Lab Session No.

06
Lab Experiment No. 05
Objective:
To perform a Double Cantilever Test and to find out the Modulus of Elasticity and effective weight of the
steel cantilever.

Apparatus:
 Linear Vibration Apparatus

5.1 Theory:
The P1906 Linear Vibration Apparatus provides the student with an introductory course of
instruction and experiments on the subject of linear vibration. The practical experiments with
their Direct relationship to common design situations give an insight into vibration phenomena
and a consideration of basic theory. They are suitable for classroom demonstrations or individual
work by students from technician to graduate level and a full

The range of accessories is provided to enable all recommended experiments to be carried out.
Comprises a drive unit and vibration generator with experimental accessories. The drive unit
consists essentially of an oscillator and a power amplifier designed to provide a Sine wave power
output suitable for driving the vibration generator.

Fig. 5.1
5.1.1 Cantilever Beam:
A Cantilever Beam is a rigid structural member in which one end is fixed and another end is free
and it can be made up of steel, concrete, and composite material.

The cantilever beam transfers the load to the support and it can manage the sheer force and
moment of force. Shear force means stress applied parallel to the material and moment force is
characterized as a force to rotate or twist an object. Also, this beam can be constructed with a
slab or truss. In building construction, there are the different applications of the cantilever beam
such as a roof, runway, gallery, traveling crane, above part of the building there also used as
shelves, large halls, armories, sun shed, exhibition building. Large spans mostly used cantilever
construction.

Fig. 5.1.1 Cantilever beam

In a building, a cantilever is constructed as an extension of a continuous beam, and in bridges, it

is a segment of a cantilever girder. It can be constructed either cast-in-situ or by segmental
construction by pre-stressing methods.

A cantilever is a rigid structural element that extends horizontally and is supported at only one
end. Typically, it extends from a flat vertical surface such as a wall, to which it must be firmly
attached. Like other structural elements, a cantilever can be formed as a beam, plate, truss, or
slab. When subjected to a structural load at its far, unsupported end, the cantilever carries the
load to the support where it applies a shear stress and a bending moment. Cantilever
construction allows overhanging structures without additional support.
5.1.2 Modulus of Elasticity:
Elastic modulus can be defined as a material’s ability to resist elastic deformation when stress is
applied to it. It is a measure of a material’s rigidity or stiffness. The modulus of elasticity, in
terms of the stress-strain curve, is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the region of
elastic behavior, where stress is linearly proportional to strain. Other names for elastic modulus
include Young's modulus, modulus of elasticity, modulus of elasticity in tension, or tensile
modulus. For more information, see our guide on Flexular Modulus.

Fig. Modulus of elasticity

the Young’s Modulus of such a material is given by the ratio of stress and strain, corresponding
to the stress of the material. The relation is given below.

Where,

 E is the Young’s Modulus of the material given in N/m2

 σ is the stress applied to the material
 ε is the strain corresponding to applied stress in the material
With the value of Young’s modulus for a material, the rigidity of the body can be determined.
This is because it tells us about the body’s ability to resist deformation on the application of
force.

The Young’s Modulus values of different materials are given below:

  Steel – 200
 Glass – 65
 Wood – 13
5.1.3 Factors Affecting Youngs Modulus:

By understanding the modulus of elasticity of steel, we can claim that steel is more rigid in
nature than wood or polystyrene, as its tendency to experience deformation under applied load is
less. Young’s modulus is also used to determine how much a material will deform under a
certain applied load.

Another thing to keep in mind is that the lower the value of Young’s Modulus in materials, the
more the deformation experienced by the body, and this deformation in the case of objects like
clay and wood can vary in the sample itself. One part of the clay sample deforms more than the
other whereas a steel bar will experience an equal deformation throughout.
5.1.4 Double Cantilever Test:
The double cantilever beam (DCB) test is a fracture mechanics test used to evaluate the inter
laminar fracture toughness of composite materials. It is particularly useful for laminated fiber-
reinforced composites, where delamination (separation between layers) can be a critical failure
mode.

