)
B A-III, B-I, C-II, D-IV
B. Co-efficient of II. [ML2T-1]
Viscosity(η)
C A-I, B-III, C-IV, D-II
C. Planck’s III. [ML-1T-2]
Constant(h)
D. Work Function(ф) IV. [ML2T-2]
Errors
Absolute
Error
Types of Relative
Errors Error
Percentage
Error
Addition & Subtraction
Multiplication & Division
Q
For where ‘a’ is a constant. If
percentage error in measurement of ‘x’ and ‘y’
are 4% and 12%, respectively, then the
percentage error for ‘z’ will be %
Significant figures
521 52001
00521 52100
521.00
Significant figures
Rule-1 Every non zero digit in a reported measurement is assumed to be

significant.
Rule-2 Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are significant.
Rule-3 Leftmost zeros appearing in front of nonzero digits are not

significant.
Rule-4 Zeros at the end of a number will be counted as significant, only if

they are at the right side of a decimal point.
Round off to 3 Digits
14.63 14.67
14.65 14.75
Rounding off
Rule 1 Rule 3 Rule 2
If last significant digit(d) = 5,

then look at the preceding digit. If last significant
If last
(i) If preceding digit is even, digit(d) > 5, then
significant
drop ‘d’. increase the
digit(d) < 5 preceding digit
(ii) If preceding digit is odd then
then drop it. by 1 and drop ‘d’.
increase preceding digit by 1
and drop ‘d’.
Addition and Subtraction
Here, final result should retain as many decimal places as are
there in the number with the least decimal places.
Example: 12.52 meters + 349.0 meters + 8.24 meters
12.52 meters
349.0 meters
+ 8.24 meters
369.76 meters
The second measurement has least number of digits

(1 digit) to the right of the decimal point.
So, the answer must be rounded off to one digit after the
decimal point.
Multiplication and Division
Here, the final result should retain as many significant figures

as are there in the original number with the least significant
figures.
Example: 7.55 meters × 0.34 meter
= 2.567 square meters
The second measurement (0.34 meter) has the least

number of significant figures (2). So, the answer
must be rounded to two significant figures.
Kinematics
Fundamentals of MOTION
● Distance
● Displacement
● Speed
● Velocity
● Acceleration
Distance and Displacement
Distance and Displacement
Distance Displacement
● Actual length of path ● Shortest distance between

covered by a body initial & final positions
● Scalar quantity ● Vector quantity
● Distance travelled is non-zero, ● Displacement is zero for a

even for a closed path closed path,
Average Velocity Average Speed
vavg =
Q A horse rider covers half the distance with 5 m/s
speed. The remaining part of the distance was
travelled with speed 10 m/s for half the time and
with speed 15 m/s for other half of the time. The
mean speed of the rider averaged over the
whole time of motion is x/7 m/s. The value of x is
Q A horse rider covers half the distance with 5 m/s
speed. The remaining part of the distance was
travelled with speed 10 m/s for half the time and
with speed 15 m/s for other half of the time. The
mean speed of the rider averaged over the
whole time of motion is x/7 m/s. The value of x is
Answer: 50
Instantaneous Velocity Instantaneous Speed
Q The distance travelled by a particle is related to
time t as x = 4t2. The velocity of the particle at
t = 5s is.
A 40 ms-1
B 25 ms-1
C 20 ms-1
D 8 ms-1
Q The distance travelled by a particle is related to
time t as x = 4t2. The velocity of the particle at
t = 5s is.
A 40 ms-1
B 25 ms-1
C 20 ms-1
D 8 ms-1
Acceleration
Average Acceleration Instantaneous Acceleration

JEE Main 25th July 2022, S-2
Q
A particle is moving in a straight line such that
its velocity is increasing at 5 ms-1 per meter.
The acceleration of the particle is ___ ms-2 at a
point where its velocity is 20 ms-1
JEE Main 25th July 2022, S-2
Q
A particle is moving in a straight line such that
its velocity is increasing at 5 ms-1 per meter.
The acceleration of the particle is ___ ms-2 at a
point where its velocity is 20 ms-1
Answer: 100
Graphs
Slope of x-t Graph gives X

Velocity
t
Slope of v-t Graph Area under v-t Graph
gives Acceleration gives Displacement
V V
t t
a
Area under a-t Graph
gives Change in Velocity
t
Q The velocity time graph of a body moving in a
straight line is shown in figure.
The ratio of displacement to distance travelled
by the body in time 0 to 10s is.
A 1:1
B 1:4
C 1:2
D 1:3
Solution:
Q The velocity time graph of a body moving in a
straight line is shown in figure.
The ratio of displacement to distance travelled
by the body in time 0 to 10s is.
A 1:1
B 1:4
C 1:2
D 1:3
Equations of Motions
These equations are valid only if

1
acceleration is constant.
2
3
Stopping Distance
JEE Main 2022
Q A car is moving with speed of 150 km/h and
after applying the brake it will move 27 m
before it stops. If the same car is moving with a
speed of one third the reported speed then it
will stop after travelling ___ m distance.
JEE Main 2022
Q A car is moving with speed of 150 km/h and
after applying the brake it will move 27 m
before it stops. If the same car is moving with a
speed of one third the reported speed then it
will stop after travelling ___ m distance.
Answer: 3
Vertical Motion
Drop
Q An object of mass 5kg is thrown vertically
upwards from the ground. The air resistance
produces a constant retarding force of 10 N
throughout the motion. The ratio of time of
ascent to the time of descent will be equal to :
[Use g = 10 ms-2]
A 1:1
D 2:3
Q An object of mass 5kg is thrown vertically
upwards from the ground. The air resistance
produces a constant retarding force of 10 N
throughout the motion. The ratio of time of
ascent to the time of descent will be equal to :
[Use g = 10 ms-2]
A 1:1
D 2:3
Components
θ
Components
θ
X Y
ux = u cos θ uy = u sin θ
ax = 0 ay = -g
VNet
Vy
Vx = u cos θ
Vy = u cos θ - gt α Vx
uy = u sinθ
Ux = u cosθ
uy
ux
uy = u sinθ
Ux = u cosθ
uy
ux
Remember
Range is same for complementary
angles 𝜃 and 90-𝜃
H2 T2
90 - θ T1
H1
45° θ
RMax H1 H2 ∝ R2
T1 T2 ∝ R
Q Two objects are projected with same velocity ‘u’
however, at different angles ⍺ and β with the
horizontal. If ⍺ + β = 90°, the ratio of horizontal
range of the first object to the 2nd object will be:
A 4:1
B 2:1
C 1:2
D 1:1
Q Two objects are projected with same velocity ‘u’
however, at different angles ⍺ and β with the
horizontal. If ⍺ + β = 90°, the ratio of horizontal
range of the first object to the 2nd object will be:
A 4:1
B 2:1
C 1:2
D 1:1
A ball is projected as shown.
Find the time after which velocity becomes
perpendicular to initial velocity.
𝜽
u
𝜽
Horizontal Projectile
H
Projectile on an Inclined plane
⍺
β
LOM
Gravity
EARTH
M
Tension
M
Tension
M
M M
Normal Force
M
Normal Force
𝜃
Equilibrium
If the Net force on body is zero ,

