Fiber Waviness in Composite Materials-A Review: Mechanisms of Origin and Classification of Out-of-Plane

Review
Mechanisms of Origin and Classification of Out-of-Plane

Fiber Waviness in Composite Materials—A Review
Michael Thor 1,2, * , Markus G. R. Sause 2 and Roland M. Hinterhölzl 1
1 Research Group of Lightweight Design and Composite Materials, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria,
Stelzhamerstraße 23, 4600 Wels, Austria; roland.hinterhoelzl@fh-wels.at
2 Institute of Materials Resource Management, University of Augsburg, Universitaetsstraße 1 Nord,
86159 Augsburg, Germany; markus.sause@mrm.uni-augsburg.de
* Correspondence: michael.thor@fh-wels.at

Received: 11 August 2020; Accepted: 3 September 2020; Published: 4 September 2020
Abstract: Out-of-plane fiber waviness, also referred to as wrinkling, is considered one of the most
significant effects that occur in composite materials. It significantly affects mechanical properties,
such as stiffness, strength and fatigue and; therefore, dramatically reduces the load-carrying capacity
of the material. Fiber waviness is inherent to various manufacturing processes of fiber-reinforced
composite parts. They cannot be completely avoided and thus have to be tolerated and considered as
an integral part of the structure. Because of this influenceable but in many cases unavoidable nature
of fiber waviness, it might be more appropriate to consider fiber waviness as effects or features rather
than defects. Hence, it is important to understand the impact of different process parameters on the
formation of fiber waviness in order to reduce or, in the best case, completely avoid them as early as
possible in the product and process development phases. Mostly depending on the chosen geometry
of the part and the specific manufacturing process used, different types of fiber waviness result.
In this study, various types of waviness are investigated and a classification scheme is developed
for categorization purposes. Numerous mechanisms of wrinkling were analyzed, leading to several
recommendations to prevent wrinkle formation, not only during composite processing, but also at an
earlier design stage, where generally several influence factors are defined.
Keywords: review; composite materials; manufacturing effects; fiber waviness; wrinkling
1. Introduction
Fiber-reinforced composite materials allow for a significant mass reduction due to the comparably
low density (c.f. four to five times less than steel) and, in addition, fibers can be aligned in accordance
with the load paths. This possibility of alignment allows the fibers to be placed at the exact position where
they are needed to provide the component with the required stiffness and strength. However, this can
lead to a load path-optimized composite structure, which is not necessarily easy to produce and free
of defects. The placement of the fibers or semi-finished textile products is still often carried out by
hand-lay-up, especially in the aviation industry. This allows a diverse draping of the unidirectional (UD)
layers, woven textiles, or non-crimped fabrics (NCF) onto the production tool. However, manufacturing
effects such as fiber waviness, porosity, delamination, and distortion cannot be completely avoided.
The increased demand for composite components and their production process stability for the aviation
and automotive industries requires a transition to at least partially automated manufacturing processes.
Those systems come with a higher deposition rate and ensure reproducible quality, but also imply
production effects (e.g., fiber waviness) [1,2]. This necessitates a sophisticated understanding of those
implicit effects on the mechanical properties of the manufactured structure.
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This necessitates a sophisticated understanding of those implicit effects on the mechanical properties
of the
Themanufactured
decision as tostructure.
whether these unwanted irregularities are considered as manufacturing features
(effects), ordecision
The as depends
as defects, to whether these
on the unwanted
size, irregularities
number, and location inare
theconsidered
component. asThose
manufacturing
allowance
features (effects), or as defects, depends on the size, number, and location in the component.
limits depend on the strength and stiffness reserve at the location of the feature, as well as on functional Those
allowance limits depend on the strength and stiffness reserve at the location of the feature,
requirements (e.g., water tightness). The assessment of manufacturing effects further depends on the as well as
on functional requirements (e.g., water tightness). The assessment of manufacturing effects
industry. In the aviation industry, the allowance limits for defects are very restricted, while in the further
depends on the industry. In the aviation industry, the allowance limits for defects are very restricted,
automotive industry the need for short cycle times leads to a trade-off between robust processes and
while in the automotive industry the need for short cycle times leads to a trade-off between robust
tolerated manufacturing imperfections. To this point, there is still no generally accepted approach
processes and tolerated manufacturing imperfections. To this point, there is still no generally
to quantitatively support accept/reject/repair decisions and make a consistent assessment of wavy
accepted approach to quantitatively support accept/reject/repair decisions and make a consistent
layers in composites. If the effect is termed to be a defect, typically a deviation from design must be
assessment of wavy layers in composites. If the effect is termed to be a defect, typically a deviation
requested in the aviation industry and an individual decision must be made on “use as is”, repair,
from design must be requested in the aviation industry and an individual decision must be made on
or reject entirely. In some cases, experiments on representative test samples are performed at the
“use as is”, repair, or reject entirely. In some cases, experiments on representative test samples are
subcomponent-level on a statistical basis. However, this is both time consuming and cost intensive.
performed at the subcomponent-level on a statistical basis. However, this is both time consuming
It is necessary to strive for a fiber-oriented and in particular a manufacturing-oriented design and
and cost intensive. It is necessary to strive for a fiber-oriented and in particular a manufacturing-
construction of composite components. Towards this goal, design and production engineers aim to
oriented design and construction of composite components. Towards this goal, design and
expand the permissible margin of safety by assessing the effect on stiffness and strength of those
production engineers aim to expand the permissible margin of safety by assessing the effect on
production effects (i.e., fiber waviness, porosity, delamination, etc.). Additionally, they aim to reduce
stiffness and strength of those production effects (i.e., fiber waviness, porosity, delamination, etc.).
or, in the best case, avoid them on the process side, increasingly with the help of finite element based
Additionally, they aim to reduce or, in the best case, avoid them on the process side, increasingly
process
with thesimulations,
help of finitesuch as in [3–5].
element based process simulations, such as in [3–5].
2. Definition of Terms
2. Definition of Terms
There is no universally accepted terminology and consistent use for the differentiation between
There is no universally accepted terminology and consistent use for the differentiation between
waves, wrinkles, folds, undulations, and misalignments (Figure 1). Definitions of these terms are given
waves, wrinkles, folds, undulations, and misalignments (Figure 1). Definitions of these terms are
below for the sake of clarity. Ply/Fiber waviness or wrinkling is a commonly observed manufacturing
given below for the sake of clarity. Ply/Fiber waviness or wrinkling is a commonly observed
effect in composite parts resulting in decreased mechanical performances. Fiber waviness is denoted as a
manufacturing effect in composite parts resulting in decreased mechanical performances. Fiber
wave-formed ply and/or
waviness is denoted asfiber deviation from
a wave-formed plya straight alignment
and/or fiber in a unidirectional
deviation from a straight laminate. Thisin
alignment may
a
arise as an undesirable manufacturing effect that commonly occurs during draping, infiltration,
unidirectional laminate. This may arise as an undesirable manufacturing effect that commonly occurs and/or
consolidation/curing processand/or
during draping, infiltration, steps. consolidation/curing
Sometimes these waves are steps.
process also referred
Sometimesto asthese
marcels.
wavesIfare
the
out-of-plane
also referredfiber
to aswaviness occurs
marcels. If due to stability
the out-of-plane fiberissues when
waviness the ply
occurs dueisto
loaded under
stability compression,
issues when the
itply
is also referred to as buckles or fiber buckling.
is loaded under compression, it is also referred to as buckles or fiber buckling.
Figure 1. General definition of deviations from the intended fiber orientation (i.e., wave/wrinkle, fold,
Figure 1. General definition of deviations from the intended fiber orientation (i.e., wave/wrinkle, fold,
undulation, and misalignment).
undulation, and misalignment).
Wavyplies
Wavy pliescan
canappear
appearin
inarbitrary
arbitrary shapes
shapes andand locations
locations and
and can
can principally
principally be
beclassified
classifiedinto
into
in-plane and out-of-plane waves, whereas Nelson et al. [6] stated, that both show similarstrength
in-plane and out-of-plane waves, whereas Nelson et al. [6] stated, that both show similar strength
degradations. This
degradations. This paper
paper aims
aims to
to investigate
investigate out-of-plane
out-of-plane waviness
waviness because
becauseofofits
its more
more frequent
frequent
occurrence compared to in-plane waviness. In this work, folds are considered as a specialtype
occurrence compared to in-plane waviness. In this work, folds are considered as a special typeofof
waviness with a maximum deviation of the fiber misalignment where a layer comes into contactwith
waviness with a maximum deviation of the fiber misalignment where a layer comes into contact with
itself. Undulations are considered to be small-sized fiber misalignments at the mesoscopic level in
itself. Undulations are considered to be small-sized fiber misalignments at the mesoscopic level in the
the form of waves inherent to various preform manufacturing processes, such as woven textiles
form of waves inherent to various preform manufacturing processes, such as woven textiles where
where fibers are undulated between warp and weft directions. Due to the undulations, woven fabrics
fibers are undulated between warp and weft directions. Due to the undulations, woven fabrics show a
show a systematically lower stiffness and different damage behavior compared to UD layers. This
systematically lower stiffness and different damage behavior compared to UD layers. This influence
influence has been intensely investigated by [7–10]. Fiber misalignment is the general description for
has been intensely investigated by [7–10]. Fiber misalignment is the general description for the angular
the angular deviation of nominal, intended fiber directions and; therefore, not corresponding to the
deviation of nominal, intended fiber directions and; therefore, not corresponding to the designed fiber
designed fiber path. Misaligned fibers remain straight compared to curved fibers in waves, wrinkles,
path. Misaligned fibers remain straight compared to curved fibers in waves, wrinkles, or undulations.
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 3 of 39
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or undulations.
Nevertheless, Nevertheless,
in many in the
publications many publications
term the termis fiber
fiber misalignment misalignment
used as an umbrella is used
term as an
including
umbrella
waves, term including
wrinkles, waves, wrinkles, and undulations.
and undulations.
3.3.Parameters
Parameters
InIngeneral,
general, the
the shape
shape of of fiber
fiber waviness
waviness is described
described by by the
the ratio
ratio of
of amplitude
amplitudetotowavelength.
wavelength.
Davidsonand
Davidson and Waas
Waas [11]
[11] introduced
introducedsix sixparameters
parameterstoto characterize
characterizethethe
wave, indirectly
wave, including
indirectly the
including
laminate thickness. While amplitude A and wavelength L are most commonly
the laminate thickness. While amplitude A and wavelength L are most commonly used to describe used to describe the
wave (Figure 2), the maximum deviation θ max is considered to have the greatest impact on the
the wave (Figure 2), the maximum deviation θmax is considered to have the greatest impact on the
mechanicalproperties.
mechanical properties. Important
Important influencing
influencing parameters
parameters such such as
as maximum
maximumdeviation
deviationofofthe thefiber
fiber
orientation from the original orientation, as well as the laminate thickness [12], have receivedlittle
orientation from the original orientation, as well as the laminate thickness [12], have received little
attentionininprevious
attention previousinvestigations.
investigations. TheThe wave
wave pattern
pattern is is typically
typically represented
represented mathematically
mathematicallyas as
sinusoidal waves [13,14]. El-Hajjar and Petersen [15] used a Gaussian function
sinusoidal waves [13,14]. El-Hajjar and Petersen [15] used a Gaussian function to capture the bell to capture the bell
curveofofwavy
curve wavyplies,
plies,which
whichwas was found
found to
to better
better represent
represent thethe wave
wave geometry.
geometry. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,therethereare
are
a few more parameters that can influence the mechanical behavior and thus have
a few more parameters that can influence the mechanical behavior and thus have to be considered. to be considered.
Resultsinin[16]
Results [16]show
show that
that the
the position
position of
of wavy
wavy layers
layers inin the
the cross-section
cross-section of
of aa laminate
laminatealsoalsohas
hasaa
significant influence on the strength reduction. A more outward position of wavy layer leads to a
significant influence on the strength reduction. A more outward position of wavy layer leads to a
greater decrease in strength, since the layers on the edge of the laminate are supported only one-
greater decrease in strength, since the layers on the edge of the laminate are supported only one-sided
sided and; therefore, fail earlier.
and; therefore, fail earlier.
Figure 2. Parameters influencing the mechanical properties (e.g., amplitude A, wavelength L,

Figure 2. Parameters influencing the mechanical properties (e.g., amplitude A, wavelength L,
laminate thickness t, maximum fiber misalignment angle θmax , layup, and the position of wavy
laminate thickness t, maximum fiber misalignment angle θmax, layup, and the position of wavy layers
layers within the laminate).
within the laminate).
4. Occurrence of Fiber Waviness
4. Occurrence of Fiber Waviness
The origins of fiber waviness are manifold and can be caused by several factors. These effects can
occur The originshand
in manual of fiber waviness
lay-up are manifold
processes, and
which are can be influenced
strongly caused by several factors.
by the skills These
of the effects
operators,
can occur in manual hand lay-up processes, which are strongly influenced by the skills of the
but also in highly automated production processes. Any composite manufacturing process is associated
operators, but also in highly automated production processes. Any composite manufacturing process
with a number of specific effects. The classification of waviness-inducing effects serves as an overview
is associated with a number of specific effects. The classification of waviness-inducing effects serves
of the numerous origins and influence factors on the formation of out-of-plane fiber waviness and
as an overview of the numerous origins and influence factors on the formation of out-of-plane fiber
provides a general guideline on how to reduce and, in the best case, even avoid the occurrence of wavy
waviness and provides a general guideline on how to reduce and, in the best case, even avoid the
layers at an early stage of product and process development.
occurrence of wavy layers at an early stage of product and process development.
4.1. Mechanical Loading and Behavior of Dry and Impregnated Fiber Reinforcements
4.1. Mechanical Loading and Behavior of Dry and Impregnated Fiber Reinforcements
4.1.1. Basic Material Behavior
4.1.1. Basic Material Behavior
The deformation behavior of fiber-reinforced plastics is very different from that of isotropic
The deformation
materials. With isotropicbehavior of normal
materials, fiber-reinforced plastics
stresses only cause is normal
very different fromshear
strains and that stresses
of isotropic
only
materials. With isotropic materials, normal stresses only cause normal strains and shear stresses
shear strains. Within consolidated/cured fiber-reinforced plastics, this decoupling is only possible under only
shear strains.
certain Within
conditions, consolidated/cured
if symmetries fiber-reinforced
are introduced plastics,
in the stacking this decoupling
sequence. In the mostisgeneral
only possible
case all
under certain conditions, if symmetries are introduced in the stacking sequence. In the most
elements of the (ABD) matrix [17], that relates cross-sectional forces and moments to mid-plane strains general
casecurvatures
and all elements of the
which are (ABD) matrix
occupied and [17], thatextensional,
thereby relates cross-sectional forces
shear, bending, andand moments
twisting to mid-
behavior are
plane strains and curvatures which are occupied and thereby extensional, shear, bending,
coupled. However, during the process, the matrix is either absent (e.g., in initially dry reinforcements and
twisting behavior are coupled. However, during the process, the matrix is either absent (e.g., in
in LCM processes), melted (e.g., in thermoforming processes using thermoplastic matrices), or in an
initially dry reinforcements in LCM processes), melted (e.g., in thermoforming processes using
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thermoplastic matrices), or in an uncured sticky stage when using thermoset pre-impregnated