The DCB test provides valuable insights into the fracture behavior of composite materials,
allowing engineers and researchers to assess the effectiveness of adhesive bonding, the influence
of material properties and manufacturing processes, and the performance of composite structures
under various loading conditions. It is widely used in research, development, and quality control
of composite materials.

Fig. Double Cantilever Test

5.2 Procedure:
 Set up the apparatus as for the Double Cantilever Test.
 Connect the vibration generator to the drive unit and remove the keeper rod.
 Vibrate the system over the frequency range 816 Hz and establish the natural frequency
of vibration for a full range of mass loads.
 Plot the graph of against W (unit mass loads) from the results.
 Determine the slope of the graph in order to calculate Young’s modulus of cantilever
material (E) using the formula derived in the theory.
 Measure the intercept OD on the graph (expressed in mass units) and compare its weight
against the total weight of the cantilever. The effective weight of the cantilever should be
approximately 1/4 of the weight of its vibrating length.

5.3 Observations and Calculations:

The relation between time-period (TP) and mass (M) of the system is given by the following
relation:

From this, Young’s modulus is given as:

Table 5.

Load units (W) Frequency (f) Time Period (𝐓𝐩)

0 16 0.0625 0.0039

1 13 0.0769 0.0059

2 11 0.0909 0.0083

3 10 0.1 0.01

4 9.0 0.111 0.0123

5 8.4 0.119 0.0142

6 8.0 0.125 0.0156

To calculate slope we consider two point on graph as shown in red color. P1(0.4,0.0044) and P2
(2.2, 0.0088) are two points.

Slope =

Slope
Slope = 0.00244
The value of x-intercept is -1.71 and value of y-intercept is 0.004.

Use the following formulae to calculate the estimate value of ‘E’ and effective weight of the
cantilever. Where, geometrical parameters for cantilever is given as:

E = 3223.7 x 10-9

1.71 = effective weight

5.5 Graph:
 0.018
0.016
0.014
0.012
0.01
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Unit Load

Comments:
1. Before starting the experiments carefully set up apparatus. Connect the vibration generator to
the drive unit and remove the keeper rod. Carefully note the readings to avoid error in
calculation. The Double Cantilever Test effectively determined the modulus of elasticity and
showed the ability of the steel cantilever to resist deformation under applied load.
2. By analyzing the experimental data, the modulus of elasticity was calculated, which provides a
measure of the stiffness of the material and its ability to return to its original shape after
deformation.
3. In addition, the effective weight of the steel bracket was determined by experiment, which
clarified its weight distribution and structural properties under loading conditions.
4. These conclusions offer valuable insights into the mechanical behavior of steel structures,
assist in design optimization, and ensure structural integrity in engineering applications.

Applications:
 Wind Energy: Wind turbine blades often consist of composite materials to withstand the
harsh operating conditions. DCB tests help assess the integrity of these materials,
ensuring they can withstand the cyclic loading experienced during operation and maintain
structural integrity over their lifespan.
 Marine Engineering: Composites are used in marine applications such as boat hulls,
decks, and marine structures due to their corrosion resistance and lightweight properties.
DCB tests assist in evaluating the reliability and durability of these materials in marine
environments where they are exposed to moisture, saltwater, and waves.
 Civil Engineering: Composite materials are increasingly being used in civil engineering
for applications such as bridge decks, reinforcing structures, and seismic retrofitting.
DCB tests help engineers understand how these materials behave under various loading
 conditions and environmental factors, ensuring they meet safety and performance
standards.
 Material Research and Development: DCB tests are also employed in material research
and development to evaluate the fracture properties of new composite formulations,
adhesives, and manufacturing techniques. This information is crucial for developing
advanced materials with improved mechanical properties and durability.
 Lab Session No. 07
Lab Experiment No. 06
Objective:
To perform ball chatter test and plot a graph of sinusoidal amplitude against frequency.