it is said to be in equilibrium.
Fnet = 0
Most Important !!!
If Net force on body is non-zero, the
body accelerates in the direction of
net force such that
FNet = ma
Pulley
m2
m1
2kg
3kg
4kg
M
Fixed
𝜃
𝜃1 𝜃2
Moving Pulley
On System
JEE Main 2022
Q In the arrangement shown in figure a1, a2, a3

and a4 are the accelerations of masses m1, m2,
m3 and m4 respectively. Which of the following
relation is true for this arrangement?
A 4a1 + 2a2 + a3 + a4 = 0
B a1 + 4a2 + 3a3 + a4 = 0
C a1 + 4a2 + 3a3 +2 a4 =
0
D 2a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 + a4 =

0
Solution:
JEE Main 2022
Q In the arrangement shown in figure a1, a2, a3

and a4 are the accelerations of masses m1, m2,
m3 and m4 respectively. Which of the following
relation is true for this arrangement?
A 4a1 + 2a2 + a3 + a4 = 0
B a1 + 4a2 + 3a3 + a4 = 0
C a1 + 4a2 + 3a3 +2 a4 =
0
D 2a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 + a4 =

0
Pseudo force
a a
a
m m m
observer
Remember !!
Newtons laws are valid
only in inertial frames.
Pseudo force is just a
Technique to find correct answer
in a non-inertial frame.
a
M
𝜽
FRICTION
Friction
Friction is a force which comes into play when a Body

moves or tends to move over surface of Another Body.
m F
Rough Surface
Variation of friction with applied force
● 𝜇 is a dimensionless constant.
● μk ≤ μs
Friction
𝜇s N
𝜇kN
Static Friction
● When there is no
actual Relative Motion
but just a tendency.
● It is self adjusting.
● Its maximum value is

fs max = 𝜇sN
Kinetic Friction
● When there is actual

Relative Motion
● It is constant.
● Its value is always

fk = 𝜇kN
Q
Discuss the variation of frictional force when
Applied force increase from 0 to 10N.
3kg F
𝜇s = 0.2
𝜇k = 0.18
Q
Find the acceleration of block.
5 Kg A 0.1 ms-2
3N B 0.2 ms-2
𝜇 =0.09 C 0.3 ms-2

4N
D 0.4 ms-2
Solution: 5 Kg
3N
𝜇 =0.09
4N
Q
Find the acceleration of block.
5 Kg A 0.1 ms-2
3N B 0.2 ms-2
𝜇 =0.09 C 0.3 ms-2

4N
D 0.4 ms-2
Angle of Repose(θR)
𝜃 = 𝜃R
𝜃 < 𝜃R
𝜃 > 𝜃R
Q A block of mass 2 kg rests on a rough inclined
plane making an angle of 30° with the horizontal.
The coefficient of static friction between the block
and the plane is 0.7. The frictional force on the
block is
A 9.8 N
C 9.8 × 7 N
D 0.8 × 9.8 N
Q A block of mass 2 kg rests on a rough inclined
plane making an angle of 30° with the horizontal.
The coefficient of static friction between the block
and the plane is 0.7. The frictional force on the
block is
A 9.8 N
C 9.8 × 7 N
D 0.8 × 9.8 N
Q A block of mass m slides down the plane inclined
at angle 30° with an acceleration g/4. The value
of coefficient of kinetic friction will be:
D
Solution:
Q A block of mass m slides down the plane
inclined at angle 30° with an acceleration g/4.
The value of coefficient of kinetic friction will be:
D
Two Block Problem
m
𝜇
M F
Smooth
WORK POWER
ENERGY
Work
Work done Work done

by constant by variable
force Force
F = constant
θ
d
F = constant
F F
θ θ
d d
F = Variable
JEE Main 01st Feb 2023, S-1
Q A small particle moves to position
from its initial position under the
action of force The value of
work done will be ________ J.
Solution:
Q A small particle moves to position
from its initial position under the
action of force The value of
work done will be ________ J.
Answer: 40
Q A force F = (5 + 3y2) acts on a particle in the
y-direction, where F is in newton and y is in
meter. The work done by the force during a
displacement from y = 2m to y = 5m is
____ J.
Solution:
Q A force F = (5 + 3y2) acts on a particle in the
y-direction, where F is in newton and y is in
meter. The work done by the force during a
displacement from y = 2m to y = 5m is
____ J.
Answer: 132
Q
Find work done in moving from (1, 1) to (3, 2)
by force
Kinetic Energy
● It is the energy associated with the motion of particle
Potential Energy
The Change in P.E is defined as –ve

of work done by conservative forces.
ΔU = -Wcons
Gravitational P.E Spring P.E
M
M.P (x=0) (U = 0)
U = 1/2 kx2
kx
U = 1/2 kx2
kx
Work Energy Theorem
The total work done on the system by all forces is
responsible for change in its kinetic energy.
Wtotal = ΔKE
Q
Block initially travels with speed v. Find
maximum compression in spring
A
v0
B
m
C mv2/K
D mv/K
Solution:
Q
Block initially travels with speed v. Find
maximum compression in spring
A
v0
B
m
C mv2/K
D mv/K
JEE Main July 2022
Q As per the given figure, two blocks each of
mass 250g are connected to a spring of
spring constant 2Nm-1. If both are given
velocity v in opposite directions, then
maximum elongation of the spring is:
D
Solution:
JEE Main July 2022
Q As per the given figure, two blocks each of
mass 250g are connected to a spring of
spring constant 2Nm-1. If both are given
velocity v in opposite directions, then
maximum elongation of the spring is:
D
POWER
Average Power Instantaneous Power