thermoplastic
uncured sticky stagematrices),
when or inthermoset
an uncured sticky stage reinforcements.
when using thermoset In dry orpre-impregnated
reinforcements. In dry or using
pre-impregnated pre-impregnated
composites, independent if a thermoplastic pre-impregnated
or thermoset
reinforcements.
composites, In dry orifpre-impregnated composites, independent if athe
thermoplastic or thermoset
matrix is used, the extensional and bending behavior is decoupled, which makes the use ofand
independent a thermoplastic or thermoset matrix is used, extensional thebending
[ABD]
matrix
behavior isisused, the
decoupled,extensional
which and
makes bending
the use behavior
of the is
[ABD] decoupled,
matrix which
in fact makes
not the use
appropriate. of the [ABD]
Classical
matrix in fact not appropriate. Classical plate and shell theories do not apply in their standard form
matrix
plate andin fact not appropriate. Classical plate and shell theories do not apply in their standard form
for dry or shell theories
non-cured do not apply
composites, in their standard
since, opposite to continuous formmaterials,
for dry or therenon-cured
is no direct composites,
relation
for
since, dry or
opposite non-cured composites,
to continuous since, opposite to continuous materials, there is no direct relation
between the extensional and materials, there is no
bending stiffness. direct relation
According to Boissebetween thethe
et al. [4], extensional and bending
quasi-inextensibility
between
stiffness. the extensional
According and
to Boisse bending stiffness.
et al. fibers
[4], the According to Boisse et al. [4], the quasi-inextensibility
and the possible slippage between arequasi-inextensibility
the two main reasons andforthe
thepossible slippage
very specific between
mechanical
and the
fibers are possible
the two slippage
main between
reasons for fibers
the are specific
very the two mechanical
main reasonsbehaviorfor the very of specific
fiber mechanical
reinforcements.
behavior of fiber reinforcements. The relative slippage between fibers, which is described in detail in
behavior
The relative ofslippage
fiber reinforcements.
between The relative slippage between fibers, which isleads
described in detail in
Section 4.4.1, leads to a muchfibers,
lowerwhich is described
bending stiffness in thandetail
for in Section
continuous 4.4.1,
materials to a much
such lower
as cured
Section 4.4.1, leads to a much lower bending stiffness than for continuous materials such as cured
bending stiffness
composites, than
metals, orfor continuous materials such as cured composites, metals, or polymers.
polymers.
composites, metals, or polymers.
When considering
When considering a singlea singleply,ply,thethethickness
thickness of of a typical
a typical plyply is much
is much smallersmaller
than than the width,
the width, and
When considering a single ply, the thickness of a typical ply is much smaller than the width, and
and therefore
therefore the bending
the bending stiffnessstiffness
out-of-planeout-of-plane is much
is much smaller smaller
than in-plane, than in-plane, consequently
consequently out-of-plane
therefore the bending stiffness out-of-plane is much smaller than in-plane, consequently out-of-plane
out-of-plane is the predominantly
is the predominantly occurring caseoccurring
of waviness. case of waviness.
In [18] it is stated,In [18]
that it is stated,
thermoset that thermoset
pregregs are more
is the predominantly occurring case of waviness. In [18] it is stated, that thermoset pregregs are more
pregregs are more prone to fiber buckling in form of wavy layers because
prone to fiber buckling in form of wavy layers because of their lower bending stiffness compared of their lower bending to
prone to fiber buckling in form of wavy layers because of their lower bending stiffness compared to
layers used
stiffness for liquid
compared composite
to layers usedmolding
for liquid processes
composite which are usually
molding thicker.
processes As shown
which in Figure
are usually 3,
thicker.
layers used for liquid composite molding processes which are usually thicker. As shown in Figure 3,
plies
As within
shown higher
Figurebending
3, pliesstiffness tend to
with higher single wave
bending formation,
stiffness whereas
tend to single wavelowformation,
bending stiffness
whereas plies
low
plies with higher bending stiffness tend to single wave formation, whereas low bending stiffness plies
tend to form
bending a higher
stiffness plies number of waves.
tend to form a higher number of waves.
tend to form a higher number of waves.
Figure3.3. Wrinkling
Figure Wrinkling in in compression
compression of a woven woven reinforcement
reinforcementstrip
stripwith
withdifferent
differentbending
bendingstiffness
stiffness
Figure 3. Wrinkling in compression 2 , 3103mm
of a−1woven reinforcement strip with different bending stiffness
(from left
(from left to right
right1,1,10, 2, 10
10,1010 N N −1) [19].
mm ) Reprinted
[19]. from
ReprintedPhil.
from Trans. R.
Phil. Soc.
Trans.A, Vol.
R. 374,
Soc. Modelling
A, Vol. 374,
(from left to right 1, 10, 102, 103 N mm−1) [19]. Reprinted from Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, Vol. 374, Modelling
the development of defects during composite reinforcements and prepreg forming,
Modelling the development of defects during composite reinforcements and prepreg forming, page 5, page 5, (2016),
the development of defects during composite reinforcements and prepreg forming, page 5, (2016),
with permission
(2016), from The
with permission from Royal
The Society Publishing.
Royal Society Publishing.
with permission from The Royal Society Publishing.
An instabilityphenomenon,
An instability phenomenon, known
known as shear-buckling,
as shear-buckling, caninoccur
can occur formingin composite
forming composite
materials
An instability phenomenon, known as shear-buckling, can occur in forming composite materials
materials
leading toleading
pronounced to pronounced
out-of-plane out-of-plane
wrinkling. An wrinkling.
example of An example
this of this
mechanism canmechanism can be
be also observed,
leading to pronounced out-of-plane wrinkling. An example of this mechanism can be also observed,
for example,
also observed,infor simple off-axis
example, tensile tests
in simple of unidirectional
off-axis tensile tests ofprepregs (Figureprepregs
unidirectional 4). However, this4).
(Figure
for example, in simple off-axis tensile tests of unidirectional prepregs (Figure 4). However, this
phenomenon
However, this isphenomenon
not limited tois single unidirectional
not limited to singlelaminates and may
unidirectional also occur
laminates and in cross-ply
may or
also occur
phenomenon is not limited to single unidirectional laminates and may also occur in cross-ply or
quasi-isotropic
in laminates mainly
cross-ply or quasi-isotropic dependent
laminates on the
mainly forming rate
dependent andforming
on the the preform
rate dimensions (i.e.,
and the preform
quasi-isotropic laminates mainly dependent on the forming rate and the preform dimensions (i.e.,
the ratio of the
dimensions (i.e.,initial preform
the ratio of thesize to the
initial formed
preform surface
size to thearea) [20,21].
formed surface area) [20,21].
the ratio of the initial preform size to the formed surface area) [20,21].
Figure 4. Wrinkling of initially planar unidirectional (UD) ply due to shear buckling in off-axis tensile test.
Figure 4. Wrinkling of initially planar unidirectional (UD) ply due to shear buckling in off-axis tensile
Figure 4. Wrinkling of initially planar unidirectional (UD) ply due to shear buckling in off-axis tensile
test.
test.
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4.1.2. Mechanical Deformation of Layers Due to Manual Handling of Preforms, Moving Sliders, and
Closing
4.1.2. Tools
Mechanical Deformation of Layers Due to Manual Handling of Preforms, Moving Sliders,
and Closing Tools
Fiber misalignment in general, and fiber waviness specifically, often originate from the labor-
Fiberpreform
intensive misalignment
placement in into
general,
the moldand cavity
fiber prior
waviness specifically,
to infiltration often originate
and curing steps. Thefrom qualitythe
labor-intensive
of draping is therefore preform placement
strongly dependentinto on thethemold cavity
skill and prior toofinfiltration
experience the operator. and
Fiber curing steps.
waviness
The
mayquality
be also of draping
formed dueistotherefore
mold closurestrongly
effects dependent
when theon thepreform
fiber skill andis experience
compressedofduring the operator.
mold
Fiber
closing,waviness
inducing may be also
tension formed
forces aroundduecurvatures
to mold closure effectsparticularly
and bends, when the fiber preform
in massive, is compressed
geometrically-
during
complex mold
partsclosing,
or when inducing tension
sliders move theforces
pliesaround
away from curvatures and bends,
its intentional particularly
position. In [22–25], in massive,
it was
stated that fiber waviness
geometrically-complex partscanor also occursliders
when when move slightly the oversized
plies away preforms
from are forced to fitposition.
its intentional into a
mold
In cavity.
[22–25], Thisstated
it was is notthat
considered to be can
fiber waviness a manufacturing
also occur when effect but more
slightly a design
oversized preforms issue,areasforced
this
problem
to fit intocan be solved
a mold cavity.byThis
adapting
is not the size of the
considered to ply.
be a manufacturing effect but more a design issue,
as this problem can be solved by adapting the size of the ply.
4.2. Path Length Differences
4.2. Path Length Differences
4.2.1. Micro/Meso Scale Deformation at the Material Level
4.2.1. Micro/Meso Scale Deformation at the Material Level
Bended continuous fiber-reinforcements tends to form out-of-plane waviness as a result of path
Bended
length differencescontinuous
between fiber-reinforcements
the upper and lower tends to of
side form theout-of-plane
ply [1]. Thiswaviness as a result of
effect is considered to path
be
length
causeddifferences
at the materialbetweenlevelthe upper and scale).
(micro/meso lower Whenside offorming
the ply [1]. This effect stack,
a multiple-ply is considered
each plytoisbe
caused
exposed atto
thethese
material
pathlevel
length (micro/meso
differences. scale). When forming
In addition a multiple-ply
to that, waviness stack,ifeach
can occur ply is exposed
the ability of the
to
plies to slip between each other is too low or even constrained. This effect can be controlled bytothe
these path length differences. In addition to that, waviness can occur if the ability of the plies slip
between
forming rate,each temperature
other is too low controlor even
and theconstrained.
distance ofThis effect of
the point can be controlled
forming by the
to the free edgeforming
where therate,
temperature
necessary slip control
between andthetheplies
distance
mustof bethe point of forming
accommodated [1]. to the free edge where the necessary slip
between the plies must be accommodated [1].
4.2.2. Global Deformation on Structural Level at Double Curved and Joggled Geometries
4.2.2. Global Deformation on Structural Level at Double Curved and Joggled Geometries
When a material, regardless of whether it is dry or pre-impregnated, is draped around a double
When
curved surface a material, regardless of[1,26]
(e.g., hemispheres whether it is dry
or joggled or pre-impregnated,
geometries [5,27–31]), theis draped around
path length a double
difference
curved
of the reinforcement and the path on the geometry to which the material must map on the surfaceof
surface (e.g., hemispheres [1,26] or joggled geometries [5,27–31]), the path length difference
the
canreinforcement
vary significantly,and thethuspath on the
leading togeometry
a pronounced to which
risk the material must
of wrinkling of themap on due
layers the surface
to path can vary
length
significantly,
differences atthus the leading
structuralto alevel
pronounced
(macro scale).risk ofThe wrinkling
drapeabilityof theof layers due todescribes
a material path length its differences
ability to
at the structural
conform to the moldlevel (macro
surface scale).
without The drapeability
fiber distortion,ofmovement,
a material describes its ability
and out-of-plane to conform
buckling. Theto
the mold surface
complexity of the without
final partfiber distortion,influences
tremendously movement, theand out-of-plane
occurrence buckling.
of fiber waviness. The complexity
Potter et al. [1]of
the finalthat
stated partonly
tremendously influences
a slight difference in the
path occurrence
length can of lead
fiberto waviness.
obvious Potter et al. [1] stated
fiber waviness. that only
A schematic
aillustration of pathinlength
slight difference differences
path length can leadbetween the edges
to obvious fiberof tows on A
waviness. theschematic
surface ofillustration
a hemisphere is
of path
showndifferences
length in Figure 5.between the edges of tows on the surface of a hemisphere is shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5. Path length differences between the edges of tows on the surface of a hemisphere/a double
Figure 5. Path length differences between the edges of tows on the surface of a hemisphere/a double
curved surface; adapted from [1].
curved surface; adapted from [1].
Furthermore, the probability of fiber waviness is strongly dependent on the pathway, as there are
Furthermore,
generally the probability
several ways of fiber
by which the waviness
draping can beisachieved
strongly [32].
dependent on the
Especially thepathway,
placement as of
there
fiber
are generally several ways by which the draping can be achieved [32]. Especially the placement
reinforcements by hand allows for a very diverse draping into the production tool, but the occurrence of
fiber
of reinforcements
fiber waviness cannot by hand allows foravoided.
be completely a very diverse draping
Depending intopathway,
on the the production tool,
higher or but skills
lesser the
occurrence of fiber waviness cannot be completely avoided. Depending on the pathway, higher
of the operators are required to achieve a defect free part. The effect of differences in the path length or
lesser skills of the operators are required to achieve a defect free part. The effect of differences in the
strongly depends on the choice of material and the geometry design. During the deformation of the
path length strongly depends on the choice of material and the geometry design. During the
material, the curvature and the stresses generated in the material change. These are, according to
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 6 of 39
Lin et al. [33], functions of time, temperature, processing rate and holding force. Wrinkling may occur
by buckling of the tows along the circumference of the hemisphere if the compressive force exceeds
the critical buckling force. Several experimental studies [34–39] have reported that, amongst other
factors, stress conditions induced by manufacturing boundary conditions, deforming rates, original
blank dimensions and strain gradients play a role in their development. Boisse et al. [26] have also
shown that the formation of out-of-plane wrinkles is a global phenomenon dependent on process
conditions (e.g., blank-holder pressure, and all types of strains and rigidities of the composite material).
Low forming speeds also reduce the possibility of wrinkling by generating lower resistance to inter-ply
and intra-ply shearing, thus allowing the blank to deform more easily [40,41]. Generally, when the
draped reinforcement arrives at a flat region, the distortions in the tows needed to accommodate the
curvature continue across the flat regions [1]. The tendency of wrinkling, occurring from a so-called
drape run-out, is significantly reduced if the layers to be formed have a shape and size which results in
as little excess material as possible at the edges [42]. These wrinkles can be, at least partially, avoided
by blank holder forces to keep the plies under slight tension during molding in forming processes.
As shown in numerous studies [26,33,40,43,44], keeping the blank under suitable in-plane tension by
the presence of blank holder forces can, significantly minimize the occurrence of fiber waviness and
increase the quality of the formed parts. The clamping force depends on both reinforcement architecture
(e.g., unidirectional or fabric) and forming ratio (i.e., ratio of blank area and the projected area of
the die cavity) [44]. The type of holding fixture and the position of springs is usually determined by
prior experience and considerable trial and error or, increasingly, with the help of process simulations.
The blank holder may induce tensile stresses by spring elements or vertical clamping rings used to
keep the flange flat.
In diaphragm forming, the outer edges of the blank are pressed onto the mold flanges before the
central area is drawn into the cavity when using female tools. In addition, the friction between the blank
surfaces and the diaphragm create biaxial tensile stresses in the blank as the diaphragm is stretched,
which prevent wrinkle formation due to out-of-plane buckling [44]. Additional forces that can reduce
the formation of wrinkles in diaphragm forming processes originate from the inherent resistance of
the material itself and from the restraining force supplied by the diaphragm when it is stretched [45].
The combination of both prevents out-of-plane wrinkling in diaphragm formed components even in
the absence of clamping or blank holder forces [44]. In addition to the suppression of wrinkle formation
during press forming, according to [46], blank holders serve several more functions (e.g., they prevent
the shrinkage of the blank during preheating, they maintain the fiber orientation in the softened blank
when it is transferred from the oven to the mold, and they allow for a rapid transfer of the preheated
blank to the mold without significant heat loss). Lin et al. [33] used experimental and numerical (FE)
approaches to determine the effects of clamping and blank holding forces on the wrinkling behavior.
In an example of 3D stamp forming [44], schematically illustrated in Figure 6, a reduction in area of the
individual sections occurs when travelling into the cavity of the mold [47,48], inducing hoop forces,
which resolve into compressive stresses perpendicular to the radius of the circular laminate. Fiber
wrinkling and distortions are observed around the periphery of the cavity and in the flange area if
stamping forces generated during forming exceed the critical buckling stress.
Clamping forces create desirable frictional forces, FR , which act in opposite direction to the
material flow as the material is drawn into the cavity. Since the material cannot stretch in fiber direction
due to virtually inextensible fibers, the fibers have to move from the outer edges of the sheet towards
the center causing tensile stresses in fiber direction. According to Friedrich et al. [44], the decrease in
area when moving towards the apex of the dome section simultaneously leads to compressive hoop
stresses in the bisecting direction of the reinforcements which are resolved in out-of-plane buckles
appearing in the direction away from the fibers. Dependent on the mold geometry inter-ply slip,
inter-ply rotation and transverse matrix flow are necessary in order to form a component without
instabilities such as out-of-plane buckling.
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 7 of 39
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 7 of 39
Figure 6. Force analysis in 3D stamp forming, modified from [44].

