LECTURE NOTE ON RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Prepared For:

BASIC MIDWIFERY STUDENTS

(BMP SET 2021)

COURSE: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY 1

UNIT IV

COURSE CODE: 112

FIRST YEAR FIRST SEMESTER

COURSE LECTURER: IBRAHIM AHMED GADO

FEB, 2021

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INTRODUCTION The trillions of cells in the body require an abundant and continuous supply
of oxygen to carry out their vital functions. We cannot “do without oxygen” for even a little
while, as we can without food or water

Functions of the Respiratory System

The functions of the respiratory system are:

1. Oxygen supplier. The job of the respiratory system is to keep the body
constantly supplied with oxygen.
2. Elimination. Elimination of carbon dioxide.
3. Gas exchange. The respiratory system organs oversee the gas exchanges
that occur between the blood and the external environment.
4. Passageway. Passageways that allow air to reach the lungs.
5. Humidifier. Purify, humidify, and warm incoming air.

What is respiration?

Respiration is the sum total of all the physical and chemical processes by which oxygen is
conveyed to tissues and cells and carbon dioxide and water are given off.

Types of respiration

Respiration is classified into two types:

1. External respiration: this involves the exchange of respiratory gases i.e oxygen and
carbondioxide between the lungs and the blood.
2. Internal respiration: this is the exchange of respiratory gases between blood and
cells/tissues.

Phases of respiration

Respiration occurs in two stages

1. .Inspiration: this is the phase during which air enters the lungs from atmosphere.
2. Expiration: this is during which air leaves the lungs to the atmosphere.

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During normal breathing, inspiration is an active process and expiration is a passive process.

PROCESS OF RESPIRATION

For an individual to take in oxygen and bring out carbondioxed four processes must occur

1. Pulmonary ventilation
2. External respiration External respiration
3. respiration Internal
4. Transport of respiratory gasses
1. .Pulmonary ventilation: Is defined as movement of gasses or exchange of gasses
between the atmosphere and lungs simply called breathing
2. External respiration: Is movement of oxygen from the lung to the blood and that of
carbondioxed from the blood the lungs.
3. I Respiration Internal: : Is movement of oxygen from the blood to tissue cells and that
of carbondioxed from tissue cells to the blood.
4. Transport of respiratory gasses: Is movement of oxygen from the lung to the tissue
cells and that of carbondioxed from tissue cells to the lungs.

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Organs of respiratory system

The organs of respiratory system are:-

 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung)
 Bronchioles and smaller air passages and
 Two lungs and their coverings, the pleura
 Muscles of breathing- the intercostals muscles and the diaphragm.

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 NOSE AND NASAL CAVITY

THE NOSE : is consist of the external nose and internal nasal cavity. The external nose
is visible that form the prominent feature of the face, the large part of the external nose is
composed of cartilages, the bridge of the nose is formed by the nasal bone, plus
extension of the frontal bone and maxillary bone.

THE INTERNAL NASAL CAVITY

The internal nasal cavity extends from the nares to choanae. The nare or nostrils are the
external opening into the nasal cavity and choanae are opening into the pharynx. The
anterior part of the nasal cavity just inside each naris is the vestibule (entry room) which
is lined with striatified squamous epithelium. The roof of nose is formed by the
cribriform plate of the ethemiod bone, sphenoid bone, frontal bone and nasal bone
(vomer). The floor is formed by the roof of the mouth which consist hard and soft palate
behind. The hard palate in front ( anteriorly) and soft palate behind (posterioly), the hard
palate is composed of maxillary bone and palatine bone, the soft palate consist of
involuntary muscle. Th e middle wall of the nose formed by the nasal septum. The lateral
wall of the nose is formedbymaxillary bone and two inferior nasal conchae. The posterior
wall of the nose is formed by the posterior wall of the pharynx .
. Paranasal sinuses are cavities in the bones of the face and the cranium containing air.
These are tiny openings between the paranasal sinuses and the nasal cavity. They are
lined with mucus membrane. The main paranasal sinuses are:-
- Maxillary sinuses in the lateral walls

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 - Frontal
- sphenoid sinuses in the roof
- Ethmoidal sinuses in the upper part of the lateral walls

The sinuses function in speech and also lighten the skull.