Q
Find the force such that it delivers constant
power P. (Most Imp PYQ of IIT & Mains)
F
M
Q A body of mass 2 kg is initially at rest. It
starts moving unidirectionally under the
influence of a source of constant power P.
Its displacement in
4s is The value of α will be ……
Home Work
Circular Motion
Circular motion
r
V = constant
V = r⍵
ac
r
θ
ω
ac is responsible for change in
direction of velocity
V
aT
ac
r
θ
α
ω
aT is responsible for change in

Magnitude of velocity
𝛚
𝚹
l
m
θ
m
Q Find maximum velocity with which biker can
take a turn on rough Road of curvature R.
D
Q Find maximum velocity with which biker can
take a turn on rough Road of curvature R.
D
Banking of Roads Without Friction
𝜽
Banking of Roads Without Friction
𝜽
Banking of Roads With Friction
𝜽
u
Vertical circle with Rod
Rod
u
ROTATION
Moment of Inertia
I = mr2 Axis
● r = perpendicular distance of point

mass from AOR.
● MOI is a scalar quantity and it is r

always calculated about the AOR. m
Parallel Axis Theorem
[Valid for both 2D & 3D objects]
COM COM
d
Perpendicular Axis Theorem
[Valid for planar objects]
y
RING
RING SEMI-RING QUARTER RING
I = MR2
MR2
MR2
(M1R) (M, R)
M1R
DISC
DISC QUARTER DISC

SEMI-DISC
(M,R) (M,R)
(M,R)
HOLLOW CYLINDER SOLID CYLINDER
I = MR2
(M1 R1 L)
ROD
M, L
θ
M, L
θ
HOLLOW SOLID SPHERE
SPHERE
(M, R) (M, R)
SQUARE SHEET
CUBE HOLLOW CONE SOLID CONE
M, R
Radius of Gyration
Q If a solid sphere of mass 5 kg and a disc of mass
4 kg have the same radius. Then the ratio of
moment of inertia of the disc about a tangent in
its plane to the moment of inertia of the sphere
about its tangent will be x/7. The value of x is _.
Solution:
Q If a solid sphere of mass 5 kg and a disc of mass
4 kg have the same radius. Then the ratio of
moment of inertia of the disc about a tangent in
its plane to the moment of inertia of the sphere
about its tangent will be x/7. The value of x is _.
Answer: 5
Torque
Hinged Body
F
θ r
r θ
θ
F
θ
If a body is in Rotational
Equilibrium, then net torque
about any point is zero.
Q An object of mass 8 kg is hanging from one end
of a uniform rod CD of mass 2 kg and length 1 m
pivoted at its end C on a vertical wall as shown in
figure. It is supported by a cable AB such that the
system is in equilibrium. The tension in the cable
is: (Take g = 10 m/s2):
A 240 N
B 90 N
C 300 N
D 30 N
Solution:
Q An object of mass 8 kg is hanging from one end
of a uniform rod CD of mass 2 kg and length 1 m
pivoted at its end C on a vertical wall as shown in
figure. It is supported by a cable AB such that the
system is in equilibrium. The tension in the cable
is: (Take g = 10 m/s2):
A 240 N
B 90 N
C 300 N
D 30 N
Fixed axis Rotation
Q
A uniform Rod (M,L) is released from horizontal
rest position as shown. Find 𝛼 just after release.
Q A uniform Rod (M,L) is released from
horizontal rest position as shown. Find 𝜔
When Rod becomes Vertical
D
Q A uniform Rod (M,L) is released from
horizontal rest position as shown. Find 𝜔
When Rod becomes Vertical
D
I, R
M1 M2
Helping force – Opposing force
a =
MOI of pulley
Mass of blocks +
R2
Moving Axis Rotation
Body Icom Acceleration (a)
Ring or Hollow cycle MR2 g/2 sin θ = 0.5 g sin θ
Disc or solid cycle MR2/2 2/3 g sin θ = 0.66 g sin θ
Hollow sphere 2/3 MR2 3/5 g sin θ = 0.6 g sin θ
Solid sphere 2/5 MR2 5/7 g sin θ = 0.7 g sin θ
a solid sphere > a Disc or solid cyl > a Hollow sphere > a Ring or hollow cyl
V solid sphere > V Disc or solid cyl > V Hollow sphere > V Ring or hollow cyl
t solid sphere < t Disc or solid cyl < t Hollow sphere < t Ring or hollow cyl
JEE Main 2021
Q The following bodies, (1) a ring, (2) a disc, (3) a solid
cylinder, (4) a solid sphere, of same mass ‘m’ and radius ‘R’
are allowed to roll down without slipping simultaneously
from the top of the inclined plane. The body which will reach
first at the bottom of the inclined plane is ____.
[Mark the body as per their respective numbering given in
the question]
A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
Angular Momentum
M
x
O
u
𝜃
origin
Fixed Axis Rotation
⍵
If 𝜏Net,ext = 0, → L = constant
It is principle of conservation of angular momentum.
𝜔0
Gently put
M,R
Electrostatics
& Gravitation
Coulomb's law
+q2
+q1
-q2
Absolute permittivity
of free space +q1
The Force of Interaction Always Acts
along Line Joining the Charges
Charges in Medium
K = ∈r = Dielectric constant
= Relative permittivity of
Medium
F q1 q2 F
∈ o K = ∈0 ∈r = ∈ r
= Permittivity of Medium K = Dielectric constant
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
M2
M1
Newton’s Law of Gravitation
Where G = 6.67 ✕ 10-11 Nm2/kg2
● The force always acts along line joining the

masses and it is attractive in nature
● Gravitational force is conservative in nature
● Gravitational force between masses is independent of

medium between two masses
29 Jan-Shift 1 JEE 2023
Q Two particles of equal mass ‘m’ move in a circle of radius