Figure 6. Force analysis in 3D stamp forming, modified from [44].
The forming behavior of pre-stacked prepregs subsequently formed in a hot drape forming (HDF)
Clamping forces create desirable frictional forces, FR, which act in opposite direction to the
process material
using aflow sparasgeometry
the material with a flange
is drawn intorecess area Since
the cavity. (varying cross section),
the material shown
cannot stretch in in
fiber Figure 7,
was investigated
direction due byto[5,28–31]. Hallander
virtually inextensible et al.
fibers, the[28]
fibersexperimentally
have to move from studied
the outerthe out-of-plane
edges of the sheet defect
behavior during
towards theforming in thetensile
center causing recessstresses
area investigating
in fiber direction. various
Accordingparameters
to Friedrich (e.g., lay-up
et al. sequence,
[44], the
prepregdecrease in area when
ply thickness, moving
inter-ply towards
friction, andthe apex ofply
prepreg the impregnation).
dome section simultaneously
The lay-up leads sequence to was
compressive hoop stresses in the bisecting direction of the reinforcements which are resolved in out-
shown to have a dominant effect. [0/90] and [45/−45] layups in a UD prepreg are less sensitive
of-plane buckles appearing in the direction away from the fibers. Dependent on the mold geometry
for out-of-plane defects compared to a quasi-isotropic lay-up. The lay-up that is more prone to
inter-ply slip, inter-ply rotation and transverse matrix flow are necessary in order to form a
shear, also deforms
component without better during such
instabilities forming without buckling.
as out-of-plane visible defects. The study further shows the
existence ofThe compression
forming behavior in theoflaminate
pre-stacked inprepregs
the recess area thatformed
subsequently is globally
in a hot under
drapetension
forming during
forming.(HDF)
Åkermoprocess using
et al. [29]a and
spar building
geometry with a flange
on this, recess et
Sjölander areaal.(varying
[5], studiedcross the
section), shownfriction
inter-ply in by
Figure 7, was investigated by [5,28–31]. Hallander et al. [28] experimentally
performing numerical simulations on the same geometry using the software AniForm. They modelled studied the out-of-plane
defect behavior during forming in the recess area investigating various parameters (e.g., lay-up
the rubber like diaphragm by the hyperelastic Mooney-Rivlin material model. The fibers are modelled
sequence, prepreg ply thickness, inter-ply friction, and prepreg ply impregnation). The lay-up
as linearly elastic
sequence was andshownthe tomatrix
have a by a combination
dominant effect. [0/90] ofanda viscous and aniniso-elastic
[45/−45] layups a UD prepreg material
are less model,
a so-called Kelvin-Voigt
sensitive for out-of-planemodel. Thecompared
defects inter-plytofriction was modelled
a quasi-isotropic lay-up. The by two
lay-up different
that is morefriction
pronemodels,
a penaltyto model
shear, alsothatdeforms
combines betterviscous and Coulomb
during forming without friction and a The
visible defects. penalty
studypolymer
further showsfrictionthe model.
existence of compression in the laminate in the recess area that is globally
The simulations confirmed the presence of compressive stresses across the recess area of the considered under tension during
spar. Theforming.
bending Åkermo et al.was
stiffness [29] and buildingwith
modelled on this,
an Sjölander
orthotropic et al.elastic
[5], studied
model thetointer-ply
simulate friction by
the difference
performing numerical simulations on the same geometry using the software AniForm. They
in bending stiffness in the fiber direction and the transverse fiber direction. In [30], Hallander and
modelled the rubber like diaphragm by the hyperelastic Mooney-Rivlin material model. The fibers
colleagues
are investigated
modelled as linearlythe influence
elastic of
andlocally changed
the matrix by a ply properties
combination of or cuts on and
a viscous the wrinkling
an iso-elastic behavior
during forming.
material model,Locala so-called
cuts of layers were model.
Kelvin-Voigt used toThe reduce
inter-plythefriction
stresses wasthat develop
modelled by twoin the recess area.
different
In [31], friction
Hallander models, et al. experimentally
a penalty studiedviscous
model that combines the forming
and Coulomb behaviorfrictionbyandlocally manipulating
a penalty polymer the
friction model. The simulations confirmed the presence of compressive stresses
prepreg interfacial characteristics (i.e., primarily increasing prepreg surface friction), in order to cause across the recess area
differentofpairs
the considered spar. The bending stiffness was modelled with an orthotropic elastic model to
of plies to interact during forming. This manipulation is performed by using either
simulate the difference in bending stiffness in the fiber direction and the transverse fiber direction. In
multi wall
[30],
carbon
J. Compos.
Hallander
nano
Sci. 2020, tubes
4, 130
and
(MWCNTs) or a thermoplastic veil at the desired interlayers.
colleagues investigated the influence of locally changed ply properties or cuts 8 of 39
on
the wrinkling behavior during forming. Local cuts of layers were used to reduce the stresses that
develop in the recess area. In [31], Hallander et al. experimentally studied the forming behavior by
locally manipulating the prepreg interfacial characteristics (i.e., primarily increasing prepreg surface
friction), in order to cause different pairs of plies to interact during forming. This manipulation is
performed by using either multi wall carbon nano tubes (MWCNTs) or a thermoplastic veil at the
desired interlayers.
Spar7.geometry
Figure 7.Figure withwith
Spar geometry a flange recess
a flange recessarea
area [28]. Reprinted
[28]. Reprinted from
from Composites:
Composites: Part A,Part
Vol.A,
50,Vol. 50,
An experimental studystudy
An experimental of mechanisms
of mechanisms behind
behindwrinkle development
wrinkle development during
during forming
forming of composite
of composite
laminates,
laminates, page
page 56, 56, (2013),
(2013), withwith permission
permission fromElsevier.
from Elsevier.
Additionally, wrinkles originating from the forming of pre-stacked prepregs, can be, at least
partially, reduced by higher consolidation pressure during a subsequent autoclave curing.
For parts with significant double curvature and requiring the use of a large area draped
reinforcement layer, the selection of a woven fabric with a narrow rather than a wide tow reduces the
level of fiber waviness [22]. By including these influencing factors in the design decisions, this effect
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 8 of 39
Additionally, wrinkles originating from the forming of pre-stacked prepregs, can be, at least
partially, reduced by higher consolidation pressure during a subsequent autoclave curing.
For parts with significant double curvature and requiring the use of a large area draped
reinforcement layer, the selection of a woven fabric with a narrow rather than a wide tow reduces the
level of fiber waviness [22]. By including these influencing factors in the design decisions, this effect
can be reduced.
4.2.3. Steering
In automated fiber placement (AFP) [49], a fully automated manufacturing process for ribs or flat
composite components, robot-guided fiber-reinforced prepreg tows are placed along a predetermined
path on the three-dimensional tool surface using pressure and temperature. Due to the path steering of
the head, the layers can be ideally orientated according to a pre-defined load path. However, different
defects may occur (e.g., bridging, gaps between the deposited tow, in-plane or out-of-plane buckling of
the tow, or a lifting of the tow on the outside of the tow as the radius narrows). Overall, the formation
of these defects is a function of the steering radius chosen in the design process.
A schematic overview of tow steering defects is given in Figure 8. During steering, the tow is
bent in the plane of the surface, which causes the fibers along the inner edge to be under compression
and the outer edge to be under tension [50]. The inner edge of a tow placed along a curved trajectory
tends to buckle in the form of localized out-of-plane waviness when the radius reaches a specific limit.
This limit depends on parameters such as tow width and thickness, material, temperature control, etc.
The tape/tow pull-off/pull-up [50,51] is caused by the tension state at the outer edge of the steered tow.
The mechanical behavior of the fiber mainly determines the resulting cylindrical deformation mode.
The fiber can be assumed to be almost inextensible, causing high tensile stresses. In combination
with an insufficient prepreg tack, the tow starts to fold at the outer edge. In-plane fiber waviness and
out-of-plane
J. Compos. Sci. tow
2020, buckling
4, 130 are two effects that are assumed to occur subsequently [51]. 9 of 39
Figure 8. Overview of tow steering defects leading to out-of-plane fiber waviness [52]. Reprinted from
Figure 8. Overview of tow steering defects leading to out-of-plane fiber waviness [52]. Reprinted from
Composites: Part B, Vol. 43, the engineering aspects of automated prepreg layup: History, present and
Composites: Part B, Vol. 43, The engineering aspects of automated prepreg layup: History, present
future, page 1005, (2012), with permission from Elsevier.
and future, page 1005, (2012), with permission from Elsevier.
Hörmann [51] states that, in a first step, the compression at the inner edge of the tow due to
Hörmann [51] states that, in a first step, the compression at the inner edge of the tow due to the
the in-plane curvature causes in-plane fiber waviness by shearing the non-cured, thermoset matrix
in-plane curvature causes in-plane fiber waviness by shearing the non-cured, thermoset matrix
between the fibers. Subsequently, the tows start to form out-of-plane buckles, if the in-plane curvature
between the fibers. Subsequently, the tows start to form out-of-plane buckles, if the in-plane
reaches a particular, material-dependent limit and the prepreg tack is insufficient to hold the tow on
curvature reaches a particular, material-dependent limit and the prepreg tack is insufficient to hold
the substrate surface. A comprehensive review on manufacturing-induced imperfections in composite
the tow on the substrate surface. A comprehensive review on manufacturing-induced imperfections
parts manufactured via AFP is given by Heinecke and Willberg [53].
in composite parts manufactured via AFP is given by Heinecke and Willberg [53].
AA careful control
careful and selection
control of process
and selection parameters
of process [54–58] (i.e.,
parameters heating
[54–58] temperature,
(i.e., compaction
heating temperature,
pressure, deposition rate), machine trajectories (i.e., steering radius), together with
compaction pressure, deposition rate), machine trajectories (i.e., steering radius), together material parameter
with
(i.e.,
material parameter (i.e., tackiness and tow width), is of crucial importance for obtaininglaminate.
tackiness and tow width), is of crucial importance for obtaining a high-quality, defect-free a high-
quality, defect-free laminate. Bakhshi et al. [55] carried out experimental and analytical studies to
understand the time-dependent wrinkle formation during tow steering in AFP. The analytical model
to describe wrinkle formation accounts for process parameters (e.g., temperature, radius, compaction
force, speed) together with interface properties (tack). An analytical model (Ritz) was developed by
Beakou et al. [54] to estimate the critical buckling load of a tow and, consequently, the minimum
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 9 of 39
Bakhshi et al. [55] carried out experimental and analytical studies to understand the time-dependent
wrinkle formation during tow steering in AFP. The analytical model to describe wrinkle formation
accounts for process parameters (e.g., temperature, radius, compaction force, speed) together with
interface properties (tack). An analytical model (Ritz) was developed by Beakou et al. [54] to estimate
the critical buckling load of a tow and, consequently, the minimum steering radius for a circular fiber
path. The analytical approach accounts for prepreg tack and stress distribution; however, two important
parameters (i.e., lay-down rate and delay in tow wrinkling recovery) were additionally found to be
important to describe tow wrinkling. Sensitivity studies by Beakou et al. [54] have shown that the
prepreg tack and the tow width strongly affect the critical buckling load. However, care must be taken
to avoid stretching of the outer fiber of the tow to prevent lateral compressive stresses leading to a
transverse buckling phenomenon. Lower compaction forces lead to placement without tow wrinkling;
however, a minimum force must exist to ensure tack. For productivity reasons, manufacturers strive
for high deposition rates. Figure 9 shows an anisotropic plate on elastic foundation illustrating an
approach by Béakou et al. [54] and Hörmann [51] to describe out-of-plane tape buckling for a steered
tape during automated fiber placement. An anisotropic plate which is geometrically defined by its
length l, width h, and thickness d, rests on an elastic foundation defined by its elastic stiffness k.
The plate is subjected to combined in-plane bending and tension, causing the position of the neutral
axis to deviate from the position of the symmetric axis. The inner edge is assumed to be under
compression and out-of-plane buckling is allowed. However, it was observed by Beakou et al. [54]
that high deposition rates promote the occurrence of tow wrinkling. As a rule, the minimum steering
radius without tow wrinkling increases from 1.5 to 4 m when the lay-down rate increases from 12 to
30 m/min. Depending on processing parameters, tow wrinkling may also return many hours after
fiber deposition. Matveev et al. [59] developed an analytical framework for the prediction of wrinkling
in tow steering during automated dry fiber placement (ADFP). Experimental results were used for
estimation of2020,
J. Compos. Sci. the model
4, 130 parameters and to validate the analytical model. The tackiness was shown to
10 of 39
have the greatest influence on critical steering radius. The lay-up temperature influence tack stiffness
wrinkle
and henceformation,
can improve respectively decrease the
wrinkle formation, steering radius.
respectively Kim the
decrease et al. [60] found
steering that Kim
radius. the key factor
et al. [60]
causing all process-induced defects in automated fiber placement (AFP) and tailored
found that the key factor causing all process-induced defects in automated fiber placement (AFP) and fiber placement
(TFP) isfiber
tailored the in-plane
placement bending
(TFP) deformation of bending
is the in-plane the tow. Table 1, takenof
deformation from
the Blom [50], shows
tow. Table process
1, taken from
Blom [50], shows process limits for minimum steering radii as a function of the tape width. Thepurely
limits for minimum steering radii as a function of the tape width. The given values are given
kinematic
values and do
are purely not consider
kinematic thenot
and do process-material interaction. However,
consider the process-material according
interaction. to Blom,
However, much
according
tosmaller steering
Blom, much radii steering
smaller are possible
radiidepending
are possibleondepending
the used material system,
on the used the lay-up
material system,speed, and
the lay-up
compaction force.
speed, and compaction force.
Figure 9. Schematic illustration of an anisotropic plate on elastic foundation illustrating an approach

