Data Communications and Networking Introduction

1.
0 Introduction To Computer Networks

What is a Computer?
Kindly answer this question from your prior knowledge.
What is information cycle?
What is a computer network?

A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of
communication. In this definition, a device can be a host (or an end system
as it is sometimes called) such as a large computer, desktop, laptop,
workstation, cellular phone, or security system.
A device in this definition can also be a connecting device such as a router,
which connects the network to other networks, a switch, which connects
devices together, a modem (modulator-demodulator), which changes the
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Data Communications & Networking
© NNP CS&N DEPARTMENT 2019
form of data, and so on. These devices in a network are connected using
wired or wireless transmission media such as cable or air. When we connect
two computers at home using a plug-and-play router, we have created a
network, although very small.
Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most
important of these are:
a) performance
b) reliability, and
c) Security.
Performance
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message
to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time
between an inquiry and a response.
Factors determining the performance of a network include:
✓ the number of users,
✓ the type of transmission medium,
✓ the capabilities of the connected hardware,
✓ and the efficiency of the software.
Performance is evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and
delay.
Reliability
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.
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Security
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
What are the components of a computer network?
A network is made up of the following components:
Follow the links below to come up with your summary.
a) https://scienceaid.net/Computer_Network
b) https://www.techwalla.com/articles/six-basic-computer-network-
components
c) https://www.all-about-computer-
parts.com/computer_network_components.html
d) https://www.sophia.org/tutorials/computer-network-components
e) http://cloudcomputingnet.com/computer-network-components/
Types of Connections found on Computer Networks

A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to
another. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.
i. Point-to Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such
as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. E.g. use of a remote to
control Tv channels.
ii. Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more
than two specific devices share a single link
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In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously,
it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.
Types of computer networks

The criteria of distinguishing one type of network from another is difficult
and sometimes confusing. We use a few criteria such as size, geographical
coverage, and ownership to make this distinction. There are several different
types of computer networks. However, ccomputer networks can be characterized
by two major categories ;their size as well as their purpose.
Size
The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and
the number of computers that are part of the network. Networks can cover
anything from a handful of devices within a single room to millions of devices
spread across the entire globe.
Some of the different networks based on size are:
• Personal area network, or PAN
• Local area network, or LAN
• Metropolitan area network, or MAN
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• Wide area network, or WAN
Purpose
In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which
means they are used for everything from sending files to a printer to accessing the
Internet. Some types of networks, however, serve a very particular purpose. Some
of the different networks based on their main purpose are:
• Storage area network, or SAN
• Enterprise private network, or EPN
• Virtual private network, or VPN
Personal Area Network(s) or Wireless PAN (WPANS)

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very
personal to a user. This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-
red enabled devices. PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN
may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled
headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.
If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence, the
network is sometimes referred to as a home area network, or HAN. In a
very typical setup, a residence will have a single wired Internet connection
connected to a modem. This modem then provides both wired and wireless
connections for multiple devices. The network is typically managed from
a single computer but can be accessed from any device.
This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you
to:
• Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are
sitting on the couch with your laptop.
• Upload a photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
• Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.
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For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which
may contain up to 8 devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.
Local Area Networks(s) or Wireless LANS (WLANS)

Local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and connects some
hosts in a single office, building, or campus. WLANs make use of wireless
network technology, such as Wi-Fi. Typically seen in the same types of
applications as LANs, these types of networks don’t require that devices
rely on physical cables to connect to the network.
Depending on the needs of an organization, a LAN can be as simple as
two PCs and a printer in someone’s home office, or it can extend
throughout a company and include audio and video devices. Each host in a
LAN has an identifier, an address, that uniquely defines the host in the LAN.
A packet sent by a host to another host carries both the source host’s and
the destination host’s addresses.
In the past, all hosts in a network were connected through a common cable,
which meant that a packet sent from one host to another was received by all
hosts. The intended recipient kept the packet; the others dropped the packet.
Today, most LANs use a smart connecting switch, which is able to
recognize the destination address of the packet and guide the packet to its
destination without sending it to all other hosts. The Figure below shows a
LAN using either a common cable or a switch.
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LAN provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The
resources such as printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily
sharable among computers.
Features of a LAN
a. LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment.
It may contain local servers serving file storage and other locally shared
applications.
b. It mostly operates on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy
routing.
c. LAN works under its own local domain and controlled centrally.
d. LAN uses either Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Ethernet is most
widely employed LAN technology and uses Star topology, while
Token-ring is rarely seen.
e. LAN can be wired, wireless, or in both forms at once.
f. Work at high or very high transmission rates i.e. Fast ethernet to gigabit
ethernet speeds
Advantages of LAN are as follows:
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• The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer
in the network does not affect the functioning for other computers.
• Addition of new computer to the network is easy.
• High rate of data transmission is possible.
• Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other
computers.
• Disadvantages of LAN:
• If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.
Use of LAN
• Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used