Function of the nose

Respiratory function of the nose includes:

- Warming: this is due to immense vascularity of the mucosa.

- Filtering and cleaning: this occurs as hairs at the anterior nares trap larger particles.
Smaller particles such as dust and microbes settle and adhere to the mucus.
- Humidification: as air travels over the moist mucosa, it becomes saturated with water
vapor
- Olfactory function of the nose smells which are detected by the nerves endings located in
the roof of the nose.
- BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY
- Arterial blood supply: is by the facial artery.
- Venus drainage is through the cru spending vein.

Nerve supply : is by the sympathetic parasympathetic nerve ganglions.

Pharynx

 The pharynx (throat) is a cone-shaped/ funnel shape tube measured about 12 to 14cm
long.
 It extends from the base of the skull to the level of the 6 th thoracic t vertebra and become
the oesophorgus.
 It lies behind the Nose, mouth and larynx
 And its wider at its upper end.

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ASSOCIATED STRUCTURE OF THE PHARYNX

 Superiorly: by inferior surface of base of the skull.

 Inferiorly: it continuous with the esophagus
 Anteriorly: the wall of the pharynx is incomplete because of the openings into the nose,
mouth and larynx.
 Posteriorly: areola tissue, involuntary muscles and first to six cervical vertebrae.

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Parts of the pharynx

For descriptive purposes the pharynx is sub-divided into three parts

Nasopharynx:

 Is located posterior to the nasal cavity, inferior to the sphenoid bone and superior to
the level of the soft palate.
 It has auditory openings on lateral walls one leading to each middle ear.
 On the posterior wall are the pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid) consisting of lymphoid
tissue they are the most prominent in children (7yrs) and later life atrophy.
- Oropharynx:
- The oral part of the pharynx lies posterior to the oral cavity ( mouth) meaning it is
situated posterior to the mouth.
- It extends from below the level of the soft palate to the level of the upper part of the
body of the 3rd cervical vertebrae.
- The lateral wall of the pharynx blend with the soft palate to form two folds on each side,
between each pairs of fold is collection of lymphoid tissue called palatine tonsil.
- During swallowing/deglutition, the nasal and oral part are separated by soft palate and
Uvula.
-
Laryngopharynx:
 The laryngeal part of the pharynx extends from oropharynx above and continues
as oesophagus below. I.e. from the level of the 3rd to 6th cervical vertebrae.

Structure of the pharynx

The pharynx is composed of three layers of tissues:

- Mucous membrane lining: the mucosa varies slightly in different regions. It is continuous
with the lining of the nose at the nasopharynx and consists of ciliated columnar
epithelium. It is formed by stratified squamous epithelium at the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx. The lining protects the underlying tissue from the abrasive action of
food stuff passing during swallowing.

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 - Sub-mucosa: this lies below the epithelium. It is involved in protection against infection.
- Smooth muscles: they are pharyngeal constrictors (superior, middle and inferior),
palatopharyngeus, stylopharyngeus and salpingopharyngeus. These muscles help to keep
the pharynx permanently open so that breathing is not interfered with.
- Blood supply : is by facial artery, Venus return is by Facial vein( Internal jugular vein
 Nerve supply
- Pharyngeal plexus

Functions of the pharynx

- Passage for air and food-respiratory and digestive function

- Warming and humidification of air
- Taste
- Hearing
- Protection :lymphatic tissue of pharyngeal and laryngeal tonsils produce antibodies in
responses to swallowed or inhaled antibodies
- Speech

Larynx

 The larynx or voice box is cartilaginous chamber.