Figure 9. Schematic illustration of an anisotropic plate on elastic foundation illustrating an approach
by Béakou et al. [54] and Hörmann [51] to describe out-of-plane tape buckling for a steered tape during
by Béakou et al. [54] and Hörmann [51] to describe out-of-plane tape buckling for a steered tape
automated fiber placement, modified from [51,54,55].
during automated fiber placement, modified from [51,54,55].
Table 1. Variation of minimum steering radius with slit-tape width for a 102 mm track width [50].
Slit-Tape Width Typical Minimum Steering Radius

3.175 mm 1/8″ 635.0 mm 25″
6.350 mm 1/4″ 1778 mm 70″
12.70 mm 1/2″ 8890 mm 350″
Rajan et al. [61] performed experimental studies using Stereo-DIC to obtain in-situ
measurements for quantifying out-of-plane wrinkle formation and in-plane deformations occurring
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 10 of 39
Table 1. Variation of minimum steering radius with slit-tape width for a 102 mm track width [50].
Slit-Tape Width Typical Minimum Steering Radius

3.175 mm 1/8” 635.0 mm 25”
6.350 mm 1/4” 1778 mm 70”
12.70 mm 1/2” 8890 mm 350”
Rajan et al. [61] performed experimental studies using Stereo-DIC to obtain in-situ measurements
for quantifying out-of-plane wrinkle formation and in-plane deformations occurring during automated
fiber placement (AFP). Viisainen et al. [62] used in-situ Stereo-DIC during forming experiments on
a double curved hemisphere. Rajan et al. [61] found that tow wrinkling can be observed in all tows
at each location where the underlying laminate substrate showed surface defects such as gaps and
overlaps. It has been observed that the wrinkle amplitude increases during the first hour of lay-up to
almost twice the amplitude of the wrinkle immediately after placement, apparently due to viscoelastic
effects in the prepreg tack. Another mechanism observed is that, after applying heating to the steered
tape, close adjacent wrinkles tend to merge into one large wrinkle, apparently due to considerable loss
in stiffness of the cohesive layer between the tape and substrate.
4.2.4. Consolidation in Corner Areas, External Radii, Stepped, or Tapered Laminates

The autoclave consolidation of thick laminates in inner corner geometries can force the plies to
move in the corner direction and form wrinkles due to the pressure acting at the end of the layup
(Figure 10). This effect depends on the length of the laminate arm (limb length) as it influences the
possibility of ply slippage and; therefore, can be addressed in design decisions and manufacturing
planning. Further mechanisms of fiber waviness in internal radii are described in Section 4.3.4, of which
J.may occur
Compos. due4,to130
Sci. 2020, ply or vacuum bag bridging. 11 of 39
Figure 10. Fiber waviness due to autoclave pressure acting on the end of the layup.
Figure 10. Fiber waviness due to autoclave pressure acting on the end of the layup.
In V-bending [44], the compressed fibers in the bend region can lead to wrinkling provided
In V-bending [44], the compressed fibers in the bend region can lead to wrinkling provided the
the compressive stresses exceed a certain limit. In contrast, Potter et al. [1] state that even a small
compressive stresses exceed a certain limit. In contrast, Potter et al. [1] state that even a small amount
amount of consolidation of the plies over an external corner can lead to an excess length that must be
of consolidation of the plies over an external corner can lead to an excess length that must be
accommodated by the forming of wrinkles if no slippage can occur.
The debulking of the plies over an external radius during the consolidation process ensures a
correct fit on the tool geometry and improves adhesion between the layers. The outermost plies are
forced into a tighter geometry, leading to an excess length. Figure 11a,b shows these two possible
scenarios when a laminate is consolidated over a corner radius and the excess length is accommodated
scenarios when a laminate is consolidated over a corner radius and the excess length is
by slippage of the plies or the occurrence of waviness.
accommodated by slippage of the plies or the occurrence of waviness.
If layers can shear/slip over one another, the additional length can be accommodated by producing
so-called “bookends” [18], which are shown in Figure 11c. However, if the tack between the plies is too
high, axial compressive stresses are built up in the layers which may form wrinkles.
scenarios when a laminate is consolidated over a corner radius and the excess length is
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 11 of 39
accommodated by slippage of the plies or the occurrence of waviness.
Figure (a) (a)

11. 11.
Figure Representation
Representationofof the
the book-end effect, created
book-end effect, createdwhen
when a laminate
a laminate is consolidated
is consolidated
unconstrained
unconstrainedover a corner
over radius
a corner radiusand
andslippage
slippage occurs; (b)constrained
occurs; (b) constrained consolidation
consolidation due due to high
to high
shearshear
resistance leading
resistance to fiber
leading waviness;
to fiber (c)(c)
waviness; book-end
book-endresulting
resultingfrom
fromforming
forming process illustrating the
process illustrating
termination angle θ.angle θ.
the termination
Dodwell et al.can
If layers [18]shear/slip
developed anone
over analytical
another,model for the description
the additional length can of
be out-of-plane
accommodated wrinkling
by
due to consolidation
producing over
so-called non-trivial
“bookends” geometries.
[18], The model
which are shown determines
in Figure the critical
11c. However, strain
if the tack energy at
between
whichthe plies
the is toobegin
layers high, to
axial compressive
buckle. Severalstresses are built up
assumptions andinsimplifications
the layers which have
may formbeenwrinkles.
made for this
analytical approach. In reality wrinkling is dependent on a complex mix of non-linear geometry and
viscoelastic temperature-dependent rheological behavior. A critical limb length Lcrit is derived from
the model, which depends mainly on layer thickness and shear properties and less on the tool radius.
δpc
Lcrit = (1)
τ(γ)
where pc is the critical load and τ(γ) the shear stress.

During many advanced composite processes (e.g., autoclave process or compression molding),
bulk compressive stresses [63] are applied to the reinforcement in thickness direction leading to an
increased fiber volume fraction. During consolidation, the fiber reinforcement begins to take up an
increasing amount of the applied compression load. Bulk compressive stresses that are applied in the
absence of any axial stress σ1 = 0 represent similar conditions occurring during autoclave processes.
For this case, an expression [63] can be obtained that relates the bulk compressive stress with the fiber
volume fraction, q
Vf
3πE 1 − Vo
σb = 4 q (2)
β
4
Va
Vf −1
with Vo initial fiber volume fraction, Va maximum allowable fiber volume fraction, and V f current
fiber volume fraction, respectively. If the axial extension ε1 > 0 induced by transverse compression
is constrained, the applied compression bulk stress would lead to an induced axial compression
increasing the potential for fiber wrinkling [63].
The size of radius plays an important role, especially in internal corners. It becomes more difficult
to place the prepregs accurately into internal corners with decreasing radius. The quality of the layup
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 12 of 39
strongly depends on the size of radius, the ply thickness and the final laminate thickness. Larger
corner radii are less likely to be bridged and, according to [22], will definitely have lower levels
of fiber waviness induced by the curvature of the prepreg. Although heavier grades of prepregs
potentially reduce the labor cost due to a reduced number of plies, the level of fiber waviness induced
by the curvature would increase. When processing out-of-autoclave prepregs using vacuum bag
only, the challenge is to extract the remaining air from the part prior to curing. For this purpose,
these prepregs, also called semipregs, have a dry area ensuring a connected flow path, but resulting in
a very high bulk factor.
t
β= i (3)
tf
The bulk factor β [64], which describes the ratio of the initial laminate thickness ti to the
final thickness t f of the fully impregnated part after curing, is an inherent characteristic of the
material. Materials with high bulk factors (e.g., out-of-autoclave semipregs) are more prone to
wrinkling compared to low bulk factor plies (e.g., traditional prepregs). To improve the laminate
quality and reduce the risk of fiber waviness, pre-consolidation every four to five layers using a
vacuum bag is recommended. This is especially important for reinforcements with high bulk factors.
However, Lightfoot et al. [65] reported that frequently conducted debulks during hand lay-up had no
influence on the wrinkle formation compared to non-intermediate debulks.
The relationship shown in Equation (3) is not valid in corner regions, because of the curvature,
the material undergoes a more complex compaction (i.e., corner thinning and thickening). Typical
values for the bulk factor [64] range between 1.08–1.17 for unidirectional plies and 1.15–1.4 for woven
fabrics, meaning a ~8–17%, respectively, ~15–40% lower final thickness compared to initial laminate
thickness. Levy and Hubert [66] developed an analytical model for the prediction of thickness deviation
in both male and female corner regions by distinguishing between two phenomena. The friction
dominated mechanism describes the interply friction which can hinder the layers from adapting to the
mold geometry, thus preventing a proper compaction in the corner [18]. In a previous work by Hubert
and Poursartip [67], they stated that even if interply slippage occurs, the bagged surface may differ
from the facing mold surface due to the curvature in the corner. The available consolidation pressure
in the part then differs from the expected vacuum bag pressure. Levy and Hubert [66] called this the
pressure-dominated phenomenon. The pressure-dominated model predicts a lower bound, which is
even negative (e.g., corner thinning) for the male case, and the friction dominated model predicts a
higher bound.
The friction coefficient µ between the prepreg plies can be identified by characterization
techniques using specially designed devices (i.e., pull-out tests and friction sleds) or by adapted
rheometers [39,68,69]. Typical values for the friction coefficient µ of 5320 resin system range between
higher values of approximately 0.17 for woven fabrics and lower values of 0.1 for unidirectional
plies [66]. However, more important than absolute values of the friction coefficient are dependencies
like temperature, normal pressure, and relative motion speed.
Farnand et al. [70] studied the micro-level mechanisms for wrinkle formation of partial impregnated
out-of-autoclave prepregs systems with “engineered vacuum channels” in hot drape forming (HDF)
consolidation over an external radius. The combination of these channels and low forming temperature,
promotes intra-ply separation of fibers in 0◦ plies that leads to partial waviness of the ply during
forming. For 90◦ plies, rolling of fibers was observed as the micro-level mechanism that leads to
wrinkle formation during bending-induced compression.
4.3. Non-Uniform Pressure Distribution
4.3.1. Co-Bonding (or Pre-Cured Parts in LCM Process)

Large stiffened composite panels used in aircraft (e.g., pressure bulkheads) are often produced in
a co-bonding process (i.e., pre-cured skins are co-bonded with wet stringers or also vice-versa),
that leads to wrinkle formation during bending-induced compression.
4.3. Non-Uniform Pressure Distribution
J.4.3.1. Co-Bonding
Compos. (or
Sci. 2020, 4, 130 Pre-Cured Parts in LCM Process) 13 of 39
Large stiffened composite panels used in aircraft (e.g., pressure bulkheads) are often produced
when pre-cured process
in a co-bonding stiffeners(i.e.,
arepre-cured
co-bonded skins
to are
the co-bonded
wet skins with and wet
webs stringers or also vice-versa),
in an autoclave process.
when
The pre-cured stiffeners
co-bonding allows forare anco-bonded to the wet
integral design that skins andor
reduces webs
evenin eliminates
an autoclave process.
drilled Theand
holes co-
bonding allows for an integral design that reduces or even eliminates drilled holes
mechanical fasteners. This, in turn, reduces complexity, weight, material, and tooling costs, etc. and mechanical
fasteners. co-bonding
However, This, in turn, mayreduces complexity,
also lead weight,effects
to undesirable material,
suchand tooling
as fiber costs, etc.
waviness, However,
voids, adhesiveco-
bondingand
pockets, may alsopockets.
resin lead toThese
undesirable effects such
effects typically occurasatfiber waviness,
the stiffener voids,
edges, adhesive
as shown pockets,
in Figure and
12 [71].
resin pockets. These effects typically occur at the stiffener edges, as shown in Figure 12 [71].
Figure12.
Figure 12.Example
Exampleof of co-bonding
co-bonding of aof a pre-cured
pre-cured stringer
stringer onto
onto wet wet
face faceleading
layers layers toleading to fiber
fiber waviness
waviness
due due to non-uniform
to non-uniform consolidation
consolidation pressure distribution.
pressure distribution.
Rubber pads
Rubber pads can
can be
be used
used to
toachieve
achievebetter
betterpressure
pressuredistribution
distribution[72,73].
[72,73]. Similarly,
Similarly, rubber-die
rubber-die
molding processes [42], which are closely related to matched-die molding but at significantly cheaper
molding processes [42], which are closely related to matched-die molding but at significantly cheaper
moldcosts,
mold costs,may
mayreduce
reducethetherisk
riskof
ofwrinkles
wrinklesininthe
thepart
partthrough
throughmore
moreevenly
evenlyapplied
appliedpressure.
pressure.
4.3.2.
4.3.2. Telegraphing
TelegraphingEffect
Effectof
ofFace
FaceSheets
SheetsatatHoneycomb
HoneycombCore
Core
The
The telegraphing
telegraphing effect [74] [74] is
is aa result
resultofofthe
theintegral
integralfabrication
fabrication of of sandwich
sandwich structures.
structures. In
In production,
production, thethe
faceface sheets
sheets are are placed
placed directly
directly on on the
the honeycomb
honeycomb core core
in a in a wet
wet lay-uplay-up process.
process. The
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 14 of 39
The sandwich
sandwich structure
structure is then
is then cured
cured in in
thethe autoclaveatatelevated
autoclave elevatedpressure.
pressure.The Theuse
use of
of large cell
cell size
size
honeycomb cores in sandwich structures in combination with thin skins
honeycomb cores in sandwich structures in combination with thin skins may result in telegraphingmay result in telegraphing
effects,
effects, which
whichare arecharacterized
characterized byby
a dimpled
a dimpled outer surface,
outer illustrated
surface, in Figure
illustrated 13a. Waviness
in Figure 13a. Wavinessin form in
of indentions, Figure 13b, can also occur in the face sheets located at the tool side
form of indentions, Figure 13b, can also occur in the face sheets located at the tool side of the sandwich of the sandwich
structure
structure due due to
to aa high
high local
local consolidation
consolidation pressure
pressure at
at the
the contact
contact zone.
zone. These
These dimples
dimples are are treated
treated asas
small-sized
small-sized waviness. A smaller cell size also improves the surface appearance and bonding quality
waviness. A smaller cell size also improves the surface appearance and bonding quality
due
due to to its
its larger
larger bonding
bonding area,
area, but
but also
also increases
increases its
its weight
weight and and cost.
cost. Secondary-bonded
Secondary-bonded face face sheets
sheets
can
can completely eliminate telegraphing [75]. Riss et al. [76] developed an anti-telegraphing solution
completely eliminate telegraphing [75]. Riss et al. [76] developed an anti-telegraphing solution
with
with additive
additive layer
layer manufactured
manufactured honeycombs.
honeycombs.
Figure 13. (a) Telegraphing effect of thin layers on top of a honeycomb core; (b) waviness in tool side
Figure 13. (a) Telegraphing effect of thin layers on top of a honeycomb core; (b) waviness in tool side
face layers due to non-uniform consolidation pressure.
4.3.3. Welding Spots