‘r’ under the action of their mutual gravitational
attraction. The speed of each particle will be:
D
Q Two particles of equal mass ‘m’ move in a circle of radius

‘r’ under the action of their mutual gravitational
attraction. The speed of each particle will be:
D
Q If two charges q1 and q2 are separated with distance ‘d’

and placed in a medium of dielectric constant K. WHat
will be the equivalent distance between charges in air for
the same electrostatic force?
D
Q If two charges q1 and q2 are separated with distance ‘d’

and placed in a medium of dielectric constant K. WHat
will be the equivalent distance between charges in air for
the same electrostatic force?
D
Force due to Electric field
If a charged particle is placed in field, it experiences a force.
→ →
F = qE
E
● Force is parallel to E if q is positive
⊕ F
q
E
● Force antiparallel to E if q is negative
F ⊖
q
Q A uniform electric field of 10 N/C is created between two

parallel charged plates (as shown in figure). An electron
enters the field symmetrically between the plates with a
kinetic energy 0.5 eV. The length of each plate is 10 cm.
The angle (θ) of deviation of the path of electron as it
comes out of the field is (in degree).
Q A uniform electric field of 10 N/C is created between two

parallel charged plates (as shown in figure). An electron
enters the field symmetrically between the plates with a
kinetic energy 0.5 eV. The length of each plate is 10 cm.
The angle (θ) of deviation of the path of electron as it
comes out of the field is (in degree).
Answer: 45°
POINT CHARGE
Q
POINT CHARGE E
Q r
V
r
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD & POTENTIAL
Ig
POINT MASS
r
r
M Ig
Vg
r
Null Point
d
9Q 16Q
For system of like charges null point lies is

middle region from charge of smaller
magnitude lies at
Null Point
d
9Q -16Q
For system of unlike charges null point lies is

outer region closer to charge of smaller in
magnitude at a distance
Uniformly charged wire/Rod of infinite length
𝜆 = Linear charge
Density [cm-1]
∞
∞
RING
Q,R
Ecenter = 0
Vcenter = kQ/R
θ
E
Q The electric potential at the centre of two concentric half

rings of radii R1 and R2, having same linear charge density
λ is
D
RING
Q1 R
Emax
x
E
V x
x
RING Ig
M1 R
x
Ig Vg
x max
V
g
x
Hollow Sphere
Einside = O
(Q, R)
Shell Theorem
E E=O R
r
r’
r
V inside = V surface = = Constant (Q, R)
V
R
r
E=O r1
V = constant
x=R r
(M, R)
Ig
R
r
r
IG = O r’
V inside = V surface = (M, R)
R
x=r
r
r
r’
Ig = O
Vg =
constant
Non Conducting Solid Sphere
(Q, R)
r
E R
∝r r’
r
(Q, R)
R
Parabola r
r1
Hyperbola
R
(M, R)
r
Ig
R
r
r
r’
∝r
(M, R)
V
R
r r
Hyperbola r’
Parabola
Infinite Sheet
E
𝝈 𝝈 𝝈 -𝝈
+ + + -
+ + + -
+ + + -
+ + + -
+ E=O + + -
E=O E=O
+ + + -
+ + + -
+ + + -
+ + + -
+ + + -
Q Which of the following correctly represents the variation

of electric potential (V) of a charged spherical conductor
of radius (R) with radial distance (r) from the centre?
A B
C D
Q Which of the following correctly represents the variation

of electric potential (V) of a charged spherical conductor
of radius (R) with radial distance (r) from the centre?
A B
C D
Electric Potential energy Gravitational potential energy
r r
q1 q2 m1 m2
Q Q
Q Q
Relation between Field & Potential
Case - I
If E given & V needs to be
calculated
Note:
● There is maximum loss of potential in the

direction of electric field.
● Hence, field flows from higher to lower potential.
● If we move ⊥ to the field θ = 90° i.e. dV = 0, hence

V is constant.
JEE Adv 2019
Q A non-uniform electric field is given as .

Find potential difference between points A(2, 5, -3) and B
(9, -3.1 )
E
Case II
29 June-Shift 2 JEE 2022
E
Q If the electric potential at any point (x, y, z)m in space is
given by V 3x2 volt. The electric field at the point (1, 0, 3)m
will be:
A 3 Vm-1, directed along positive x-axis
B 3 Vm-1, directed along negative x-axis
C 6 Vm-1, directed along positive x-axis
D 6 Vm-1, directed along negative x-axis

Variation in g
[M, R]
Height Variation Depth Variation
If H < < R
g
r
T = 24 hrs
Rotation of Earth
θ = Latitude
θ
g’ = g - R⍵2 cos2 θ
Q At a certain depth “d” below surface of earth. Value of

acceleration due to gravity becomes four times that of its
value at a height 3R above earth surface. Where R is
Radius of earth (Take R = 6400 km). The depth d is equal
to
A 5260 km
B 640 km
C 2560 km
D 4800 km
Q At a certain depth “d” below surface of earth. Value of

acceleration due to gravity becomes four times that of its
value at a height 3R above earth surface. Where R is
Radius of earth (Take R = 6400 km). The depth d is equal
to
A 5260 km
B 640 km
C 2560 km
D 4800 km
Escape Velocity
Escape Velocity
∴ Using energy conservation at projection point and at infinity ∞
Independent of mass of escaping body.

Independent of angle projection. ve
(ii) For earth, as g = 9.8 m/s2 and R = 6400 km
Escape velocity for object at

surface of planet:
01 Feb-Shift 1 JEE 2023
Q If earth has a mass nine times and radius twice to that of

a planet P. Then will be the minimum velocity
required by a rocket to pull out of gravitational force of P,
where ve is escape velocity on earth. The value of x is
A 2
B 3
C 18
D 1
Q If earth has a mass nine times and radius twice to the of

a planet P. Then will be the minimum velocity
required by a rocket to pull out of gravitational force of P,
where ve is escape velocity on earth. The value of x is
A 2
B 3
C 18
D 1
Satellite Motion
T
Geostationary Satellites
● Satellite which are stationary wrt earth.