 It is made up of nine cartilages(3 pairs and 3 unpaired cartilages)
 It extends from the roof of the tongue and the hyoid bone to the trachea.
 It lies at the level of 3rd to 6th cervical vertebrae and links the laryngopharynx with the
trachea and continue as trachea.
 It is part of the respiratory system that contains the vocal cords.
 It is responsible for producing voice, helping us to swallow and breathe.
 It grows larger in males which explain the prominence of the Adam’s apple and generally
deeper voice.

ASSOCIATED STRUCTUFE OF THE LARYNX

 Superiorly- the hyoid bone and the root of the tongue

 Inferiorly- it is continuous with the trachea

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  Anteriorly- the muscles attached to the hyoid bone and the muscles of the neck
 Posteriorly- the laryngopharynx and 3rd to 6th cervical vertebrae
 Laterally- the lobes of the thyroid gland

Structure of the larynx

The larynx consists of nine cartilages, 3 unpaired and 3 pair

- 3 cartilages unpaired are single (thyroid, cricoids and epiglottis)

- 3 cartilages are paired (arytenoids, corniculate and cuniform)

Thyroid cartilage:

- This is the largest of all the cartilages.

- It made up of hyaline cartilage and lies in front of the neck forming the laryngeal
prominence called (Adam’s apple).
- The thyroid cartilage is complete posteriorly and the border of each lamina is extended
to form two processes called the superior and inferior cornu.
- The upper part of the thyroid cartilage is lined with stratified squamous epithelium and
the lower part with ciliated columnar epithelium.
- Cricoids cartilage:
- This lies below the thyroid cartilage.
- Although much smaller than the thyroid cartilage.
- It is thicker and stronger and is the only complete ring of cartilage to encircle any part of
the airway.
- The lower border marks the end of the upper respiratory tract.

Arytenoids cartilages:

- They are paired three (3) sided pyramidal cartilages.

- It is located on top of the broad part of the cricoids cartilage forming posterior
part of the larynx giving attachment to vocal foals and muscles.
- The arytenoids cartilages are lined with ciliated columnar epithelium.

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Epiglottis:

This is a leaf-shaped fibroelastic cartilage attached on a flexible stalk of cartilage to the

inner surface of the anterior wall of the thyroid notch.
It rises obliquely upwards behind the tongue and the body of the hyoid bone.
It acts as a lid, it closes off the larynx during swallowing, protecting the lungs from
accidental inhalation of foreign objects.
- Blood supply, venous drainage and nerve supply to the larynx
- Blood supply by laryngeal arteries (superior and inferior)
- Venous drainage through thyroid vein
- Nerve supply by superior laryngeal and recurrent laryngeal nerves.
- Function of the larynx
- Production of sound
- Speech produced by the vocal cords
- Protection of the lower respiratory tract during swallowing
- Passage for air between the pharynx and trachea
- Humidifying, filtering and warming as air travels through the larynx

LOWER RESPIRATORY TRAT

Trachea

 The trachea is also called the windpipe.

 It is made up off 15-20 incomplete C-shape rings of hyaline cartilages
 It is the continuation of the larynx and it extends from the inferior border of the larynx at
the level of 5th cervical vertebrae where it divides or bifurcates at the carina into the right
and left primary bronchi.
 It is approximately 10-11cm long and lies mainly in the median plane of the esophagus.

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ASSOCIATED STRUCTURE OF THE LARYNX

- Superiorly: by the larynx

- Inferiorly: by right and left bronchi
- Anteriorly: by the isthmus of the thyroid gland at the upper part and arch of aorta and
sternum at the lower part.
- Posteriorly: by the esophagus and the vertebral column
- Laterally: by the lungs and the lobes of the thyroid gland.

Structure of the trachea

The trachea has 16-20 incomplete (C-shaped) rings of hyaline cartilage lying one above the
other. The cartilages are embedded in a sleeve of smooth muscle and connective tissue. The soft
tissue in the posterior wall of the trachea is in contact with the esophagus. The trachea is
composed of three layers of tissue.