During spot welding of thermoplastic laminate stacks, indentations in form of wavy layers can
occur due to the local elevated contact pressure of the welding horn and resulting softening material
J. Compos. Sci. 2020,
Figure 4, Telegraphing
13. (a) 130 14 of 39
effect of thin layers on top of a honeycomb core; (b) waviness in tool side
4.3.3.
4.3.3. Welding
Welding Spots
Spots
During
During spot
spot welding
welding ofof thermoplastic
thermoplastic laminate
laminate stacks,
stacks, indentations
indentations in
in form
form of
of wavy
wavy layers
layers can
can
occur
occur due to the local elevated contact pressure of the welding horn and resulting softening material
due to the local elevated contact pressure of the welding horn and resulting softening material
behavior
behavior caused
caused byby increased
increasedtemperatures
temperatures(Figure
(Figure14).
14).
Figure 14.
Figure 14. Illustration
Illustration of
of aa horn
horn locally
locally welding
welding the
the laminate
laminate stack
stack leading
leading to
to fiber
fiber waviness
waviness due
due to
to
uneven pressure distributions.
uneven pressure distributions.
These
Theseply
plystacks
stacksareare
primarily
primarilypositioned
positionedby the
bywelding spots and
the welding spots further processed
and further in a forming
processed in a
step. Fischer
forming et Fischer
step. al. [77] reported that
et al. [77] after consolidation,
reported the imprints remain
that after consolidation, distinctremain
the imprints atop thedistinct
compacted
atop
sample, and thesample,
the compacted previously
anddisrupted fibersdisrupted
the previously are clearlyfibers
recognizable.
are clearlyIfrecognizable.
possible, these
If welding
possible,spots
these
may be positioned
welding spots mayinbenon-critical
positionedareas of the part.
in non-critical areas of the part.
4.3.4.
4.3.4. Ply
Ply and
and Vacuum
Vacuum Bag
BagBridging
Bridging
Bridging
Bridging is is an
an effect
effect of
of unsuccessful
unsuccessful draping
draping where
where the
the reinforcement
reinforcement [65,78]
[65,78] and/or
and/or layers
layers of
of
the
the vacuum
vacuum bag bag [73,79,80]
[73,79,80] are
are not
not in
incontact
contact with
with the
the mold
mold surface
surface potentially
potentially caused
caused by by improper
improper
lay-up
lay-up and
and debulking.
debulking. Some Some bridging
bridging isis often
often inevitable
inevitable and
and causes
causes wrinkling
wrinkling [1]. [1]. Bridging
Bridging can
can bebe
observed
J. in
Compos. Sci.
observed smaller
in2020, corner radii with a longer limb length (distance from the corner
4, 130 corner radii with a longer limb length (distance from the corner to a free15
smaller to a free edge,
of 39
edge,
shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 15)15) which
which would
would allow
allowforforaanecessary
necessaryslip
slipofofthe
theplies
pliesinto
into the
the corner,
corner, transitions
transitions of
plyply
of numbers
numbers (tapered
(taperedlaminates), resulting
laminates), from
resulting gaps
from andand
gaps overlaps. At low
overlaps. resinresin
At low viscosities and high
viscosities and
consolidation
high consolidation pressures, matrix
pressures, migration
matrix migrationcancanbe be
observed
observed ininbridged
bridgedareas
areasininradii
radii when
when resin is is
squeezed into
squeezed into the
the outer
outer area.
area. Friedrich et al. [44]
[44] explains
explains this
this phenomenon
phenomenon as a lack lack of
of time
time for
for the
the
inter-ply slip
inter-ply slip deformation
deformation mechanism
mechanismto tooccur.
occur.
Figure 15. Ply

Figure 15. Ply bridging
bridging in
in internal
internal corner
corner radius
radius leading
leading to
to matrix
matrix migration.
migration.
Incorrectly placed vacuum bags, illustrated in Figure 16, can cause wrinkles to form in female
Incorrectly placed vacuum bags, illustrated in Figure 16, can cause wrinkles to form in female
corners when the vacuum bag is bridged [79]. Flexible silicon rubber pads or “dog ears” can be used to
corners when the vacuum bag is bridged [79]. Flexible silicon rubber pads or “dog ears” can be used
avoid bag bridging compared to a conventional vacuum bag lay-up [73,80]. The vacuum bag may not
to avoid bag bridging compared to a conventional vacuum bag lay-up [73,80]. The vacuum bag may
be able to follow the deformation that occurs during the consolidation of the laminate. This influence
not be able to follow the deformation that occurs during the consolidation of the laminate. This
is increased when prepreg systems with a high bulk factor are used (e.g., semi-impregnated
influence is increased when prepreg systems with a high bulk factor are used (e.g., semi-impregnated
out-of-autoclave (OOA) prepregs). For this reason, there may be a lack of pressure in the resin
out-of-autoclave (OOA) prepregs). For this reason, there may be a lack of pressure in the resin in the
in the corner area, leading to void growth. When atmospheric pressure prevails on the outside,
corner area, leading to void growth. When atmospheric pressure prevails on the outside, the vacuum
the vacuum bag does not deform and does not slip due to the low compaction pressure. Increased
bag does not deform and does not slip due to the low compaction pressure. Increased consolidation
pressures in autoclave processes can cause the vacuum bag to slip and reduce the amount of bridging,
although shear forces due to the friction between vacuum bag and plies may force the layers into the
corner radius thus leading to fiber waviness. Lightfoot et al. [65] achieved an elimination of wrinkles
in autoclave cured laminates with bridged 0° plies in the radii of a female U-shaped tool by increasing
the frictional shear stress between part and tool through the removal of the release film slip layer
corners when the vacuum bag is bridged [79]. Flexible silicon rubber pads or “dog ears” can be used
to avoid bag bridging compared to a conventional vacuum bag lay-up [73,80]. The vacuum bag may
not be able to follow the deformation that occurs during the consolidation of the laminate. This
influence is increased when prepreg systems with a high bulk factor are used (e.g., semi-impregnated
J.out-of-autoclave
Compos. Sci. 2020, 4,(OOA)
130 prepregs). For this reason, there may be a lack of pressure in the resin15inofthe 39
corner area, leading to void growth. When atmospheric pressure prevails on the outside, the vacuum
bag does not deform and does not slip due to the low compaction pressure. Increased consolidation
consolidation pressuresprocesses
pressures in autoclave in autoclavecanprocesses
cause thecan cause bag
vacuum the vacuum bagreduce
to slip and to slipthe
andamount
reduce of
thebridging,
amount
of
although shear forces due to the friction between vacuum bag and plies may force the layers into the
bridging, although shear forces due to the friction between vacuum bag and plies may force the
layers into the corner radius thus leading to fiber waviness. Lightfoot et al. [65] achieved
corner radius thus leading to fiber waviness. Lightfoot et al. [65] achieved an elimination of wrinkles an elimination
of
in wrinkles
autoclaveincured
autoclave curedwith
laminates laminates
bridgedwith0° bridged 0◦ plies
plies in the radiiin
ofthe radii of
a female a femaletool
U-shaped U-shaped tool by
by increasing
increasing the frictional shear stress between part and tool through the removal of
the frictional shear stress between part and tool through the removal of the release film slip layer the release film slip
layer between
between theply
the first firstand
plythe
andtool.
the tool.
Figure 16.Vacuum
Figure 16. Vacuum bag bridging
bag leading
bridging to low
leading to compaction pressure
low compaction in the corner
pressure in thearea, fiberarea,
corner waviness,
fiber
and increased
waviness, andvoid growth.
increased void growth.
4.4. Interaction between Tool–Ply and Ply–Ply

Tool–ply and ply–ply interactions can be described by viscous friction laws. The sliding between
ply and ply as well as ply and tool is affected at the interface by the coefficient of friction [40].
High frictional forces can cause in-plane buckling of the fiber tows and out-of-plane wrinkling of
the fabric. The parameters that influence the friction coefficients are mold surface roughness, fiber
tow surface roughness, presence of binders, presence of liquid resin, and processing temperature,
which causes viscosity changes. Tack and drapeability [40] are also important quality characteristics
of prepregs. Tack or stickiness is defined as the ability of a partially cured prepreg layer to adhere
to the mold surface and to another partially cured prepreg layer without forming chemical bonds.
Prepreg with too little resin on the surfaces has low tack and may need to be heated to increase its
tack during layup. On the other hand, if the surfaces are resin rich and there is less resin inside
(e.g., vacuum channels in out-of-autoclave prepregs), the prepreg may separate at the center during
the layup process.
4.4.1. Inter-Ply Slippage

The formation of waviness is dependent on the frictional behavior between the plies. If the friction
is sufficiently low, the excess length (limb length) can be dissipated into the rest of the part by shearing
in the layer interphase. At the beginning of the curing process, the shear and Young’s moduli of the
resin are very low [81]. These may decrease even further when temperature increases and viscosity
drops in the first step, which allows a certain amount of ply movement to occur before cross-linking
increases the material properties. The two major inter-ply forming mechanisms, namely inter-laminar
slip and inter-laminar rotation/shear, are illustrated in Figure 17.
friction is sufficiently low, the excess length (limb length) can be dissipated into the rest of the part
by shearing in the layer interphase. At the beginning of the curing process, the shear and Young’s
moduli of the resin are very low [81]. These may decrease even further when temperature increases
and viscosity drops in the first step, which allows a certain amount of ply movement to occur before
cross-linking increases the material properties. The two major inter-ply forming mechanisms, namely
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 16 of 39
inter-laminar slip and inter-laminar rotation/shear, are illustrated in Figure 17.
Figure 17. Inter-ply forming mechanisms (Inter-laminar slip and inter-laminar rotation/shear).
Figure 17. Inter-ply forming mechanisms (Inter-laminar slip and inter-laminar rotation/shear).
Inter-ply slip or inter-laminar slip [29,44,82–86] is a relative shear movement of two adjacent
Inter-ply
laminate slip It
layers. or occurs
inter-laminar slip [29,44,82–86]
when layers slip or slideisrelative
a relative shearother
to each movement when of thetwoflatadjacent
prepreg
laminate layers. It occurs when layers slip or slide relative to each
stack is deformed over a single curved surface, e.g., a corner radius. In liquid composite molding other when the flat prepreg stack
isprocesses,
deformedthe over a single
inter-ply curved
slip surface, by
is supported e.g.,
thea corner radius.
liquid resin, In liquid
which acts composite
as a lubricant molding
between processes,
adjacent
the inter-ply slip is supported by the liquid resin, which acts as a
plies, especially in low viscosity resins. According to [82], inter-ply slippage is considered to be lubricant between adjacent plies,
the
especially in low viscosity resins. According to [82], inter-ply
principal mechanism that prevents the occurrence of wrinkles during the shape change. Inter-ply slippage is considered to be the
principal
slip can alsomechanism
occur betweenthat prevents
plies ofthe occurrence
woven fabric of wrinkles
[35]. Wovenduring fabricstheareshape
morechange.extensible Inter-ply
compared slip
can also occur between plies of woven fabric [35]. Woven fabrics
to unidirectional materials due to the undulations which allow a certain straightening of the fibersare more extensible compared to
unidirectional
when formingmaterials due to the
over a radius. undulations
According which allow
to Murtagh et al.a[35],
certain straightening
inter-ply slip only of the
occursfibers when
once the
forming over a radius. According to Murtagh et al. [35], inter-ply
fiber tows have been straightened and become inextensible. Conversely, the crimped nature of slip only occurs once the fiber towsthe
have
towsbeen straightened
also means that the and become
plies exposed inextensible.
to compressiveConversely, the crimped
stress tend to buckle. nature
When ofthe
theplytows alsois
stack
means
deformed that over
the plies exposed to compressive
a double-curved surface (e.g., stress tend to dome;
a spherical buckle.see When the ply
Section stack
4.2.2), theismechanism
deformed
over a double-curved surface (e.g., a spherical dome; see
of intra-ply shearing is more common. This is an in-plane shearing mechanism where the Section 4.2.2), the mechanism of intra-ply
fibers
shearing is more common. This is an in-plane shearing mechanism
move past each other within each ply. For woven fabrics, intra-ply shearing occurs in the form where the fibers move past each of
other
a trellis effect (see shear locking of woven fabrics in Section 4.6.2), in which the angle between(see
within each ply. For woven fabrics, intra-ply shearing occurs in the form of a trellis effect the
shear locking
initially of woven
orthogonal fiberfabrics in Section
directions 4.6.2), in Stresses
is decreased. which the are,angle between
according to the[87],initially
a functionorthogonal
of time,
fiber directions
temperature andisprocessing
decreased.rate. Stresses are, according
The stress needed to to [87], inter-ply
induce a function of time,
slippage and temperature
shear, decreases and
processing rate. The stress needed to induce inter-ply slippage and
with increasing temperature and increases with increasing deformation rate, and is significantly highershear, decreases with increasing
temperature
than the shear andstress
increases
neededwithforincreasing
inter-plydeformation
slippage [82]. rate,Researchers
and is significantly
[41,87,88] higher
havethan the shear
identified the
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 17 of 39
stress neededoffor
dependence inter-ply
buckling onslippage
deformation [82]. rate
Researchers [41,87,88]during
and temperature have identified
forming of thecomposite
dependence of
sheets.
buckling
The stresses on deformation
during forming rate and
may be temperature during forming of composite sheets. The stresses
during forming may be partially orpartially
fully relaxedor fully
byrelaxed by inter-laminar
inter-laminar slippage,slippage, if given enough
if given enough time to
time
do so,toasdoshown
so, as in
shown
Figure in 18.
Figure 18. According
According to Friedrich
to Friedrich et al.
et al. [44], [44], inter-ply
inter-ply shear can shearbe can be regarded
regarded as the
as the result of a pressure/velocity gradient between adjacent plies
result of a pressure/velocity gradient between adjacent plies of the laminate. However, if the forming of the laminate. However, if the
formingisvelocity
velocity too lowisintoo low in
forming formingofprocesses
processes reinforced ofthermoplastic
reinforced thermoplastic
materials, the materials, the actual
actual temperature
temperature
of the laminate of may
the laminate
drop below maya drop below a level
temperature temperature level where
where inter-ply inter-ply
slip can slip can
no longer occur.no In
longer
this
occur. In this case, the shear stress acting on the plies does not exceed
case, the shear stress acting on the plies does not exceed the shear yield stress of the matrix material, the shear yield stress of the
matrix ultimately
which material, which leadsultimately leads to fiber
to fiber wrinkling at thewrinkling
compressed at the compressed
inner face during inner face during bending.
bending.
Figure
Figure 18.
18. Formation
Formation of
of wrinkles
wrinkles as
as aa result
result of
of deformation
deformation rate, adapted from [87].
4.4.2. CTE
4.4.2. CTE Mismatch
Mismatch
The longitudinal
The longitudinalstiffness of of
stiffness unidirectional composites
unidirectional is much
composites higherhigher
is much than thethan
transverse stiffness,
the transverse
stiffness, and the longitudinal coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is much lower than [23].
and the longitudinal coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) is much lower than the transverse CTE the
Typical coefficients
transverse CTE [23]. of thermal
Typical expansion
coefficients for composite
of thermal materials
expansion and metals
for composite are given
materials in Table
and metals 2.
are
The anisotropy
given in Table 2.ofThe
composite materials
anisotropy may be an
of composite advantage
materials mayfrom
be an a structural
advantagepoint
fromof view, but ispoint
a structural also
a main reason for process-induced deformations. The curing of high-performance composites
of view, but is also a main reason for process-induced deformations. The curing of high-performance typically
happens at typically
composites elevated temperatures. Especially
happens at elevated the cool-down
temperatures. process/rate
Especially leads toprocess/rate
the cool-down a significantleads
CTE
mismatch.
to Residual
a significant stresses can
CTE mismatch. also occur
Residual due to
stresses cana also
CTEoccur
difference
due to between fiber and matrix
a CTE difference between [23,89].
fiber
and matrix [23,89]. Several studies [65,90] have identified the CTE mismatch and, consequently, the
tool/part friction (slippage) as the main phenomena leading to fiber wrinkling. Additionally, Kugler
and Moon [90] have shown the significant influence of the cooling rate and length. The prediction of
instabilities originating from the differences in CTE is very complex, as shown in the studies of
Dodwell et al. [18] and Belnoue et al. [91].
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 17 of 39
Several studies [65,90] have identified the CTE mismatch and, consequently, the tool/part friction
(slippage) as the main phenomena leading to fiber wrinkling. Additionally, Kugler and Moon [90]
have shown the significant influence of the cooling rate and length. The prediction of instabilities
originating from the differences in CTE is very complex, as shown in the studies of Dodwell et al. [18]
and Belnoue et al. [91].
Table 2. Typical coefficients of thermal expansion for composite materials and metals.
Coefficient of Thermal
Material
Expansion [10−6 /◦ C]
CFR-Epoxy—UD longitudinal 0.3 [92,93]
CFR-Epoxy—UD transverse 35 [92,93]
0.4 (23–143 ◦ C)—solid state
CFR-PEEK—UD longitudinal [94]
0 (143–343 ◦ C)—rubbery region
30 (23–143 ◦ C)—solid state
CFR-PEEK—UD transverse [94]
2.9 (23–143 ◦ C)—solid state
CFR-PEEK—quasi isotropic [94]
Neat epoxy resin 55–76 [92,95,96]
−0.4–−0.75
Carbon fiber—longitudinal (High strength—high modulus [80,96]
fibers)
Carbon fiber—transverse 8 [96]
Glass fiber 5 [80,95]
Aluminum 12–25 [80,97]
Steel 7–12 [80,92]
CFR-Epoxy: Carbon fiber reinforced epoxy; UD: unidirectional; CFR-PEEK: Carbon fiber reinforced polyether
ether ketone.
4.5. Lay-Up Sequence