● Their time period is 24 hrs.
● H = 35,600 Km (almost 6R)

● They are placed along equatorial orbits & used for
weather forecasting.
Q The time period of a satellite of earth is 24 hours. If the

separation between the earth and the satellite is
decreased to one fourth of the previous value, then its
new time period will become.
A 4 hours
B 6 hours
C 12 hours
D 3 hours
Q The time period of a satellite of earth is 24 hours. If the

separation between the earth and the satellite is
decreased to one fourth of the previous value, then its
new time period will become.
A 4 hours
B 6 hours
C 12 hours
D 3 hours
Kepler’s laws
Kepler’s first law
Planet moves in an
elliptical orbit with sun at
its one focus
Kepler’s second law
Areal velocity of a planet

is constant
I.e.,
dA/dt=L/2m
Kepler’s Third law
T2 ∝ a3
Dipole
EQUATORIAL
Enet
AXIAL θ
p
E
p
𝜃
Stable Equilibrium Unstable Equilibrium
θ = 0° θ = 180°
p p
E E
Umin = - pE Umax= pE
τ
p I = MOI of dipole about axis of rotation
τ = p E sinθ
If θ is small
τ = (pE) θ
Uniform Electric Field
A
Non uniform field or irregular surface
dA E
𝞍= ∫ E . dA
dA
E S
dA
dA
dA
+Q
S
Gauss law
The Net Electric flux through any closed surface is equal to

1/ 𝛆0 times the Net Charge enclosed by that closed surface.
Q A cubical volume is bounded by the surfaces x = 0, x = a,

y = 0, y = a, z = 0, z = a. The electric field in the region is
given by Where E0 = 4 x 104 NC-1 m-1. If a = 2 cm,
the charge contained in the cubical volume is Q x 10-14C.
The value of Q is _______ .(Take ∈0 = 9 x 10-12 C2/Nm2)
Q A cubical volume is bounded by the surfaces x = 0, x = a,

y = 0, y = a, z = 0, z = a. The electric field in the region is
given by Where E0 = 4 x 104 NC-1 m-1. If a = 2 cm,
the charge contained in the cubical volume is Q x 10-14C.
The value of Q is _______ .(Take ∈0 = 9 x 10-12 C2/Nm2)
288
R
45o
Q
R
29 July-Shift 1 JEE 2022
Q A spherically symmetric charge distribution is

considered with charge density varying as
Where, r(r < R) is the distance from the centre O (as

shown in figure). The electric field at point P will be:
D
29 July-Shift 1 JEE 2022
Q A spherically symmetric charge distribution is

considered with charge density varying as
Where, r(r < R) is the distance from the centre O (as

shown in figure). The electric field at point P will be:
D
Thermodynamics
KTG
● Gases are made up of large no of molecules
● Molecules do not exert forces on each other

except during Collision
● All Collisions are Elastic in nature.
● Size of Molecules is very small as compare to

separation between molecules
Mean free path
n' = No. of molecules per

unit volume
d = Diameter of molecules
Velocities of Molecules
● Average speed
v3
v1
● RMS speed v2
KTG
● Average speed
v3
v1
v2
● RMS speed
Maxwell Distribution Curve
Fraction of
molecules
M0
Mo = Molecular Mass
Vm.p. < Vavg < VRms
Vm.p Speed
.
Free Expansion
Vacuum
JEE Main 25th Jan, 2023 Shift-2
Q Match List with List II
Choose the correct answer from the options
given below:
A A-II, B-I, C-III, D-IV
B A-II, B-I, C-IV, D-III
C A-I, B-II, C-IV, D-III

Q Let γ1 be the ratio of molar specific heat at constant pressure
and molar specific heat at constant volume of a mono-atomic
gas and γ2 be the similar ratio of diatomic gas. Considering the
diatomic gas molecule a a rigid rotator, the ratio, γ1/γ2 is
A 27/35
B 35/27
C 25/21
D 21/25
JEE Main 01st Feb, 2023 Shift-2
Q A carnot engine operating between two
reservoirs has efficiency 1/3. When the
temperature of cold reservoir raised by x, its
efficiency decreases to 1/6. The value of x, if the
temperature of hot reservoir is 99°C, will be:
A 16.5 K
B 33 K
C 66 K
D 62 K
Q A carnot engine operating between two
reservoirs has efficiency 1/3. When the
temperature of cold reservoir raised by x, its
efficiency decreases to 1/6. The value of x, if the
temperature of hot reservoir is 99°C, will be:
A 16.5 K
B 33 K
C 66 K
D 62 K
Elasticity
Stress - Strain Graph
Q A 100 m long wire having cross-sectional area
6.25 × 10-4 m2 and Young’s modulus is 1010 Nm-2
is subjected to a load of 250 N, then the
elongation in the wire will be:
A 6.25 × 10-3 m
B 4 × 10-4 m
C 6.25 × 10-6 m
D 4 × 10-3 m
Q A 100 m long wire having cross-sectional area
6.25 × 10-4 m2 and Young’s modulus is 1010 Nm-2
is subjected to a load of 250 N, then the
elongation in the wire will be:
A 6.25 × 10-3 m
B 4 × 10-4 m
C 6.25 × 10-6 m
D 4 × 10-3 m
Q A massive rod hangs from a ceiling as shown.
Find elongation in the rod under equilibrium
conditions.
B
M, L, Y
D
Q A massive rod hangs from a ceiling as shown.
Find elongation in the rod under equilibrium
conditions.
B
M, L, Y
D
SHM
E.P. M.P. E.P.
Q A particle executes simple harmonic motion
between x = -A and x = +A. If time taken by
particle to go from x = 0 to A/2 is 2 s; then time
taken by particle in going from x = A/2 to A is
A 3s
B 2s
C 4s
D 1.5s
SHM of bodies in Equilibrium
● To check, displace the particle slightly from its mean
position by distance x.
● If a net extra restoring force come into picture to bring the

particle back to its mean position, then it will definitely
perform SHM
Fnet = - kx
M
M
a
M
a
C
Q Assume that the earth is a solid sphere of uniform
density and a tunnel is dug along its diameter
throughout the earth. It is found that when a particle is
released in this tunnel, it executes a simple harmonic
motion. The mass of the particle is 100 g. The time period
of the motion of the particle will be (approximately)
(Take g = 10 ms-2, radius of earth = 6400 km)
Home Work A 12 hours
B 1 hour 24 minutes
C 24 hours
D 1 hour 40 minutes
Simple Pendulum
● It is Independent of mass of bob.