Blood supply, venous drainage, nerve supply and lymphatic drainage

- Blood supply: inferior thyroid and bronchial arteries

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 - Venous drainage: inferior thyroid vein
- Nerve supply: recurrent laryngeal nerve
- Lymph drainage: lymph from respiratory passages drains through lymph nodes situated
around the trachea and in the carina.

Functions of the trachea

- Support and patency

- The cartilages and the elastic tissue of the trachea prevents kinking and obstruction of
the airway as the head and neck move freely.
- The trachealis muscle helps to regulate the diameter of the trachea.
- Mucocitiary escalator: this is the regular beating of the cilia on the mucous membrane
which sweeps mucus with adherent particles upward towards the larynx where it is either
swallowed or coughed up.
- Cough reflex: the nerve endings in the larynx, trachea and bronchi are sensitive to
irritation which generates impulses conducted by the vagus nerves to the respiratory
center in the brain. It causes contraction of the abdominal and respiratory muscles then
air is suddenly released under pressure expelling mucus and/or foreign materials from the
mouth.
- Warming, humidifying and filtering: the air is normally saturated and at body
temperature when it reaches trachea.

BRONCHI AND BRONCHIOLES

The trachea divides into two main bronchi (right and left) at the carina. The right bronchus enters
the right lung and the left bronchus enters the left lung.

The right bronchus

- It is wider
- It is shorter and more vertical
- It is approximately 2.5cm long
- It divides into 3 branches of the hilum which further subdivides into numerous smaller
branches.

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 - It is more likely to become obstructed by inhaled foreign body

The left bronchus

- It is narrower
- It is longer and more horizontal
- It is 5cm long
- It divides into 2 branches at the hilum of the left lung which further subdivides into
smaller branches.

The bronchioles

The two bronchi progressively divide into bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts and finally, alveoli. As they divide and become progressively smaller,
their structure changes to match their function. The changes occur in the cartilage, smooth
muscle and the epithelial lining (ciliated epithelium is replaced by non ciliated goblet cells
disappear).

Blood supply, venous drainage, nerve supply and lymph drainage

- Blood supply: bronchial arteries

- Venous drainage: bronchial veins
- Nerve supply: vagus nerves
- Lymph drainage: lymph passes through lymph nodes situated around the trachea and
bronchial tree into the thoracic duct on the left side and right lymphatic duct on the other.

Functions of the bronchi

- Control of air entry

- Support and patency
- Cough reflex
- Warming and humidifying
- Removal of particulate matter

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Lungs

The lungs are the vital organs of respiration. The main function of the lungs is to oxygenate the
blood by bringing inspired air into close relation with the venous blood into pulmonary
capillaries. Healthy lungs in living people are normally light, soft, spongy and fully occupy the
pulmonary cavities the lungs are separated from each other by the mediastinum.

Each lung has the following:-

- An apex: this ascends above the level of 1st rib covered by cervical pleura
- A base: the inferior concave surface of the lung rest on and accommodating the dome
shape of the diaphragm
- It has two lobes on left lung and three lobes on the right lung created by fissures
- It has three surfaces; costal, mediastinal and diaphragmatic
- It has three borders; anterior, inferior and posterior borders.
- The medical surface: this is concave and has a roughly triangular shaped area called the
helium at the level of 5th to 7th thoracic vertebrae.

The structures that enter and leave the helium are as follows:-

- Primary bronchus
- Pulmonary artery
- Pulmonary vein
- Bronchial artery and veins
- Lymphatic vessels
- Nerves

The mediastinum is occupied by the following structures:-

- The heart
- Great vessels
- Trachea
- Right and left bronchi
- Esophagus
- Lymph nodes and vessels

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 - Nerves

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RIGHT LUNG AND LEFT LUNG

Right lung Left lung

1. It is on the right side of respiratory system 1. It is on the left side of respiratory system
2. It consists of three lobes 2. It consists of two lobes
3. It consists of three 2nd bronchi 3. It consist of a two 2nd bronchus
4. It has 2 fissures; oblique & horizontal fissure 4. It has only one fissure; oblique fissure
5. It is heavier 5. It is lighter
6. Right lung is shorter and wider 6. It is longer and narrower
7. It provides space for the liver 7. It provides space for the heart
8. Anterior border is straight 8. The anterior border is marked by a deep cardiac notch
9. The base of the right lung is more 9. The base is less concave
Concave
10. It is more prone to aspiration because 10. It is less prone to aspiration
the right bronchi is shorter and more vertical

PLEURA AND PLEURAL CAVITY

Each lung is in invested by an enclosed in a serous pleural sac that consists of two continuous
membranes called the visceral and parietal pleurae which contains a small amount of serous
fluid.