Apparatus:
 Linear Vibration Apparatus

6. Theory:
6.1 Simple Harmonic Motion:
A Simple Harmonic Motion, or SHM, is defined as a motion in which the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean position. The direction of this
restoring force is always towards the mean position. The acceleration of a particle executing
simple harmonic motion is given by a(t) = -ω2 x(t). Here, ω is the angular velocity of the particle.
Simple harmonic motion can be described as an oscillatory motion in which the acceleration of
the particle at any position is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position. It
is a special case of oscillatory motion.
All the Simple Harmonic Motions are oscillatory and also periodic, but not all oscillatory
motions are SHM. Oscillatory motion is also called the harmonic motion of all the oscillatory
motions, wherein the most important one is Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM). In this type of
oscillatory motion, displacement, velocity and acceleration, and force vary (w.r.t time) in a way
that can be described by either sine (or) the cosine functions collectively called sinusoids.

6.1.1 Condition For SHM:

 It is a special case of oscillation, along with a straight line between the two extreme
points (the path of SHM is a constraint).
 The path of the object needs to be a straight line.
 There will be a restoring force directed towards the equilibrium position (or) mean
position.
 The mean position in Simple Harmonic Motion is a stable equilibrium.

6.2 Types SHM:

6.2.1 Linear SHM:
When a particle moves to and fro about a fixed point (called equilibrium position) along with
a straight line, then its motion is called linear Simple Harmonic Motion. For example, the spring-
mass system. The restoring force or acceleration acting on the particle should always be
proportional to the displacement of the particle and directed towards the equilibrium position.

𝐹 ∝ −𝑥

𝑎 ∝ −𝑥

6.2.2 Angular SHM:

When a system oscillates angular long with respect to a fixed axis, then its motion is called
angular simple harmonic motion. The restoring torque (or) angular acceleration acting on the
particle should always be proportional to the angular displacement of the particle and directed
towards the equilibrium position.

T∝θ
6.3 Key Feature of SHM:
6.3.1 Mean position:

The point at which net force acting on the particle is zero. The force acting on the particle is
negative of the displacement. So, this point of equilibrium will be a stable equilibrium.

F=0

6.3.2 Amplitude:

It is the maximum displacement of the particle from the mean position.

Fig. Feature of SHM

6.2.3 Time Period:

The minimum time after which the particle keeps on repeating its motion is known as the time
period, or the shortest time taken to complete one oscillation is also defined as the time period.

T = 2π/ω

6.2.4 Frequency:

The number of oscillations per second is defined as the frequency.

f = 1/T

ω = 2πf = 2π/T

Let the force be F and the displacement of the string from the equilibrium position be x.
Therefore, the restoring force is given by,
 F= – kx

Here, the negative sign indicates that the force is in the opposite direction.

Here, k is the constant known as the force constant. Its unit is Newton per meter.
Now, for a string, let its mass be m. Then the acceleration of the body is:

a=F/m a=–kx/m

a=–ω2x

Ball Chatter Test:

The "ball chatter test" in vibrations is method used to assess the condition of bearings or other
rotating machinery components. It involves listening to the sound produced by the machinery
while it is running and interpreting any abnormal noises. Overall, the ball chatter test provides a
quick and relatively simple way to assess the condition of rotating machinery components and
detect potential issues before they lead to more serious problems.

Fig. Ball Chatter test

6.4 Procedure:
 Set up the vibrator as shown in the diagram with the ball resting in the chamfer hole on
top of the mount.
 Apply vibration over the frequency range of 15-50 Hz at 5Hz increments.
 Adjust the amplitude of vibration until the ball ceases to chatter in its seat. This is the
condition where its downward acceleration is approximately 1g equal to the acceleration
due to gravity.
 Read the amplitude indicator and note the amplitude at each frequency setting.
 Plot the results to show a graph of amplitude against frequency using the formula, already
derived, for maximum acceleration.
  Calculate the sinusoidal amplitude required to accelerate the ball 1g.
 Plot the calculated values of amplitude on the same graph test values. There should be
close agreements between two curves drawn.

6.5 Observations and Calculations

Table 6.