Second’s Pendulum
● Its length is 1m.

● Its Time period is 2 seconds.
● Time period is independent of mass of bob
a
L
a
L r
● geffective = g + a ● geffective= g – a
● Time period decreases, (it ● Time period increases,

starts oscillating faster) (it starts oscillating
slower)
Horizontal acceleration
→a
Oscillations in Liquid
Physical Pendulum
Pivot
● ℓ = distance of COM from 𝜃

hinge point.
Q A rod of mass m length L is hinged at its
topmost point as shown. It is allowed to
oscillate freely in the vertical plane Find time
period for small oscillations.
M,L
B
D
Q A rod of mass m length L is hinged at its
topmost point as shown. It is allowed to
oscillate freely in the vertical plane Find time
period for small oscillations.
M,L
B
D
Damped Oscillation
● Energy is gradually lost and amplitude decreases.

F = –bv
where b = damping coefficient
Waves
Velocity of transverse wave on a
stretched string
v
v=
T = Tension in string
μ = Mass per unit length [kg m–1]
Intensity (I)
● Energy passing per second per unit area is

called intensity.
Q A travelling wave is described by the equation
y(x, t) = [0.05 sin (8x - 4t] m
The velocity of the wave is: [all the quantities are
in SI unit]
A 4 ms-1
B 2 ms-1
C 0.5 ms-1
D 8 ms-1
Q A travelling wave is described by the equation
y(x, t) = [0.05 sin (8x - 4t] m
The velocity of the wave is: [all the quantities are
in SI unit]
A 4 ms-1
B 2 ms-1
C 0.5 ms-1
D 8 ms-1
JEE Main June 2022
Q The first overtone frequency of an open organ
pipe is equal to the fundamental frequency of a
closed organ pipe. If the length of the closed
organ pipe is 20 cm. The length of the open
organ pipe is__cm
Beats
● When two waves of nearly same frequency

superimpose on each other than beats are
produced.
● No of beats per sec. Is called as beat
frequency.
f B = f 1 - f2
Remember!!!!
When prongs of tuning for are loaded with wax then

their frequency of Tuning Fork decreases & when
prongs of tuning fork are Filed then frequency of
tuning fork increases.
Doppler’s Effect
Q A train blowing a whistle of frequency 320 Hz
approaches an observer standing on the
platform at a speed of 66 m/s. The frequency
observed by the observer will be
(given speed of sound = 330 ms-1) Hz.
Wave Optics
Interference
Intensity
● I = ∝ A2
I = kA2
● A2 = A12 + A22 + 2A1A2cos𝜙

Constructive Interference
● Ⲫ = 2n𝜋
(n = 0, 1, …….)
● ΔⲪ = 2𝜋/𝜆 Δx
● Δx = n𝜆
=(0, 𝜆, 2 𝜆 )
Amax = A1 + A2
Destructive Interference
● Ⲫ = (2n - 1)𝜋
(n = 1,2 ,3 …….)
● Δx = (2n - 1) 𝜆/2
= (𝜆/2, 3𝜆/2……)
Amin = A1 - A2
Q
In a Young’s double slit experiment, the
intensities at two points, for the path difference
and (𝞴 being the wavelength of light used)
are I1 and I2 respectively. If I0 denotes the
intensity produced by each one of the individual
slits, then =................
Q In Young’s double slit experiment, two slits S1
and S2 are ’d’ distance apart and the separation
from slits to screen is D (as shown in figure).
Now if two transparent slabs of equal thickness
0.1 mm but refractive index 1.51 and 1.55 are
introduced in the path of beam (𝞴 = 4000 Å)
from S1 and S2 respectively. The central bright
fringe spot will shift by _______number of
fringes.
Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of waves when they travel

around the obstacles of size comparable to their wavelength,
is called diffraction.
Diffraction is shown by All Waves.
Polarization
Current Electricity
& Capacitors
Resistance
Q The resistance of a wire is 5Ω. It’s new resistance
in ohm if stretched to 5 times of its original
length will be:
A 625
B 5
C 125
D 25
Colour Coding in Resistors
Colour Band 1 Gold 5%

Black 0 Silver 10%
Brown 1
No Colour 20%
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Gray 8
White 9
Colour coding of resistance
27 Aug-Shift 2 JEE 2021
Q The colour coding on a carbon resistor is shown in the

figure. The resistance value of the given resistor is:
D
Q
In the given circuit, the equivalent resistance between
the terminal A and B is________Ω.
Answer: 10
Maximum power transfer
Q
A potentiometer is used to find the internal resistance of
cell. The null point comes 3 m when no external
resistance is applied across the cell. The null point length
comes 2m when external resistance 100 Ω applied across
the cell. Find the internal resistance of cell.
Ans: (50)
RC circuits
RC circuits
● At t = 0 capacitor acts as
SHORT circuit
● At t = ∞ capacitor acts as
OPEN circuit
LR Circuit
LR circuits
● At t = 0 Inductor acts as
OPEN circuit
● At t = ∞ Inductor acts as
SHORT circuit
Q A parallel plate capacitor has plate area 40 cm2 and

plates separation 2 mm. The space between the plates is
filled with dielectric medium of a thickness 1 mm and
dielectric constant 5. The capacitance of the system is:
A 24 ε0 F
D 10 ε0 F
Q A parallel plate capacitor has plate area 40 cm2 and