The visceral pleural is adherent to the lung, covering each lobe and passing into the fissures that
separate them.

The parietal pleura is adherent to the inside of the chest wall and the thoracic surface of the
diaphragm.

The pleural cavity

This is a potential space between the layers of the pleura which contains no air. It contains a
capillary layer of serous pleural fluid which lubricates the pleural surfaces and allows the layers
of the pleural to slide smoothly over each other during respiration easily but can be pulled apart

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only with difficulty because of the surface tension between the membranes and the fluid.
Whenever either of the pleurae is punctured, the underlying lungs collapse owing to its inherent
property of elastic recoil.

MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION

The process whereby atmospheric air is taken into the lungs and carbondioxide is expelled from
the lungs into the atmosphere is called pulmonary ventilation. It occurs in phases namely
inspiration and expiration. During inspiration, thoracic cage enlarges and lungs expand so that air
enters the lungs easily. During expiration, the thoracic cage and lungs decrease iv size so that air
leaves the lungs easily.

During normal quite breathing, inspiration is the active process and expiration is the passive
process.

MUSCLES OF RESPIRATION

Respiratory muscles are two types:-

- Inspiratory muscles
- Expiratory muscles

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However, respiratory muscles are generally classified into two types:

a. Primary or major respiratory muscles: these are responsible for change in size of thoracic
cage during normal quite breathing.
b. Accessory respiratory muscles: these muscles help primary respiratory muscles during
forced respiration.

Inspiratory muscles

Muscles involved in inspiratory movements are known as inspiratory muscles.

a. Primary inspiratory muscles

- Diaphragm: 75% of the respiratory effort, nerve supply to the diaphragm is phrenic nerve
- External intercostals muscle: 25% of inspiratory effort. Nerve supply is by thoracic
intercostals nerve.
b. Accessory inspiratoty muscles
- Sternocleidomastoid muscles
- Scalene muscles
- Serratus anterior muscles
- Elevator scapulae muscles
- Pectoralis muscles

Expiratory muscles

Muscles involved during expiratory movements are known as expiratory muscles.

a. Primary expiratory muscles are the internal intercostals muscles supplied by intercostals
nerves.
b. Accessory expiratory muscles are the abdominal muscle:
- Rectus abdominis muscle External/internal oblique Transversus abdominis

TRANSPORT OF RESPIRATORY GASES: respiratory gases are O2 & CO2

Transport of oxygen (O2)

O2 is transported by 2 ways on entering the blood.

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 1. In combination with haemoglobin (Hb) in which 97% of O2 is transported
2. Dissolved in the plasma of blood and only 3% of O2 is transported.

The reaction of O2 with Hb is called oxygenation and not oxidation. When oxygen combines with
hemoglobin in blood it is transported as oxyhemoglobin.

Oxyhemoglobin is unstable and under certain conditions readily dissociates releasing oxygen
readily whenever the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is more, hemoglobin gives out
oxygen whenever the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is less.

Factors that increase dissociation are;

i. Low PH
ii. Low O2 levels
iii. Increased temperature

Oxygen carrying capacity of the blood/oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin refers to the
amount of O2 transported by blood. One gram of the carries 1.34ml of blood. The normal
hemoglobin in blood is 15%.