𝝎𝟐 g/𝝎𝟐=
Frequency (f) f2 Atest
Acalc
(Hz) (𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇) (mm)
(mm)
10 100 3943.8 2.48 -
15 225 8873.64 1.10 1.0
20 400 15775.36 0.6212 0.61
25 625 24649 0.3976 0.405
30 900 35494.56 0.2761 0.28
35 1225 48312.04 0.2028 0.20
40 1600 63101.44 0.1553 0.152
45 2025 79862.76 0.1227 0.109
50 2500 98596 0.0994 0.10

Graph:
Plot a graph between Frequency f (on X axis) and Amplitude A (on Y axis) to get two different
curves for comparison (test values and calculated values of amplitude).
Comments:
1. The ball vibration test effectively evaluated the dynamic response of the system by measuring
the amplitude of the ball vibration at different frequencies.
2. A plot of sinusoidal amplitude against frequency revealed the resonant frequencies at which
the ball's vibration was most pronounced, indicating the natural frequencies of vibration of the
system.
3. Graph analysis provided valuable insights into the mechanical behavior of the system, helped
identify critical frequencies where resonance occurs, and guided optimization efforts to mitigate
potential problems.
4. Overall, the experiment's conclusion underscores the importance of understanding dynamic
responses in mechanical systems, facilitating the design of robust structures and machinery
capable of withstanding varying operational conditions.

Applications:
 Structural engineering: The ball chatter test can be used to determine the natural
frequency and damping ratio of buildings, bridges, and other structures. This information
can be used to design structures that are more resistant to earthquake or wind loads.
 Mechanical engineering: The test can be used to analyze the performance of machinery,
such as motors or turbines. This can help engineers identify potential problems and
optimize the design for maximum efficiency.
 Materials science: The test can be used to measure the mechanical properties of
materials, such as elasticity and damping. This information is important for designing
materials that can withstand stress and vibration.
 Lab Session No. 08
Lab Experiment No. 07
Objective:
To perform Torsion test and to determine the Modulus of Rigidity of a mild steel shaft specimen
by plotting shear stress (𝜏) -strain (θ) curve.

Apparatus:
 Torsion Testing Apparatus

Theory:
7.1 Torsion Testing Apparatus:

A torsion testing machine is an essential quality assurance instrument in the industrial sector, and
it is helpful to ensure that the manufactured products can withstand applied stress and
pressure. A torsion testing machine helps to entail a physical experiment used in labs to
determine how things constructed out of various materials respond to torsional stress (e.g.,
twisting) when put under load due to opposing forces and moments. There are multiple values
and units commonly associated with torsion testing, including Young’s Modulus, Shear
Modulus, Shear Strength, Fatigue Life, Torsional Ductility, Ultimate Tensile Strength &
Ductility, and Coefficient of Rupture in Tension / Compression tests respectively. They’re all
significant in the labs because they regulate mechanical engineering practices via ensuring
quality control (QC) before mass production runs to merely minimize defects or other issues
while eliminating wasted production costs or wasted material/components (waste reduction).

Fig. Torsion Testing Apparatus

7.2 Shafts:

An automobile engine, for example, uses a Shaft, a cylindrical machine component that rotates
about its axis, to transmit power from one source to another. Typically, the shafts are solid or
hollow. Shafts often have three axes: the x, y, and z axes. The y and z-axes are perpendicular to
the cross-section whereas the x-axis is normal to it. They are manufactured from copper alloys,
mild steel, and alloy steel. There are four distinct kinds of shafts: straight, articulated, flexible,
and crank. Straight shafts are the most commonly used. In general, these shafts are subject to
axial and torsional loads, bending moments, and a combination of these loads.

Fig. Shaft

7.2.1 Torsion of shaft:

The torsion, or twist, induced when torque is applied to a shaft causes a distribution of stress
over the shaft’s cross-sectional area. (Note that this is different from tensile and compressive
loads, which produce a uniform stress over the object’s cross-section.) Torque is force applied at
a distance that causes a change in angular momentum. A moment is also a force applied at a
distance, but it does not cause a change in angular momentum. In other words, torque causes a
body to rotate about an axis, whereas a moment load does not cause rotation.

7.3 Shear Stress:

Shear stress depends on the applied torque, the distance along the radius of the shaft, and
the polar moment of inertia. (Note that polar moment of inertia is a function of geometry and
does not depend on the shaft material.)