In general, the lay-up sequence has a strong influence on the formability and resulting out-of-plane
deformations. In [98] it is reported that the stacking sequence has a strong influence on the formability
of thermo-stamped parts. They observed out-of-plane wrinkles and ply separation in quasi-isotropic
0/90/45/−45 laminates, but not in [0/90] laminates. Hallander et al. [28] also stated that [0/90] and
[45/−45] lay-ups in a UD prepreg are less sensitive to out-of-plane defects compared to a quasi-isotropic
lay-up. The results of forming studies carried out by Friedrich et al. [44] have shown that the
instabilities, such as in-plane wrinkles and out-of-plane buckles, only occur in distinctive areas of
diaphragm-formed parts, which can be directly related to the lay-up of the laminate.
4.5.1. Gaps and Overlaps

Whenever individual plies are butt-spliced, whether manually or automatically, gaps or overlaps
can occur. However, the phenomenon of gaps and overlaps is strongly related to automated fiber
placement (AFP) and automated tape laying (ATL) processes and its steering methods. When locally
placing tape layers in a laminate according to the load path, the resulting laminate typically consists of
a large number of gaps and overlaps, which can be of different sizes and complex combinations [3].
Overlapping plies lead to humps and gaps may force subsequently positioned plies to move into the
gaps during the consolidation step, both resulting in fiber waviness. These effects on the mechanical
properties of the laminate are still under investigation and the existing results spread between
5–30% [49,99]. Lukaszewicz et al. [56] reported that the tolerance in head movement, steered fibers
and row width variations contributes to gaps and overlaps. Lan et al. [100,101] experimentally and
numerically studied the mechanical properties of AFP laminates containing gaps and overlaps, which
were cured with and without caul plates. The use of caul plates is critical during polymerization, as it
can prevent thickness variations and allows defects to heal. Belnoue et al. [3] stated that the influence
on the final fiber path and ply geometry from gaps and overlaps is not their nominal as-deposited
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 18 of 39
position, but a function of what happens to the laminate in the subsequent processes, such as debulking
or consolidation. This should be taken into account in manufacturing practices and the analysis of
such defects.
According to Elhajjar et al. [79], a special form of gaps that may lead to wrinkles can be found in
sandwich structures, which are resulting from core splicing.
4.5.2. Ply Drops in Tapered Laminates

The majority of real composite components contain ply terminations, also called ply drops in
tapered laminates, within the part due to varying numbers of plies between two adjacent regions of
the part and, for example, the requirement for local reinforcements. Examples of tapered composites
containing fiber waviness and their mechanical evaluation can be found in [102]. Possible manufacturing
effects leading to fiber waviness in ply runout (tapered) regions are shown in Figure 19. Design rules
for thickness transitions are generally well established [22]. However, Hart-Smith [103] stated that
poorly made ply drop regions, where the consolidation of the ply drop region can lead to additional
fiber waviness, can affect the components properties more negatively than a set of well-made external
ply drops. The mechanism of wave formation is similar to that in a corner radius as described in
Section 4.2.4. The change in part thickness generates an excess length of the plies, which can be
dissipated by slipping between the plies or, if the friction between the layers is too high, by an
out-of-plane movement that accommodates for this additional length. According to Potter et al. [22],
fiber wrinkling tends to occur when the fibers are deformed out-of-plane to match the ply edges of
the dropped plies. The obvious discontinuity of the thickness can also lead to small areas of resin
accumulations due to bridging effects. The strength reductions are associated with out of plane stresses
and resulting delamination emanating from the cut ply ends and the small resin-rich zones at the ends
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 19 of 39
of the terminated plies.
Figure 19. Possible manufacturing effects leading to fiber waviness in ply runout (tapered) regions,
Figure 19.from
modified Possible
[1]. manufacturing effects leading to fiber waviness in ply runout (tapered) regions,
modified from [1].
Belnoue et al. [91] investigated the wrinkle formation in tapered laminates under double-sided
rigid Belnoue et al.to[91]
tooling due investigated
variabilities in the
the wrinkle formation
ply thickness, in tapered
which would laminates under double-sided
lead to a mismatch between
rigid and
mold tooling due toThe
preform. variabilities
thicknessinvariation
the ply thickness, whichupon
of the laminate would lead to a mismatch
consolidation between
is responsible formold
the
and preform.
generation The thickness
of excess variationinofanthe
length. Processed laminate
autoclave upon
using consolidation
single-sided is responsible
tooling and a vacuumforbag,
the
generation of excess length. Processed in an autoclave using single-sided tooling and a vacuum bag,
the tapered specimen would not exhibit any substantial wrinkles. Steeves et al. [104] carried out
experimental studies on the compressive strength of composite laminates with terminated internal
plies. The first mode of failure was shown to be fiber micro-buckling, which is governed by the
induced fiber waviness of longitudinal fiber in the vicinity of the ply drop.
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 19 of 39
the tapered specimen would not exhibit any substantial wrinkles. Steeves et al. [104] carried out
experimental studies on the compressive strength of composite laminates with terminated internal
plies. The first mode of failure was shown to be fiber micro-buckling, which is governed by the induced
fiber waviness of longitudinal fiber in the vicinity of the ply drop.
4.6. Textile Architecture
4.6.1. Inherent Undulations in Woven and Braided Fabrics

Undulations or crimped fibers are inherent to the internal structure of woven and braided
fabrics due to the textile manufacturing processes with recurring undulations of warp and weft fiber
bundles [105] and therefore have to be considered as a feature rather than a defect. The resulting uniform
undulation depends on the selected weaving architecture (i.e., the most common weaving patterns:
plain, twill and satin). 3D fabrics that are reinforced through the thickness can be used to improve
inter-laminar properties of the composite part. However, these interlocks induce additional distortions
in the internal architecture, such as in-plane waviness, and reduce the mechanical properties [106],
similar to stitches in non-crimped fabrics, as described in Section 4.6.3.
4.6.2. Shear Locking Angle of Woven Fabrics

Considering deformations on the micro/meso scale, in-plane and inter-ply shear, have been
identified by several researchers as the important parameters governing the formation of aligned
fiber composites [33,107]. Figure 20 schematically shows a shear load vs. shear angle plot obtained
from a picture frame test carried out on a dry fabric. Before shearing fabrics, the yarns are initially
orthogonal to each other. As the intra-ply shear is initiated, the yarns begin to rotate and slide over
each other. The friction between the yarns at the crossovers and viscous drag if a liquid resin is present
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 20 of 39
contributes to the resistance to shear deformation, which is still relatively low at this level of loading.
As loading
loading. As increases, the adjacent
loading increases, the yarns come
adjacent in contact
yarns come in and press against
contact and presseach other, each
against resulting
other, in
yarn compaction and increased shear stiffness. When the load is further increased,
resulting in yarn compaction and increased shear stiffness. When the load is further increased, the the yarns become
locked.
yarns Loading
become beyond
locked. this locking
Loading beyondpoint
thiscauses
lockingout-of-plane
point causesbuckling of the fabric
out-of-plane andof
buckling thethe
resulting
fabric
deformation is not only due to shearing. The load increases very quickly to a high
and the resulting deformation is not only due to shearing. The load increases very quickly to a high value after the
locking of the yarns [33,40,108,109].
value after the locking of the yarns [33,40,108,109].
Figure20.
Figure Shearforce
20.Shear forcevs.
vs.shear
shearangle
angleplot
plotofofa apicture
pictureframe
frametest
testshowing
showingshear
shearlocking
locking(trellis
(trelliseffect)
effect)
with resulting increased load and out-of-plane movement in form of wrinkling.
with resulting increased load and out-of-plane movement in form of wrinkling.
The shear locking angle is mainly a function of the weave style and thickness of the tow. Beyond
this angle, further deformation may cause out-of-plane buckling in the part. Tam and Gutowski [27]
demonstrated that wrinkling will occur when the shear required to accommodate the material to a
specific geometry is too high. In their analytical study, Prodromou and Chen [108] postulated, that
woven fabrics wrinkle when they exceed a critical shear angle at which the tows “lock up”. They
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 20 of 39
The shear locking angle is mainly a function of the weave style and thickness of the tow. Beyond this
angle, further deformation may cause out-of-plane buckling in the part. Tam and Gutowski [27]
demonstrated that wrinkling will occur when the shear required to accommodate the material to
a specific geometry is too high. In their analytical study, Prodromou and Chen [108] postulated,
that woven fabrics wrinkle when they exceed a critical shear angle at which the tows “lock up”.
They showed a number of driving parameters behind wrinkling, including high friction coefficients
and inter-ply interactions. Since then, most work in the field has focused on shear angle measurement
to predict wrinkle formation. Wrinkling is an out-of-plane phenomenon that occurs when less energy
is needed for an out-of-plane deformation than for an in-plane deformation. Therefore, the concept
of a locking angle is not necessarily sufficient to predict the occurrence of wrinkles, since wrinkling
(position, shape, number, etc.) is strongly related not only to the bending stiffness but also to the tensile
loading on the woven fabric [110,111]. Experimental and numerical results of Allaoui et al. [112] also
confirmed the statement, that wrinkling does not necessarily occur when the critical locking angle of
woven fabrics is exceeded. They used blank holder loads to increase the in-plane tension and for the
simulation they took the bending stiffness of the reinforcement into account. A sole determination
of the onset of wrinkling based on the shear locking angle is also questioned by Boisse et al. [19] as
the occurrence of out-of-plane movement is not directly related to locking angle. They carried out
studies on the wrinkling behavior investigating the influence of different rigidities of textile, the onset
of peculiar transition zones due to bending stiffness of fiber, and the slippage during forming using
meso-level finite element models [19]. By applying tension to the reinforcement, it is possible to achieve
a higher shear deformation, than one could expect if only the locking angle is considered. As a result,
an increase in the tension applied on the interlock fabric tends to delay the onset of wrinkles [111].
A schematic illustration of this shift of out-of-plane wrinkling to higher shear angles is shown in
Figure 20. The coupling between shear and tension is an effect related to the woven fabric and has been
discussed in different papers, all showing a delay in the onset of wrinkling during pre-tensioned shear
tests [113–115]. However, an increased tensile load on the yarns can lead to considerable (residual)
stresses in the fabric. The integrity of the fibers may then be undermined by broken yarns and/or
the “weave pattern heterogeneity” phenomenon [111,116]. In a previous study, Boisse et al. [26]
analyzed the wrinkling of textile reinforcements during forming processes using a simplified form
of the internal virtual work where the tension, in-plane shear and bending parts are separated and
related to load resultants on a unit woven cell. The importance of considering these terms have been
already mentioned in Section 4.2.2. Hosseini et al. [109] performed an analytical-experimental study
on the shear wrinkling behavior (i.e., locking and wrinkling onset) of plain woven composite preforms
using bias extension test and picture frame test.
4.6.3. Stitches in Non-Crimped Fabrics

Even if the term non-crimped fabrics (NCFs) [117–119] refers to semi-finished fiber products that
do not contain any fiber misalignment, they usually contain small level in-plane fiber waviness due to
stitches or binder yarns. This is an inherent feature of the material similar to undulations in woven
fabrics. Amongst many other studies, Cao et al. [118] numerically studied the effect of in-plane fiber
distortions in quadriaxial non-crimped fabrics (QNCF) induced by the stitching yarn on the mechanical
properties using meso-scale finite element simulations. The effects of in-plane fiber distortions on the
longitudinal elastic modulus were found to be insignificant. The modulus of the QNCF lamina resulted
in a difference of 3.34% compared to the un-stitched composite with the same UD type. Cao also stated
that this conclusion on the stiffness of QNCF composites is different from the open structure NCF
composite in which the stitching may reduce in-plane elastic properties by 10–20%. Stitching induces a
traceable effect on the longitudinal strength of QNCF lamina, but only a slight effect on transverse
stiffness and transverse strength.
the open structure NCF composite in which the stitching may reduce in-plane elastic properties by
10–20%. Stitching induces a traceable effect on the longitudinal strength of QNCF lamina, but only a
slight effect on transverse stiffness and transverse strength.
4.6.4. Stitches in Dry Fiber Placements