Transport of CO2

CO2 is transported in the blood from the tissues to the lungs in 3 ways;

1. Dissolved in blood -7% of CO2 transported

2. As bicarbonate-70%
3. In form of carbamino hemoglobin- 23%

The CO2 has to leave the tissues first and enter the system capillaries, then to the venous blood.
The partial pressure of CO2 (PCO2) in the tissue is 4mmhg, arterial blood in tissue is 40mmhg
with pressure gradient of 5mmhg.

Physiological factors affecting breathing

i. Intrapulmonary pressure is the pressure existing in the alveoli of the lungs which
causes flow of air in and out of the alveoli. Also, it helps in gaseous exchange
between the alveoli and the blood.

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 ii. Intrapleural pressure: this prevents the collapse tendency of the lungs. It is the
pressure between the pleurae of the lungs. The lungs have continuous tendency to
collapse and it has a tendency to pull away from the thoracic wall. This is called the
recoil tendency of the lungs brought about by the elastic fibres of the lungs.

Compliance: this is the expansibility of the lungs and thorax, it is defined as the change in
vol/unit change in pressure.

EXCHANGE OF RESPIRATORY GASES

Oxygen is essentially for the cells. Carbondioxide, which is produced as waste product in the
cells must be expelled from the cells and body. Lungs serve to exchange these two gases with
blood.

Exchange of respiratory gases in lungs

In the lungs, exchange of respiratory gases takes place between the alveoli of lungs and the
blood. Oxygen enters the blood from alveoli and carbon dioxide is expelled out of blood into
alveoli. Exchange occurs through bulk flow diffusion. Exchange of gases between blood and
alveoli takes place through respiratory membrane.

Diffusion capacity: this is defined as the volume of gas that diffuses through the respiratory
membrane each minute for a pressure gradient of 1mmhg.

Diffusion of oxygen

1. Entrance of O2 in the atmospheric air into the alveoli: the partial pressure of O 2 in the
atmospheric air is 159mmhg, while in the alveoli is 104mmhg. A pressure gradient of
55mmhg makes it easier for O2 to enter alveoli from the atmospheric air.
2. Diffusion of O2 from alveoli into the blood: when the blood is flowing through the
pulmonary capillary, RBC is exposed to O 2 only for 0.75%sec at rest and only for 0.25sec
during severe exercise. The diffusion of O2 therefore must be quicker and effective, the
partial pressure of O2 in pulmonary capillary is 40mmhg and 104mmhg in the alveoli.
Pressure gradient of 64mmhg facilitates the diffusion of O2 from alveoli into the blood.

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 Thus, from the blood O2 diffuses into the tissues for continuous metabolic activities, this is
made possible by the pressure gradient of 55mmhg that exist between capillary (95mmhg)
and the tissue (40mmhg).

1. Diffusion of CO2 from blood into alveoli: PCO2 in alveoli is 40mmhg in the blood. The
pressure gradient of 6mmhg is responsible for the above diffusion.
2. Exit of CO2 from alveoli into atmospheric air: PCO 2 in the atmospheric air is very
insignificant, only about 0.3mmhg whereas it is 40mmgh in the alveoli. There is an easy
passage of CO2 from alveoli to the atmosphere.

RESPIRATORY VOLUME AND CAPACITIES

Pulmonary function tests or lung function tests are useful in assessing the functional status of the
respiratory system both in physiological and pathological conditions. Lung function tests are
based on the measurement of volume of air breathed in and out in quite breathing and forced
breathing. These tests are carried out mostly by using spirometer.

Lung volumes

Lung volumes are the volumes of air breathed by an individual. Each of these volumes represents
the volume of air present in the lung under a specified condition. Lung volumes are of four types:

 Tidal volume
 Inspiratory reserve volume
 Expiratory reserve volume
 Residual volume
 Tidal volume (TV): this is the volume of air breathed in and out of lungs in a single
normal quite respiration. Tidal volume signifies the normal depth of breathing, normal
value is 500ml (0.5L)
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): this is an additional volume of air that can be
inspired forcefully after the end of normal inspiration. Normal value is 3,300ml (3.3L).
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): this is the additional volume of air that can be
expired out forcefully, after normal expiration normal value is 1,000ml (1L).