τ = shear stress (N/m2, Pa)

T = applied torque (Nm)

r = distance along radius of shaft (m)

J = polar moment of inertia (m4)

7.3.1 Shear Strain:

The amount of shear strain is determined by the angle of twist, the distance along the radius of
the shaft, and the length of the shaft. The equation for shear strain is valid in both the elastic and
plastic ranges of the material. It’s important to note that shear strain and shaft length are
inversely proportional: the longer the shaft, the lower the shear strain.

γ = shear strain (radians)

r = distance along radius of shaft (m)

θ = angle of twist (radians)

L = length of shaft (m)

Also note that at the center of the shaft (r = 0), there is no shear strain (γ = 0). Conversely, shear
strain is at its maximum value (γ = γmax) at the outer surface of the shaft (r = rmax).

7.4 Modulus of Rigidity:

Similar to the modulus of elasticity (E) for a body under tension, a shaft in torsion has a property
known as the shear modulus (also referred to as the modulus of elasticity in shear, or the
modulus of rigidity). The shear modulus (G) is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain. Like the
modulus of elasticity, the shear modulus is governed by Hooke’s Law: the relationship between
shear stress and shear strain is proportional up to the proportional limit of the material.
G = shear modulus (Pa)

Fig. Torsion and Shear (Stress-Strain)

7.4.1 Phases of Shaft:

The process of yielding for a shaft in torsion is not as straightforward as the process of yielding
for a structure in tension. This is because bodies subjected to tension experience a constant stress
across their entire cross-section. Yielding occurs simultaneously across the entire body. For a
shaft in torsion, the shear stress varies from zero at the center of the shaft (the axis) to a
maximum at the surface of the shaft. When the surface reaches the elastic limit and begins to
yield, the interior will still exhibit elastic behavior for some additional amount of torque. At
some point, the applied torque causes the shaft to enter its plastic region, where the strain
increases while torque is constant. When the torque causes fully plastic behavior does the entire
cross-section yield.

Fig. Modulus of Rigidity

7.5 Torsion Test:

The torsion test is an engineering experiment used to determine the material properties of a
substance under torsional (twisting) stress. It's particularly relevant for materials like metals,
polymers, and composites. torsion test is crucial in designing components subjected to torsional
loads, such as shafts, springs, and various mechanical parts. It helps engineers ensure that
materials can withstand the expected stresses and deformations in real-world applications.

Fig. Torsion Test

7.6 Procedure:
 Measure the dimensions of the specimen (mild steel) with the help of Vernier caliper.
 Move the groove slide to move carriage box close to the other hexagonal socket so that
the specimen can be placed properly.
 Fix the specimen in the hexagonal sockets.
 Set the level indicator and torsion meter.
 Now rotate the handle to apply load on the specimen.
 Measure the angle in degree and torsion on the torsion meter.
 From this calculate Shear Stress and Strain
 Plot a graph to calculate the Modulus of Rigidity.

7.7 Observation and Calculation:

Material = Mild steel
Diameter of shaft = 6 mm
Length of specimen= 75 mm
 J=

J=

Table 7.

Shear
Shear
Input angle
(hand wheel Angle of Twist
No. Torque (T) Stress
turn) (𝜽) strain

(Degree) (Radian) (N.m) (Radian) Nm-2

1 1 5.71 0.10 3.55 0.004 3017
2 2 11.42 0.20 7.05 0.008 5991.5
3 40 228.4 3.99 13.6 0.1596 11558.1
4 61 348.31 6.08 14.25 0.2432 12110.5
5 80 456.8 7.97 14.8 0.3188 12577.9
6 100 571 9.97 15.5 0.3988 13172.8
7 120 685.2 11.96 15.6 0.4784 13257.8
8 140 799.4 13.95 16.1 0.558 13682.7

7.8 Graph:
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
Shear
Comments:
1. The torsion test successfully determined the stiffness modulus of a mild steel shaft specimen
by measuring the relationship between shear stress (𝜏) and strain (θ) under torsional loading.
2. Plotting the shear stress-strain curve revealed a linear relationship that allowed the stiffness
modulus to be calculated from the slope of the curve.
3. The stiffness modulus obtained offers essential information about the resistance of the shaft to
torsional deformation, which helps in the design and analysis of mechanical components
subjected to torsional loading.
4. This conclusion underscores the importance of torsional testing in characterizing material
properties, ensuring the structural integrity and performance of engineering systems subjected to
torsional stress.