plates separation 2 mm. The space between the plates is
filled with dielectric medium of a thickness 1 mm and
dielectric constant 5. The capacitance of the system is:
A 24 ε0 F
D 10 ε0 F
Magnetic Field
&
Magnetic Force
Field due to straight wire
α
d
β
I
Field due to straight wire
α
d
β
I
Field due to straight current carrying wire
∞
● Case1: Infinite wire
90o
90o
I
∞
∞
● Case 2: Magnetic field at the ∞

end of wire 𝛼 = 0, 𝛽 = 90o
I 90o
● Magnetic field on the axis of wire is always zero (0)
I
Magnetic Field due to Circular coil
I
Field due to an Arc
θ
Magnetic field due to ring of
current at axial point
I
Q Find the magnetic field at the point P in figure.
The curved portion is a semicircle connected to
two long straight wires.
D
Q Find the magnetic field at the point P in figure.
The curved portion is a semicircle connected to
two long straight wires.
D
Q A circular loop of radius r is carrying current I A. The ratio

of magnetic field at the centre of circular loop and at a
distance r from the centre of the loop on its axis is:
D
Ampere's Law
I1 I2 I3 I4
Infinite Hollow Cylinder
∞ ∞
∞ ∞
Infinite Solid Cylinder
∞ ∞
∞ ∞
Solenoid
Toroid
Q A long solenoid is formed by winding 70 turns
cm-1. If 2.0 A current flows, then the magnetic
field produced inside the solenoid is ______
(μ0 = 4π × 10-7 TmA-1)
A 1232 × 10-4 T
B 176 × 10-4 T
C 352 × 10-4 T
D 88 × 10-4 T
Q A long solenoid is formed by winding 70 turns
cm-1. If 2.0 A current flows, then the magnetic
field produced inside the solenoid is ______
(μ0 = 4π × 10-7 TmA-1)
A 1232 × 10-4 T
B 176 × 10-4 T
C 352 × 10-4 T
D 88 × 10-4 T
Magnetic Force
B
V
𝛳
V
𝛳
-Q
Important Points
● F = 0 when
○ Charge is stationary.
○ Charges moving parallel (𝜃 = 0o) or antiparallel to the

magnetic field.
● The force experienced by a positive charge is along
and the force experienced y -ve charge is always opposite to

the direction of
● The magnetic force always acts perpendicular to a plane of

velocity & magnetic field.
Important Points
● The work done by magnetic force on any charge particle is

always equal to zero. I.e. W=0
● Hence the magnitude field can never change the kinetic energy
of a charged particle.
● Hence the magnetic field can only change the direction of

velocity. It can never change the magnitude of velocity
[July 2022]
Q A charge particle is moving in a uniform magnetic field

If it has an acceleration of
then the value of ∝
CASE I: Velocity is perpendicular to magnetic field.
Velocity perpendicular to Magnetic field
⇒ Centripetal force
⇒ Time period (T) of the motion
⇒ Angular speed of the Particle
⇒ Time period (T) of the motion
⇒ Frequency
Note:
The time period & frequency of motion of particle in uniform
magnetic field is independent of the speed of projection for a
given charge.
CASE II : Velocity is at angle to magnetic field.
B
Q
𝛳
V
Magnetic force on current carrying wire
× × × × ×
×I × × × ×
dl
× × × × ×
× × × × ×
× × × × ×
× × × × ×
× × × × ×
Q A massless square loop, of wire of resistance 10 Ω.

supporting a mass of 1 g. hangs vertically with one of its
sides in a uniform magnetic field of 103 G, directed
outwards in the shaded region. A dc voltage V is applied
to the loop. For what value of V. the magnetic force will
exactly balance the weight of the supporting mass of 1 g?
(If sides of the loop = 10 cm, g = 10 ms-2)
A 1/10 V
B 100 V
C 1V
D 10 V
Q A massless square loop, of wire of resistance 10 Ω.

supporting a mass of I g. hangs vertically with one of its
sides in a uniform magnetic field of 103 G, directed
outwards in the shaded region. A dc voltage V is applied
to the loop. For what value of V. the magnetic force will
exactly balance the weight of the supporting mass of 1 g?
(If sides of the loop = 10 cm, g = 10 ms-2)
A 1/10 V
B 100 V
C 1V
D 10 V
Magnetic Moment of current carrying coil
A current carrying coil also behaves like a magnet

with magnetic moment defined as
M= N I A
S N
Modern Physics
Q The threshold frequency of metal is f0. When the light of

frequency 2f0 is incident on the metal plate, the
maximum velocity of photoelectron is v1. When the
frequency of incident radiation is increased to 5f0, the
maximum velocity of photoelectrons emitted is v2. The
ratio of v1 to v2 is:
D
Q The threshold frequency of metal is f0. When the light of

frequency 2f0 is incident on the metal plate, the
maximum velocity of photoelectron is v1. When the
frequency of incident radiation is increased to 5f0, the
maximum velocity of photoelectrons emitted is v2. The
ratio of v1 to v2 is:
D
Q An α-particle, a proton and an electron have the same

kinetic energy. Which one of the following is correct in
case of their De-Broglie wavelength:
A 𝜆α > 𝜆p > 𝜆e
𝜆α < 𝜆p < 𝜆e
B
C 𝜆α ≡ 𝜆p = 𝜆e
D 𝜆α > 𝜆p < 𝜆e
Rutherford Experiment
2e
θ
2e
v
b
+Ze
+2e
Energy of Electron in different Orbits
n =∞ (0 eV)
1.51 eV
n = 4 (-0.81 eV)
Brackett series
E(n) - E(n=4) 0.66 eV
n = 3 (-1.51 eV)
Paschen series
2nd excited state E(n) - E(n=3) 1.89 eV
n = 2 (-3.4 eV)
Balmer series
1st excited state E(n) - E(n=2) 2.59eV
12.8 eV
12.1 eV
10.2 eV
13.6 eV
n = 1 (-13.6 eV)
Lyman series
E(n) - E(n=1)
When we go from T → Inc
U → Inc
n = 0 to n =∞ K → Dec
Q A photon is emitted in transition from n = 4 to n = 1 level

in hydrogen atom. The corresponding wavelength for this
transition is: (given, h = 4 × 10-15 eVs):
A 94.1 nm
B 941 nm
C 97.4 nm
D 99.3 nm
Constituents of nucleus
Neutral
m n > mn
mn = 1.674 × 10–27 kg
We assume
mp ≈ mn ≈ mo ≈ 1.67 × 10-27 kg
+
Charge = +e
mp = 1.672 × 10–27 kg
Z = Atomic No = No of Protons = NP
A = Mass No = No of Protons + No of Neutrons = NP+ Nn