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  Residual volume (RV): this is the volume of air remaining in lungs even after forced
expiration. Normally, lungs cannot be emptied completely even by forceful expiration
some quantity of air always remains in the lungs even after the forced expiration 1200ml
(1.2L) is normal value.

Lung capacities

Lung capacities are the combination of two or more lung volume. Lung capacities are of four
types.

 Inpiratory capacity
 Vital capacity
 Functional residual capacity
 Total lung capacity
 Inspiratory capacity (IC): this is the maximum volume of air that is inspired after
normal expiration (end expiration position). It includes tidal volume and inspiratory
reserve volume. Normal value is 3,800ml (3.8L).
 Vital capacity (VC): this is the maximum volume of air that can be expelled out
forcefully after a deep inspiration. VC includes inspiratory reserve volume. Normal value
is 4,800ml (4.8L).
 Functional residual capacity (FRC): this is the volume of air remaining in lungs after
normal expiration, includes expiratory reserve volume and residual volume. Normal
value is 2,200ml (2.2L).
 Total lung capacity (TLC): this is the volume of air present in lungs after a deep
inspiration. It includes all the volumes. Its normal value is 6000ml (6L)

Measurement of lung volumes and capacities

Spirometry is the method to measure lung volumes and capacities. Simple instrument used for
this purpose is called spirometer. Modified spirometer is known as respirometer. Nowadays
plethysmograph is also used to measure lung volumes and capacities.

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REGULATION AND CONTROL OF RESPIRATION

Control of respiration is normally involuntary. Voluntary control is exerted during activities such
as speaking and singing but is overridden if blood CO 2 rises (hypercapmia). Normally, quite
regular breathing occurs because of two regulatory mechanisms.

- Nervous/neural mechanism
- Chemical mechanism

Nervous/neural mechanism

The nervous mechanism that regulates the respiration includes respiratory centers, afferent
nerves and afferent nerves.

Respiratory centers

The respiratory centers are group neurons, which control the rate, rhythm and force of
respiration. These centers are situated in the reticular formation of the brain stem in the medullar.
Regular discharge of inspiratory neurons within this center set the rate and depth of breathing.
Activity of the respiratory rhythmicity center is adjusted by nerves in the pons (the pneumotaxic
center and the apneustic center), in response to input from other parts of the brain. Motor
impulses leaving he respiratory center pass in the phrenic and intercostals nerves to the
diaphragm and intercostals muscles respectively.

Chemical mechanism

Chemical mechanism of regulation of respiration is operated through the chemoreceptors.

Chemoreceptors are the sensory nerve endings which give response to changes in chemical
constituents of blood. They are receptors that responds to changes in the partial pressures of
oxygen and carbondioxide in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid. The chemoreceptors are
classified into two groups.

1. Central chemoreceptors: these are the chemoreceptors that are present in the brain on the
surface of the medulla oblongata and are bathed in cerebrospinal fluid. When arterial
PCO2 rises (hypercapria), even slightly, the central chemoreceptors respond by

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 stimulating the respiratory center increasing ventilation of the lungs and reducing arterial
PCO2. A small reduction in PO2 (hypoxaemia) has the same, but less pronounced effect,
but a substantial reduction depresses breathing.
2. Peripheral chemoreceptors: these are chemoreceptors that are situated in the arch of the
aorta and in the carotid bodies. They are more sensitive to small rises in arterial PCO 2
than to small decreases in arterial PO 2 levels. Nerve impulses, generated in the peripheral
chemoreceptors are conveyed by the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves to the medulla
and stimulate the respiratory center. The rate and depth of breathing are then increased.
An increase in blood acidity stimulates the peripheral chemoreceptors, resulting in
increased ventilation, increased CO2 excretion and increased blood PH.

Other factors that influence respiration

Breathing may be modified by the hinder centers in the brain by:

- Speech and singing

- Emotional displays e.g crying, laughing and fear
- Drugs e.g sedatives and alcohol
- Sleep

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