Applications:
Mechanical Engineering:
 Shafts and Axles: Torsion tests help determine the torsional strength and stiffness of
shafts and axles used in machines, vehicles, and rotating equipment.
 Fasteners and Connectors: Studying torsional properties is vital for designing screws,
bolts, and other fasteners to ensure they can withstand torque without failing.
Aerospace Engineering:
 Aircraft Components: Torsion tests are essential for evaluating the performance of
materials used in aircraft components such as wings, rotor blades, and landing gear.
 Spacecraft Components: Materials for spacecraft components like antennas and solar
panels undergo torsion testing to ensure they can withstand the rigors of space travel.
Automotive Engineering:
 Drive Shafts: Torsion tests help determine the torsional strength and fatigue resistance of
drive shafts used in vehicles.
 Suspension Components: Materials used in suspension systems, such as sway bars and
torsion bars, are evaluated through torsion testing to ensure optimal performance and
durability.
 Lab Session No. 09
Lab Experiment No. 08
Objective:
To verify whirling of the shaft theory.

Apparatus:
 Whirling of Shaft Apparatus:

Theory:
Whirling of Shaft Apparatus:
The “ LabTek” The modes of oscillation and resonances of rotors with continuous mass
distribution can be clearly demonstrated using this unit. Due to the use of thin, elastic rotor shafts
made of high-strength steel, the oscillatory phenomena can be easily understood. A range of
shaft diameters and the free choice of the bearing arrangement make it possible to perform a
wide variety of experiments. Adapters in the bearings compensate for different diameters; catch
bearings limit the amplitude of the oscillation. The freedom of movement of the rotor is assured
by an elastic coupling. A Laval rotor with discrete mass distribution can be assembled using a
mass disc. As a supplement to this unit, a set of vibration sensors is available. These enable the
path of the rotor to be displayed on an oscilloscope.

Fig. Whirling of Shaft Apparatus

8.2 Whirling:
Whirling is defined as the rotation of plane made by the bent shaft and line of centers of
bearings.
OR
Whirling is also defined as the rotation of the plane made by the line of centers of the bearings
and the bent shaft.

8.2.1 Whirling Speed of Shaft:

The rotational speed at which dynamic acting forces cause a machine component to vibrate at its
natural frequency and can even result in resonance vibrations throughout the complete machine
and pump set is called critical speed. The whirling speed or critical speed of a shaft is the speed
at which a spinning shaft will tend to vibrate strongly in the transverse direction if rotated
horizontally. In other terms, the crucial speed or whirling speed is the speed at which resonance
occurs. As a result, we may say that shaft whirling happens when the natural frequency of
transverse vibration equals the frequency of a rotating shaft.
The critical or whirling speed is the speed at which the shaft travels so that the extra deviation of
the post from the axis of rotation becomes infinite. the critical speed of a shaft depends on the
degree and location of the shaft unbalance, the length and diameter of the shaft, and the type of
bearing support.

Fig. Whirling of Shaft

8.2.2 Critical Speed of the Shaft Formula:

The frequency of traversal vibrations is the same as the critical speed. the critical speed of the
shaft is expressed as the natural frequency of the shaft.
The critical speed of a shaft is used to formulate where m is the presumed single-point
concentration of the shaft’s mass.
The centrifugal force on the shaft = m ω 2(y + e), and
the shaft’s inward pull = y (48EI / L 3).