• File transfers and Access
• Word and text processing
• Electronic message handling
• Remote database access
• Personal computing
• Digital voice transmission and storage
Campus Area Networks (CANs)
A campus area network (CAN) follows the same principles as a local area
network, only on a larger and more diversified scale. With a CAN, different
campus offices and organizations can be linked together. For example, in
a typical university setting, accounts office might be linked to a registrar's
office. In this manner, once a student has paid his or her tuition fees in the
accounts section, this information is transmitted to the registrar's system so
the student can enroll for classes. Some university departments or
organizations might be linked to the CAN even though they already have
their own separate LANs.
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Metropolitan Area Network(s) or Wireless MANS
The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a
city such as cable TV network. It covers a radius a radius of approximately
50 kilometers. It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).
Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables
its users to expand their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can
help an organization to connect all of its offices in a city.
Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works

in between Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides
uplink for LANs to WANs or internet.
Wide Area Network(s) or Wireless WANS

A wide area network (WAN) is also an interconnection of devices capable of
communication.
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As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area
which may span across provinces and even a whole country. Generally,
telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. These networks
provide connectivity to MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very
high-speed backbone, WANs use very expensive network equipment.
Differences between a LAN and a WAN include:
i. A LAN is normally limited in size, spanning an office, a building, or a
campus; a WAN has a wider geographical span, spanning a town, a
state, a country, or even the world.
ii. A LAN interconnects hosts; a WAN interconnects connecting devices
such as switches, routers, or modems.
iii. A LAN is normally privately owned by the organization that uses it;
a WAN is normally created and run by communication companies
and leased by an organization that uses it.
iv. WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical
Network (SONET); a LAN uses ethernet technologies for
connection.
There are two categories of WANs today: point-to-point WANs and switched
WANs.
Point-to-Point WAN
A point-to-point WAN is a network that connects two communicating devices
through a transmission media (cable or air). We will see examples of these
WANs when we discuss how to connect the networks to one another. Below is a
figure showing an example of a point-to-point WAN.
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Switched WAN
A switched WAN is a network with more than two ends. It is a combination
of several point-to-point WANs that are connected by switches. Figure 1.10
shows an example of a switched WAN.
Internetwork
A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is
the largest network in existence on this planet. Today, it is very rare to see a
LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are connected to one another. When two
or more networks are connected, they make an internetwork, or internet.
The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have connection to LANs
and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as its
addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using IPv4.
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Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to
IPv6.
Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information
worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio, and video streaming
etc. At huge level, internet works on Client-Server model.
Internet uses very high-speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect
various continents, fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine
communication cable.
Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked
pages and is accessible by client software known as Web Browsers. When a
user requests a page using some web browser located on some Web Server
anywhere in the world, the Web Server responds with the proper HTML page.
The communication delay is very low.
Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life.
Some of them are:
✓ Web sites
✓ E-mail
✓ Instant Messaging
✓ Blogging
✓ Social Media
✓ Marketing
✓ Networking
✓ Resource Sharing
✓ Audio and Video Streaming
Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are

connected to one another. When two or more networks are connected, they
make an internetwork, or internet.
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More at https://www.computernetworkingnotes.com/networking-
tutorials/types-of-computer-network-explained-in-easy-language.html
Network Types Based on Purpose:

Storage-Area Network (SAN)
As a dedicated high-speed network that connects shared pools of storage
devices to several servers, these types of networks don’t rely on a LAN or
WAN. Instead, they move storage resources away from the network and
place them into their own high-performance network. SANs can be
accessed in the same fashion as a drive attached to a server. Types of
storage-area networks include converged, virtual and unified SANs.
System-Area Network (also known as SAN)
This term is fairly new within the past two decades. It is used to explain a
relatively local network that is designed to provide high-speed connection
in server-to-server applications (cluster environments), storage area
networks (called “SANs” as well) and processor-to-processor applications.
The computers connected on a SAN operate as a single system at very high
speeds.
Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
As an alternative to traditional switch-based Ethernet LANs, POLAN
technology can be integrated into structured cabling to overcome concerns
about supporting traditional Ethernet protocols and network applications
such as PoE (Power over Ethernet). A point-to-multipoint LAN
architecture, POLAN uses optical splitters to split an optical signal from
one strand of single mode optical fiber into multiple signals to serve users
and devices.
Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
These types of networks are built and owned by businesses that want to
securely connect its various locations to share computer resources.
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
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By extending a private network across the Internet, a VPN lets its users send
and receive data as if their devices were connected to the private network –
even if they’re not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection, users can
access a private network remotely.
Types of network topologies