J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 21 of 39
Using dry tows in tailored fiber placement (TFP) methods [60,120] overcomes the disadvantages
of the pre-impregnated tape placement techniques. Both methods use in-plane bending deformation
4.6.4. Stitches in Dry Fiber Placements
of the tow/tape to achieve a curved tow path, but the dry and typically thinner tows in TFP tend to
bendUsing drymuch
or shear tows easier.
in tailored
Because fiberdry
placement
tows do(TFP)
not havemethods [60,120]
tackiness, theyovercomes the disadvantages
cannot be deposited without
of the pre-impregnated
a suitable fixing method. tapeTheplacement techniques.
most common methodBoth uses
methods use in-planetechnique
an embroidery bending deformation
in which a
of the tow/tape
numerically to achieve
controlled a curved
stitching headtow path,the
stitches buttows
the onto
dry and typically
a backup thinner
fabric, towsused
generally in TFP tend
together
to
withbend
an or shear much
additional backup easier.
felt, Because
to hold thedrypreform
tows dotogether.
not haveSimilar
tackiness, theycurved
to ATL, cannottowbe deposited
paths can
without a suitable
lead to local fixing
buckling ofmethod.
the fibers The most common
induced method bending
by the in-plane uses an embroidery
deformations. technique in which
Additionally, a
the
numerically
fabric may be controlled
wrinkledstitching
if the tensionhead of
stitches the towsyarn
the stitching ontoisatoo
backup
high fabric,
and thegenerally
softness used
of thetogether
backup
with an additional
felt allows backup
the stitching yarnfelt,totomove
hold upward.
the preform together.
In this Similar
case, the to ATL,
placed towscurved
cannot tow paths attached
be firmly can lead
to
to local buckling Machine
the substrate. of the fibers headsinduced by the in-plane
that operate without bending deformations.
a tow feeding mechanism Additionally,
have to pull thethe
fabric
tow
may be wrinkled
by applying slightiftension.
the tension of the stitching yarn is too high and the softness of the backup felt
allows thetension
This stitchingforce
yarnmakes
to move theupward. In this
placed tow movecase,toward
the placed tows cannot
the origin of the be firmly attached
curvature under the to
the substrate.
influence of theMachine
loosenessheads thatstitching
of the operate without
yarn, which a towincreases
feeding mechanism
the bucklinghave to pullofthe
intensity thetow by
fibers
applying
inside theslight tension.
tow path and significantly enlarges the tow gap area outside the tow path [60]. A schematic
This tension
illustration of fiberforce makesinduced
waviness the placed tow move
by zig-zag toward
stitches in TFPtheprocesses
origin ofisthe curvature
shown under
in Figure 21. the
influence of the looseness
To overcome the problemof the stitching yarn, which
of fiber waviness increases
induced the buckling
by stitches in TFP,intensity
Hazraofetthe al.fibers
[121]
inside the towthe
investigated pathapplicability
and significantly of a enlarges
soluble the tow gap
stitching areaThe
yarn. outside the tow
in-plane pathmisalignment
fiber [60]. A schematic was
illustration of fiber waviness induced by zig-zag
observed to still exist, but the out-of-plane crimp was reduced. stitches in TFP processes is shown in Figure 21.
Figure 21. Schematic illustration of fiber waviness induced by zig-zag stitches in tailored fiber placement
Figure 21. Schematic illustration of fiber waviness induced by zig-zag stitches in tailored fiber
(TFP) process; adapted from [60].
placement (TFP) process; adapted from [60].
To overcome the problem of fiber waviness induced by stitches in TFP, Hazra et al. [121] investigated
the applicability of a soluble stitching yarn. The in-plane fiber misalignment was observed to still exist,
but the out-of-plane crimp was reduced.
4.7. Foreign Objects
4.7.1. Intended Foreign Objects (e.g., Optical Sensors, Pins, Inserts)

In many cases, foreign objects (Figure 22) may be intentionally integrated into the material
(e.g., optical sensors for strain measurements or structural health monitoring, metal pins for joining
parts, or inserts), which in turn can interfere with the fiber orientation inevitably causing local fiber
waviness. The wave characteristic depends on the size (diameter) of the embedded object. Typical
values range between 0.3–1 mm for pins [122], 0.15–0.25 mm for stitching yarns [123], and 50–200 µm
for optical sensors [124,125]. Embedded optical sensors lead to out-of-plane waviness, whereas stitches
or pins lead to in-plane waviness. The diameter of optical fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors ranges
from 52 to 125 µm [124]. The diameter of optical fiber sensors is a multiple compared to the most
commonly used reinforcement fibers (glass = 5–50 µm, carbon = 5–10 µm). The reduction of the optical
fiber diameter minimizes the distortion of the reinforcement fibers. However, not only size difference
between optical and reinforcement fibers, but also the type of composite material used (unidirectional,
woven fabric, stitched, braided, etc.) and the relative orientation of the optical fiber with respect to the
reinforcement fibers influences the distortion [126].
ranges
most from 52 toused
commonly 125 reinforcement
µm [124]. The fibers
diameter of =optical
(glass fiber
5–50 µm, sensors
carbon is a multiple
= 5–10 µm). Thecompared
reduction to the
of the
most commonly
optical fiber diameterused reinforcement
minimizes thefibers (glassof= 5–50
distortion µm, carbon = fibers.
the reinforcement 5–10 µm). The reduction
However, not onlyofsize
the
optical fiber diameter minimizes the distortion of the reinforcement fibers. However,
difference between optical and reinforcement fibers, but also the type of composite material used not only size
difference between
(unidirectional, woven optical andstitched,
fabric, reinforcement
braided,fibers, but the
etc.) and alsorelative
the type of composite
orientation of thematerial
optical used
fiber
(unidirectional,
with respect woven
to the fabric, stitched, braided, etc.) and the relative
reinforcement fibers influences the distortion [126]. orientation of the optical fiber
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 22 of 39
with respect to the reinforcement fibers influences the distortion [126].
Figure 22. Schematic illustration of waviness induced by foreign objects (e.g., optical sensors, pins,
Figure 22.
Figure 22. Schematic illustration
Schematic illustration of
of waviness
waviness induced
induced by
by foreign
foreign objects
objects (e.g., optical
optical sensors,
sensors, pins,
pins,
inserts) or inherent to NCFs due to stitching yarns. This kind of waviness(e.g.,
can be, dependent on the
inserts) or
inserts) or inherent
inherent to
to NCFs
NCFs due
due to
to stitching yarns.
stitching and
yarns. This kind
This kind of
of waviness
waviness can
can be,
be, dependent
dependent onon the
the
orientation of the embedded object, in-plane out-of-plane.
orientation of the embedded object, in-plane and out-of-plane.
orientation of the embedded object, in-plane and out-of-plane.
Several
Several studies
studies [125–129]
[125–129] have
have shown
shown that
that there
there is
is little
little effect on the
effect on the ultimate
ultimate load-carrying
load-carrying
Several
capacity studies [125–129] have shown that optical
there isfibers
littleare
effect on the ultimate load-carrying
capacity of composites as long as small diameter optical fibers are embedded between similar
of composites as long as small diameter embedded between similar layers
layers
capacity
(i.e., of composites as long as small diameter optical fibers are embedded between similar layers
(i.e., avoiding stress concentrations when the optical fiber is predominantly oriented in
avoiding stress concentrations when the optical fiber is predominantly oriented in the
the fiber
fiber
(i.e., avoiding
direction of stress
these concentrations
layers; Figure 23). when the optical fiber is predominantly oriented in the fiber
direction of these layers; Figure 23).
direction of these layers; Figure 23).
Figure 23. Optical fibers embedded parallel to the orientation of the reinforcement fibers can avoid
Figure 23. Optical fibers embedded parallel to the orientation of the reinforcement fibers can avoid
fiber waviness
Figure as long
23. Optical as the
fibers diameter is smalltoorthe
embedded the thickness of the composite layer is thick enough.
fiber waviness as long as the diameterparallel
is small or theorientation ofthe
thickness of thecomposite
reinforcement
layer fibers
is thickcan avoid
enough.
fiber waviness as long as the diameter is small or the thickness of the composite layer is thick enough.
By using z-pinning, the microstructure of laminates can be changed both beneficial due to
By using z-pinning,reinforcement
the through-thickness the microstructure
and alsoof laminates
adverse can
duebetochanged
distorted both beneficial
fibers in form due oftofiber
the
By using z-pinning,
through-thickness the microstructure
reinforcement and also of laminates
adverse due to can be changed
distorted fibers both
in beneficial
form of fiberdue to the
waviness
waviness on the damage tolerance and mechanical properties. For the joining of hybrid components
through-thickness
on the reinforcement
damage tolerance and and also adverse dueFor
to distorted fibers in formcomponents
of fiber waviness
(e.g., composite/metal parts), 3Dmechanical
reinforcementproperties.
technologies the used,
are joiningforof hybrid
example, (e.g.,
cold metal transfer
on the damage
composite/metal tolerance
parts), and mechanical properties. For the joining of hybrid components (e.g.,
(CMT) welded pins (~0.8 3D
mmreinforcement technologies
diameter) or additive are used,(AM)
manufactured for example,
pins withcold metal transfer
specifically formed
composite/metal
(CMT) parts), 3D reinforcement technologies are used, for example, cold metal transfer
heads. welded pinsheads
The formed (~0.8 mm
(e.g.,diameter) or additive
spherically) improvemanufactured (AM) pins
the damage tolerance andwith
givespecifically formed
the joint additional
(CMT) welded
heads. The pins (~0.8
formed mm(e.g.,
heads diameter) or additive
spherically) manufactured
improve the (AM)tolerance
damage pins withand specifically
give theformed
joint
resistance against the through-thickness separation of the two different materials. A comprehensive literature
heads.
additionalThe formed heads (e.g.,
resistance against the spherically) improve
through-thickness the damage
separation of the tolerance
two and give the
differentetmaterials. joint
review of through-the-thickness reinforcements is given by Mouritz [122] and Sarantinos al. [130]. A
additional resistance against the through-thickness separation of the two different materials. A
4.7.2. Unintended Foreign Objects (e.g., Foils, Blades, etc.)
Unintentionally embedded foreign objects, like release film, tapes, and tools (knife blades) are
flaws during ply collation [80,131]. These defects lead to fiber waviness, similar to the intentionally
embedded sensors or inserts, but can be avoided by strict compliance with process instructions and
stringent quality controls.
4.8. Flow-Induced Waviness
4.8.1. Fiber Wash-Out

If, in infiltration processes, the resin feed velocity and/or the injection pressure is too high, the resin
viscosity is not low enough, or the fibers are only held loose due to low fiber volume fractions or poor
tolerances of the mold, the fibers may be deformed by the flow of the resin [79,80]. Hallander et al. [28]
stated that materials with lower inter-ply friction are also more sensitive to fiber wash-out. In infiltration
processes, especially when using higher pressures such as in resin transfer molding (RTM), the injected
resin can force the fibers to be locally “washed” (Figure 24), mainly occurring at the injection port,
and also wholescale movements of plies leading to wavy regions and resin rich zones [1,132]. Due to
If, in infiltration processes, the resin feed velocity and/or the injection pressure is too high, the
resin viscosity is not low enough, or the fibers are only held loose due to low fiber volume fractions
resin viscosity is not low enough, or the fibers are only held loose due to low fiber volume fractions
or poor tolerances of the mold, the fibers may be deformed by the flow of the resin [79,80]. Hallander
or poor tolerances of the mold, the fibers may be deformed by the flow of the resin [79,80]. Hallander
et al. [28] stated that materials with lower inter-ply friction are also more sensitive to fiber wash-out.
et al. [28] stated that materials with lower inter-ply friction are also more sensitive to fiber wash-out.
In infiltration processes, especially when using higher pressures such as in resin transfer molding
In infiltration processes, especially when using higher pressures such as in resin transfer molding
(RTM),
J. Compos.the
Sci. injected
2020, 4, 130resin can force the fibers to be locally “washed” (Figure 24), mainly occurring 23 of at
39
(RTM), the injected resin can force the fibers to be locally “washed” (Figure 24), mainly occurring at
the injection port, and also wholescale movements of plies leading to wavy regions and resin rich
the injection port, and also wholescale movements of plies leading to wavy regions and resin rich
zones [1,132]. Due to the compaction of the layers in thickness direction by double-sided RTM molds,
zones [1,132]. Dueoftothe
the layers
compaction thelayers
compaction of thedirection
in thickness layers in thickness direction
by double-sided RTMby double-sided
molds, fiber RTMare
the layers molds,
more
the are more prone to in-plane waviness. A basic method used to prevent waviness is to
the layers
prone to are morewaviness.
in-plane prone to in-plane
A basic waviness.
method A basic
used to methodfiber
prevent usedwaviness
to prevent
is fiber
to waviness
choose is to
optimized
choose optimized process parameters to minimize or totally eliminate fiber washing. By carefully
choose
processoptimized
parameters process parameters
to minimize to minimize
or totally eliminateor totally eliminate
By fiber washing. By carefully
choosing the LCM process parameters such as resin fiber washing.
viscosity, pressure,carefully choosing
and molding the LCM
temperature,
choosing
process the LCM
parameters process
such as parameters
resin such
viscosity, as resin
pressure, viscosity,
and molding pressure, and
temperature, molding
fiber temperature,
movement during
fiber movement during resin injection can be minimized [133].
fiber
resinmovement
injection can during resin injection
be minimized [133].can be minimized [133].
Figure 24.
Figure24. Schematic illustration
illustrationofof
Schematicillustration
24.Schematic fiber
offiber washing
fiberwashing effect.
washingeffect.
effect.
Figure
4.8.2. Hydraulic
4.8.2. Hydraulic Effects
Effects (Squeezing,
(Squeezing, Transverse
Transverse Flow)
Flow)
4.8.2. Hydraulic Effects (Squeezing, Transverse Flow)
In forming
In formingprocesses, such
processes, as thermoforming
such as thermoforming or compression molding,
or compression a non-hydrostatic
molding, pressure,
a non-hydrostatic
In forming
similar to RTM processes,can
processes, such
lead as
to thermoforming
a fiber movement oraway
compression
from their molding,
original a non-hydrostatic
position and result in
pressure, similar to RTM processes, can lead to a fiber movement away from their original position
pressure,
a wavy similar to
misalignment.RTM processes, can
Squeeze flowSqueeze lead to
[75], asflow a
shownfiber
inasmovement
Figure away from
25,indescribes thetheir original
transverse position
and result in a wavy misalignment. [75], shown Figure 25, describes the flow of the
transverse
and result in a wavy
fiber/resin/voids misalignment.
mixture as a Squeeze
function of theflow [75], distribution
pressure as shown inacross
Figurethe25,tow
describes
to the
yield transverse
the reduction
flow of the fiber/resin/voids mixture as a function of the pressure distribution across the tow to yield
flow of theand
in height fiber/resin/voids
theheight
increase mixture as a function of the pressure distribution across the tow to yield
the reduction in andinthe
width.
increase in width.
the reduction in height and the increase in width.
Figure 25.
Figure25. Schematic illustration
illustrationofof
Schematicillustration
25.Schematic transverse
oftransverse squeeze
transversesqueeze flow.
squeezeflow.
flow.
Figure
Friedrich et al. [44] stated that the local pressure gradients can arise from small variations
in the laminate thickness and mold clearances. Further shear stresses that develop between the
thermoplastic material and the mold surface may also result in transverse flow. The transverse flow is,
according to Barnes [134], responsible for apparent stretching that can occur in a unidirectional
laminate in perpendicular direction of the reinforcements. According to [135], this squeezing
mechanism typically occurs at low temperature and low pressure, until a locking of the material occurs,
the point at which the fiber bed reaches a configuration where it no longer deform. The squeezing
flow (i.e., the laminate) behaves as a highly viscous incompressible fluid, according to Hubert and
Poursartip [67]. After that, a transition from transverse squeezing to bleeding takes place corresponding
with a change from transverse resin flow direction to bleeding. In hot drape forming (HDF), the usage
of stiffer diaphragms increases the squeeze flow due to higher forming pressure; however, the risk of
out-of-plane deformations (e.g., wrinkling is reduced) [37].
4.9. Cure-Induced Waviness