8.2.3 Factors Affecting Critical Speed:

The critical speed is determined by the degree and location of the shaft unbalance, the length and
diameter of the shaft, and the type of bearing support. The critical speed of the shaft is an
essentially depends on the following Factors:
 The eccentricity of the C.G of the rotating masses from the axis of rotation of the shaft.
 Diameter of the disc
 Span (length) of the shaft, and
 Type of supports connections at its ends.
Effect of Supports on Mode of Shaft:

Type of support 1 (first mode) 2 (second mode)

Simple supported 1.573 6.3

Supported-Fixed 2.459 7.96

8.3 Modes of Whirling of Shaft:

For any rotating shaft, a certain speed exists at which violent instability occurs. The shaft suffers
excessive deflection and bows, a phenomenon known as whirling. If this critical speed of
whirling is maintained (called First Critical speed), then the resulting amplitude becomes
sufficient to cause buckling and failure. However, if the speed is rapidly increased before such
effects occur, then the shaft is seen to re-stabilize and run true again until another specific speed
is encountered where a double bow is produced.

Fig. Mode of Whirling Shaft

 The second speed is called "Second Critical". Whirling speed depends primarily on the stiffness
of the shaft and mass distribution (as will be seen later). When the shaft is loaded, the whirling
speed will be shifted due to the effect of the new mass.
The critical frequency for a shaft may be obtained from the fundamental frequency of a beam
subjected to a transverse vibration;

Where

f, critical frequency in Hz E, Young's

modulus
I, Second moment of area of the shaft; w,
Weight per unit length of the shaft

Procedure:
 Attach a shaft of known diameter and length to the apparatus.
 Select simply supported configuration by moving out the sliding part of the kinematic
coupling and using the free support at the other end.
 Calculate the theoretical first and second whirling speeds from eq. The density of shaft
material is 8200 kg/m3, and Young's modulus is 207 GN/m2.
 Switch on the speed control unit and adjust the speed carefully until obtaining the largest
amplitude of whirling.
 Read the speed on the stroboscope and observe the shaft in the first mode, it should
contain a single bow. Increase the speed slowly until you obtain the second mode and
record the rotational speed. Observe the shaft in the second mode.
 Change the support type to fixed-supported and then to fixed-fixed and repeat steps 2 and
3.
 Replace the shaft with another one of different diameter and repeat the above steps.
 Record the results as in a table as below.

Observations and calculations:

Shaft diameter = 6 mm

Bearing spacing = 1200 mm

Table. Critical speed for different vibration modes

Vibration Critical Speed Experimental Critical Speed

 Fundamental 494 516

First Harmonic 1976 2009

Second Harmonic 4446 4484

Third Harmonic 7904 8002

Comments:
1. The experiment successfully verified the theory of shaft rotation and demonstrated the
phenomenon where a rotating shaft experiences lateral vibrations due to its own angular
momentum.
2. By analyzing the experimental results, it was observed that as the rotation speed increased,
the shaft exhibited lateral deflection, which confirmed the onset of vortex instability.
3. This conclusion highlights the importance of understanding vortex phenomena in the
design of rotating machinery, enabling engineers to anticipate and mitigate potential
problems such as shaft misalignment and structural failure.
4. Overall, it can be said that the verification of shaft swirl theory provides valuable insights
into the dynamic behavior of rotating shafts, thereby increasing the reliability and
performance of mechanical systems in various industrial applications.

Applications:
 Power Transmission: Whirling can also occur in power transmission systems, such as
gearboxes and drive shafts. Excessive vibration in these systems can lead to noise, wear,
and premature failure of components. Engineers must consider shaft dynamics and
implement measures such as proper balancing, damping, and structural design to prevent
whirling and ensure smooth operation.
 Wind Turbines: In wind turbines, whirling of shafts can occur due to aerodynamic
forces acting on the rotor blades. This can lead to fatigue damage and reduced lifespan of
turbine components. Engineers design wind turbine shafts to minimize whirling effects
and optimize performance and reliability.
 High-Speed Rotors: Whirling is a significant concern in high-speed rotating machinery
such as centrifuges and turbochargers. The high centrifugal forces and dynamic loads
experienced by these systems can induce shaft vibration, leading to performance
degradation and potential safety hazards. Engineers employ advanced modeling,
simulation, and testing techniques to analyze and address whirling phenomena in high-
speed rotors.