There are 2 types of topologies:
i. Physical topology and,
ii. Logical topology
Physical Topologies
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to
one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and
ring.
Examples of Physical Topologies
a. Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to
every other device. The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic
only between the two devices it connects. To find the number of physical
links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes, we first consider
that each node must be connected to every other node. Node 1 must be
connected to n – 1 nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes, and
finally node n must be connected to n – 1 node. We need n (n – 1) physical
links. However, if each physical link allows communication in both
directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of links by 2. In other
words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n (n – 1) / 2 duplex-mode
links. To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must
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have n – 1 input/output (I/O) ports (see Figure 1.4) to be connected to the
other n – 1 stations.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

i. The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry
its own data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can
occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
ii. A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does
not incapacitate the entire system.
iii. There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message
travels along a dedicated line, only the intended recipient sees it.
Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
iv. Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation
easy. Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems.
This facility enables the network manager to discover the precise
location of the fault and aids in finding its cause and solution.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
i. Requires large amounts of cabling and big number of I/O ports.
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ii. Because every device must be connected to every other device,
installation and reconnection are difficult.
iii. The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space
(in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
iv. The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can
be prohibitively expensive.
For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited
fashion, for example, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a
hybrid network that can include several other topologies. E.g. the connection
of telephone regional offices in which each regional office needs to be
connected to every other regional office.
b. Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked
to one another.
The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to

another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device.
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Advantages of a Star Topology
i. It’s less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs
only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
ii. It is easy to install and reconfigure.
iii. Far less cabling needs to be housed.
iv. It’s easy to scale as additions, moves, and deletions involve only
one connection: between that device and the hub.
v. It is robust. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain active. It is easy in terms of fault identification and fault
isolation. As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor
link problems and bypass defective links.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
i. The dependency of the whole topology on one single point, the hub.
If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
ii. Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must
be linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is
required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or
bus).
The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs). High-speed LANs

often use a star topology with a central hub.
c. Bus Topology
A bus topology is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network.
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Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line
is a connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a
connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels
along the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore,
it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this
reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the
distance between those taps.
Advantages of a bus topology
i. Ease of installation. Backbone cable can be laid along the most
efficient path, then connected to the nodes by drop lines of various
lengths.
ii. A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies. Each drop
line has to reach only as far as the nearest point on the backbone.
iii. If one node fails, others are not affected.
iv. It’s less expensive.
Disadvantages of a bus topology

i. The failure of the cable will bring the whole network to a standstill.
A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even
between devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged
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area reflects signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in
both directions.
ii. Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed

to be optimally efficient at installation. It can therefore be difficult
to add new devices.
iii. Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This
degradation can be controlled by limiting the number and spacing
of devices connected to a give length of cable.
iv. Scaling the network is difficult. Adding new devices may therefore
require modification or replacement of the backbone.
Bus topology can be used in traditional Ethernet LANs.
d. Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection
with only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the
ring in one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
A ring topology connecting six stations
Advantages of a Ring Topology

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i. A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is
linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or
logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections.
ii. Data transmission is very fast.
iii. Use a short length cable hence cheap.
iv. Fault isolation is simplified. Generally, in a ring a signal is
circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a signal
within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts
the network operator to the problem and its location.
Disadvantages of a Ring Topology
i. Can only be deployed over a limited distance. The constraints are
media and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number
of devices).
ii. Modification may be difficult because adding or removing a device
can disrupt the entire network.
iii. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can
disable the entire network. This weakness can be solved by using a
dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.
Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network,
Token Ring. Today, the need for higher-speed LANs has made this
topology less popular.
e. Tree/Hierarchical Topology
In a tree/hierarchical topology all the nodes are connected in form of a tree
with nodes as leaves and links as branches. The transmission medium is a
branching cable with no closed loops. The branches in turn can have more
sub-branches. Branches are connected to each other by means of devices
called hubs
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Advantages of a Tree Topology
i. If the workstation below the main workstation fails, the network
does not fail.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
i. If the top node fails the network fails because it controls all other
nodes.
ii. Installation is expensive and complex.
f. Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. This implies that a network is built suing two or
more of the above discussed topologies. For example, we can have a main
star topology with each branch connecting several stations in a bus topology.
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More at https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/network-topologies-computer-
networks/
NB: Do more research on this topic!
The end
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1.

0 Introduction To Computer Networks

What is a computer network?

Types of Connections found on Computer Networks

Types of computer networks

Personal Area Network(s) or Wireless PAN (WPANS)

Local Area Networks(s) or Wireless LANS (WLANS)

• Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works

Wide Area Network(s) or Wireless WANS

Today, it is very rare to see a LAN or a WAN in isolation; they are

Network Types Based on Purpose:

Types of network topologies

Examples of Physical Topologies

Advantages of Mesh Topology

The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to

The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs). High-speed LANs

Disadvantages of a bus topology

ii. Difficult reconnection and fault isolation. A bus is usually designed

Advantages of a Ring Topology

NB: Do more research on this topic!

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