Size of Nucleus
● Radius of nucleus,
R = R0A1/3
Where, R0 = 1.1 ×10–15 m

A = Mass
number
Density of Nucleus
Q
The ratio of the density of oxygen nucleus and
helium nucleus is
A 4:1
B 8:1
C 1:1
D 2:1
Radioactivity
Decay LAW
N
No
t=0 THL 2THL t
Amount of substance
Left After n half Lifes
A
Ao
Ao
1 dps
t=0 THL 2THL t

Q If a radioactive element having half-life of 30 min is

undergoing beta decay, the fraction of radioactive
element remains undecayed after 90 min will be:
D
Q If a radioactive element having half-life of 30 min is

undergoing beta decay, the fraction of radioactive
element remains undecayed after 90 min will be:
D
Q A radioactive nucleus decays by two different processes.

The half life of the first process is 5 minutes and that of
the second process is 30s. The effective half-life of the
nucleus is calculated to be The value of α is____.
Q A radioactive nucleus decays by two different processes.

The half life of the first process is 5 minutes and that of
the second process is 30s. The effective half-life of the
nucleus is calculated to be The value of α is____.
300
Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic semiconductor
In p-type
nh >> ne
In n-type
ne >> nh
It is always obeyed
that
Q Statement 1: Si when doped with ‘B’ p-type is
formed and with ‘As’ is n type is formed.
Statement 2: It is possible to measure current
using ammeter if n & p type are joined.
A S1 : correct, S2 : false
B S1 : false, S2 : false
C S1 : correct, S2 : correct
D S1 : false, S2 : correct
P-n Junction diode
26 June 2022 Shift 1
Q As per the given circuit the value of current
through the battery will be _____ A.
Transistor
n P n
Transistor
n P n
1 Feb - Shift 1 2023
Q In a transistor, the doping level of base, emitter
and collector respectively are
A High, Moderate, Low
B Low, High, Moderate
C Low, Moderate, Moderate
D High, Low, Low

Transistor
Relation between α and β
In a transistor, α is slightly
less than unity (~ 0.98) and
β is high (50 or higher)
Logic gates
NOT gate
Input Output
A Y
0 1
1 0
OR gate
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
NOR gate
A B Y=A+B Y = Y’
0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0
AND gate
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1
NAND gate
Input Final output

A B Y=Y’ = A.B
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
De Morgan's Law
30 Jan-Shift 1 2023
Q Which gate is this
A OR
A
B AND
y
B
C NAND
D NOR
CRACK JEE
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Complete Physics 2023 April Attempt-1

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Join Vedantu JEE

6 Electric current Ampere A

7 Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Quantity Name of units symbol

Plane angle Radian (rad) 𝜃

Solid angle Steradian (sr) Ω

Velocity gradient [T-1]

Force [M1 L1 T-2]

Work [M1 L2 T-2]

Torque [M1 L2 T-2]

Pressure [M1 L-1 T-2]

Stress [M1 L-1 T-2]

Self & Mutual inductance [ M1 L2 T-2 A-2]

ε0 [ M-1 L-3 T4 A2]

Rule-1 Every non zero digit in a reported measurement is assumed to be

Rule-2 Zeros appearing between nonzero digits are significant.

Rule-3 Leftmost zeros appearing in front of nonzero digits are not

Rule-4 Zeros at the end of a number will be counted as significant, only if

Rule 1 Rule 3 Rule 2

If last significant digit(d) = 5,

Example: 12.52 meters + 349.0 meters + 8.24 meters

The second measurement has least number of digits

Here, the final result should retain as many significant figures

Example: 7.55 meters × 0.34 meter

= 2.567 square meters

The second measurement (0.34 meter) has the least

● Actual length of path ● Shortest distance between

● Scalar quantity ● Vector quantity

● Distance travelled is non-zero, ● Displacement is zero for a

Average Acceleration Instantaneous Acceleration

Slope of x-t Graph gives X

These equations are valid only if

If the Net force on body is zero ,

Q In the arrangement shown in figure a1, a2, a3

D 2a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 + a4 =

Q In the arrangement shown in figure a1, a2, a3

D 2a1 + 2a2 + 3a3 + a4 =

Friction is a force which comes into play when a Body

● Its maximum value is

● When there is actual

● Its value is always

𝜇 =0.09 C 0.3 ms-2

𝜇 =0.09 C 0.3 ms-2

Work done Work done

The Change in P.E is defined as –ve

Average Power Instantaneous Power

4s is The value of α will be ……

aT is responsible for change in

● r = perpendicular distance of point

● MOI is a scalar quantity and it is r

RING SEMI-RING QUARTER RING

DISC QUARTER DISC

Ring or Hollow cycle MR2 g/2 sin θ = 0.5 g sin θ

Disc or solid cycle MR2/2 2/3 g sin θ = 0.66 g sin θ

Hollow sphere 2/3 MR2 3/5 g sin θ = 0.6 g sin θ

Solid sphere 2/5 MR2 5/7 g sin θ = 0.7 g sin θ

Where G = 6.67 ✕ 10-11 Nm2/kg2

● The force always acts along line joining the

● Gravitational force is conservative in nature

● Gravitational force between masses is independent of

Q Two particles of equal mass ‘m’ move in a circle of radius

Q Two particles of equal mass ‘m’ move in a circle of radius

Q If two charges q1 and q2 are separated with distance ‘d’

Q If two charges q1 and q2 are separated with distance ‘d’