Parlevliet et al. [136] and Baran et al. [137] give comprehensive overviews of residual stresses
in composite materials. Parlevliet et al. [136] states that fiber waviness can be regarded as a defect,
which has formed due to residual stresses. In part I of the publication series by Parlevliet et al. [138],
three mechanical levels of residual stress formation were identified: Micromechanical residual stresses
(resulting from the shrinkage mismatch between the matrix and the fiber), interlaminar residual
4.9. Cure-Induced Waviness
Parlevliet et al. [136] and Baran et al. [137] give comprehensive overviews of residual stresses in
composite materials. Parlevliet et al. [136] states that fiber waviness can be regarded as a defect, which
has formed due to residual stresses. In part I of the publication series by Parlevliet et al. [138], three
J.mechanical levels
Compos. Sci. 2020, of residual stress formation were identified: Micromechanical residual stresses
4, 130 24 of 39
(resulting from the shrinkage mismatch between the matrix and the fiber), interlaminar residual
stresses (resulting from ply anisotropy in angle-ply composites) and residual stress gradients through
stresses (resulting from ply anisotropy in angle-ply composites) and residual stress gradients through
the thickness (resulting from gradients in cooling rate, material density, thermal gradients, etc.). One
the thickness (resulting from gradients in cooling rate, material density, thermal gradients, etc.).
method used to prevent ply wrinkling during curing is to keep the laminate thickness below certain
One method used to prevent ply wrinkling during curing is to keep the laminate thickness below
limits in order to minimize exothermal heat generation. In general, the curing should be carried out
certain limits in order to minimize exothermal heat generation. In general, the curing should be carried
at carefully controlled temperature gradients to minimize differences in the thermal expansion.
out at carefully controlled temperature gradients to minimize differences in the thermal expansion.
4.9.1. Volumetric Shrinkage
4.9.1. Volumetric Shrinkage
Another important aspect in processing composite materials is the cross-linking of the resin.
Another important aspect in processing composite materials is the cross-linking of the resin.
Chemical reactions during the curing process lead to shrinkage. In contrast to the resin, fibers exhibit
Chemical reactions during the curing process lead to shrinkage. In contrast to the resin, fibers exhibit no
no chemical shrinkage. Deformations are likely induced by the CTE mismatch, described in Section
chemical shrinkage. Deformations are likely induced by the CTE mismatch, described in Section 4.4.2,
4.4.2, between fiber and matrix, and the curing shrinkage of resin. The exothermic reaction during
between fiber and matrix, and the curing shrinkage of resin. The exothermic reaction during curing
curing and the corresponding shrinkage in thermoset systems, or physical shrinkage in fiber-
and the corresponding shrinkage in thermoset systems, or physical shrinkage in fiber-reinforced
reinforced thermoplastics, affects the formation of sink marks which result in fiber waviness. The
thermoplastics, affects the formation of sink marks which result in fiber waviness. The temperature
temperature changes experienced by the composite and the volumetric shrinkage of the matrix are
changes experienced by the composite and the volumetric shrinkage of the matrix are also reported to
also reported to induce waviness [90,136]. The fiber waviness can occur due to both the bulk factor
induce waviness [90,136]. The fiber waviness can occur due to both the bulk factor (see Section 4.2.4)
(see Section 4.2.4) and shrinkage in the thick-walled areas of transitions (e.g., T-joint shown in Figure
and shrinkage in the thick-walled areas of transitions (e.g., T-joint shown in Figure 26).
26).
Figure 26. Shrinkage

Figure26. Shrinkage in
in resin-rich
resin-richareas
areas(e.g.,
(e.g.,T-joints).
T-joints).
4.9.2. Large Temperature Gradient in Thick Laminates

4.9.2. Large Temperature Gradient in Thick Laminates
Besides the ply-tool CTE mismatch, sufficiently high temperature gradients that are present
Besides the ply-tool CTE mismatch, sufficiently high temperature gradients that are present
through the thickness of the laminate can cause fiber waviness. Since thick laminates are prone to large
through the thickness of the laminate can cause fiber waviness. Since thick laminates are prone to
temperature gradients throughout the thickness, wrinkling is often induced in thick laminates [136,139]
large temperature gradients throughout the thickness, wrinkling is often induced in thick laminates
(e.g., those found in wind turbine blades). Parlevliet et al. [136] concluded that one of the results of
[136,139] (e.g., those found in wind turbine blades). Parlevliet et al. [136] concluded that one of the
residual stresses is fiber waviness. The presence of sufficiently high thermal residual stresses can lead
to fiber waviness during the curing due to a mismatch between the coefficients of thermal expansion
of the composite constituents [90]. The difference between the coefficients of thermal expansion of
fiber, matrix, and mold can be several orders of magnitude. This often leads to residual stresses
in the composite during the cooling step of the process. When the fibers experience axial loads
during processing (e.g., due to thermal residual stresses) then fiber waviness may be observed due
to micro-buckling. This mechanism was described by Bhalerao [140] who has developed a stress
analysis model to obtain the laminate’s in-process thermo-viscoelastic stress state and the fibers’
thermo-elastic stress state. The fiber stress state can then be computed and used in the micromechanical
fiber stability model to predict the viscoelastic buckling of elastic fibers. This phenomenon leads to the
so-called “growth-of-waviness” in composite laminates. Elevated cooling rates can lead to compressive
stresses on the laminate surface, while slower cooling rates avoid significant temperature gradients
through-the-thickness of the part and allow time for stresses to relax [90].
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 25 of 39
4.10. Unique Characteristics of Fabrication Processes
4.10.1. Filament Winding

Fiber waviness is one of the most significant manufacturing effects in filament winding processes;
however, the mechanism behind the occurrence is not completely clear. Fiber waviness in filament
winding processes may result from insufficient winding tension [40], due to local fiber micro-buckling
arising from the compression load caused by the shrinkage of a metal jig [141], or due to the volumetric
changes during resin bleed-out in thick wound structures [142]. Parlevliet et al. [136] advised to
use a sufficiently high tow-tension when winding composite cylinders, as well as a low as possible
mismatch between the composite and mandrel materials’ CTE. According to Mallick [40], an inadequate
winding tension and misaligned rovings can be caused by unstable fiber paths that cause fibers to
slip on the mandrel and may cause fibers to bunch together, bridge, and improperly orient in the
filament wound part. Studies [143,144] have shown that fiber waviness found in wound thermoplastic
cylinders is primarily affected by the mandrel material, not the cooling rate. According to Baker
et al. [142], the waviness is mainly caused by volumetric changes during resin bleed-out in thick
wound structures. It can be avoided by minimizing the amount of resin that needs to be removed
and by maintaining the correct tension of the filaments during winding. Waviness can also occur in
thick filament wound structures where the buckling of fibers results from the pressure exerted by the
over-wrapped layers [145]. Springer et al. [146,147] developed a model that is able to describe changes
in fiber tension and fiber position due to moving fibers during processing.
4.10.2. Pultrusion
Fiber waviness originating from pultrusion processes represent a special characteristic due to
manufacturing specific mechanisms. Pultrusion is a process for manufacturing composite profiles
with a constant cross section. The process is characterized by low labor input and a high efficiency in
the conversion of raw materials, as it is a continuous processing technique that does not require any
secondary finishing steps. The reinforcements (e.g., UD rovings or filament mats) are continuously fed
through a guiding system. The dimensional changes must be controlled during processing to improve
the product quality in terms of geometrical tolerances. The thermal and cure history together with
highly non-linear resin phase transitions (viscous-rubbery-glassy), described in [148], make the process
complex to control and have a significant influence on the quality of the final composite part. The resin
undergoes large changes in its material properties during phase transitions, most significantly in its
thermal expansion and elastic modulus [149]. The principal mechanisms causing process induced
stresses and shape distortions in pultruded composites are summarized in [148–151]. Some of the
defects found in pultruded products, such as fiber bunching, fiber shifting, wrinkles, and folding of
mats or woven rovings, are examples of fiber misalignment that can reduce the structural properties
of pultruded products [40]. Coogler et al. [152] examined the various process-induced imperfections
that can occur in the cross sectional areas of pultruded GFRP profiles for bridge decks. In general,
fiber waviness can be particularly pronounced within the flange-web joints/junctions in pultruded
profiles [152–158], to the extent that the fibers often return upon themselves, essentially describing
U-trajectories, as a web lamina transitions from the vertical to horizontal direction. Sebastian [153]
characterized fiber waviness in pultruded profiles and experimentally investigated the ultimate
mechanical behavior. Elhajjar [79] stated that random in-plane waviness can occur in pultrusion due to
temporarily/locally insufficient tow tension (e.g., from one of the feeding spools). An example of random
waviness in pultrusion processes due to insufficient tow tension is schematically illustrated in Figure 27.
themselves,
horizontal
experimentally essentially
direction. describing
Sebastian
investigated U-trajectories,
the [153] characterized
ultimate mechanical as afiber
web waviness
behavior.lamina transitions
in[79]
Elhajjar fromthat
pultruded
stated the vertical
profiles
random and to
in-
horizontal
experimentally direction.
plane wavinessinvestigated Sebastian
can occur inthe [153] characterized
ultimatedue
pultrusion mechanical fiber waviness
behavior. Elhajjar
to temporarily/locally in pultruded
[79] stated
insufficient profiles
that random
tow tension and
in-
(e.g., from
experimentally
plane
one waviness
of the feeding investigated
can occur the
Anultimate
in pultrusion
spools). duemechanical
example toof behavior.
temporarily/locally
random waviness Elhajjar [79] tow
insufficient
in pultrusionstated that random
tension (e.g.,due
processes from in-
to
oneplane waviness
of the feeding
insufficient can
tow tensionoccur in
spools). pultrusion
An example
is schematically due to temporarily/locally
of random
illustrated waviness
in Figure insufficient tow tension (e.g.,
27. in pultrusion processes due to from
J.one of Sci.
Compos.
insufficientthetowfeeding
2020, 4, 130 spools).
tension An example
is schematically of random
illustrated in Figurewaviness
27. in pultrusion processes due to
26 of 39
insufficient tow tension is schematically illustrated in Figure 27.
Figure 27. Random (stochastic distributed) waviness in pultrusion direction due to insufficient tow
Figure 27. Random (stochastic distributed) waviness in pultrusion direction due to insufficient tow
tension.
Figure27.
Figure
tension. 27. Random
Random (stochastic
(stochasticdistributed)
distributed)waviness
wavinessin in
pultrusion direction
pultrusion duedue
direction to insufficient tow
to insufficient
tension.
5. Classification
tow tension. Scheme
5. Classification Scheme
The following
5.5.Classification
Classification section provides an overview of typically occurring wave shapes and suggests a
Scheme
Scheme
The following
classification schemesection
based provides an overview features.
on ten characteristic of typically occurring wave shapes and suggests a
The
Thefollowing
following section provides an
anoverview of
oftypically
typicallyoccurring
occurringwave waveshapes
shapesandandsuggests
suggestsaa
classification schemesection
based onprovides overview
ten characteristic features.
classification
classification scheme
scheme based
based on
on
5.1. Number and Distribution of Wavesten
tencharacteristic
characteristic features.
features.
5.1. Number and Distribution of Waves
5.1.
5.1.Number and
andDistribution
Generally,
Number waviness ofofbe
can
Distribution Waves
distinguished by whether there is a single wave, or a higher number
Waves
Generally,
of waves that waviness can bestochastically
can be either distinguisheddistributed
by whether(i.e.,
there is a singleofwave,
consisting or a higher
varying number
amplitudes and
Generally,
Generally, waviness
waviness can
can bebe distinguished
distinguished by
by whether
whether there
there isisaasingle
single wave,
wave, or
oraahigher
higher number
number
ofwavelengths)
waves that can be either
or in-phase stochastically
distributed distributed
(i.e., with constant(i.e., consisting
amplitudes andofwavelength;
varying amplitudes
Figure 28).andThe
of
of waves
wavesthat
that can
can bebeeither stochastically distributed (i.e.,
(i.e.,toconsisting of
ofvarying
varyingamplitudes and
wavelengths)
occurrence oforsingle or either
in-phase stochastically
distributed
distributed (i.e., with
waves distributed
can constant
be amplitudes
attributed consisting
and wavelength;
the bending stiffness amplitudes
Figure
of and
28). The
the layers.
wavelengths)
wavelengths) or
or in-phase
in-phase distributed(i.e.,
distributed (i.e.,with
withconstant
constant amplitudes
amplitudes andand wavelength;
wavelength; Figure
Figure 28). 28).
The
occurrence of single or distributed waves can be attributed to the bending stiffness of the layers.
The occurrence of single or distributed waves can be attributed to the bending
occurrence of single or distributed waves can be attributed to the bending stiffness of the layers. stiffness of the layers.
Figure 28. Single vs. distributed waviness.

Figure 28.
Figure Single vs.
28. Single vs. distributed
distributedwaviness.
waviness.
5.2. Traditional Differentiation of Figure 28. Single vs. distributed
Wave Types—Constant waviness.
or Changing Wave Amplitude
5.2. Traditional Differentiation of Wave Types—Constant or Changing Wave Amplitude
5.2. Traditional Differentiation of Wave Types—Constant or Changing Wave Amplitude
Anothergeneral
5.2. Traditional
Another general distinction
Differentiation between
of Wave
distinction uniformand
Types—Constant
between uniform and graded
orgraded
Changingwaviness (Figure29)
Wave Amplitude
waviness (Figure 29)isisoften
oftenused
usedin in
Another
literature general
[13,14]. distinction between uniform and graded waviness the(Figure 29) ischanges
often used in in
literature [13,14].
Another In In
general
graded
graded waviness,
waviness,
distinction between
unlike
unlike uniform
uniform
uniform
waviness,
and
waviness,
graded the amplitude
waviness
amplitude
changes
(Figure 29) in
is the
the
thickness
often used
literature
thickness [13,14].
directionInofgraded
the waviness,
laminate. unlike
Graded uniform
waviness is waviness,
typically the amplitude
embedded in the changes
laminate, in thein
whereas
direction
literatureof[13,14].
the laminate.
Inthe Graded
graded waviness
waviness, is typically
unlike uniform embedded
waviness,in the
the laminate,
amplitude whereas
changes uniform
in also
the
thickness
uniform direction
waviness of
is morelaminate.
likely toGraded
be waviness
visible on the is typically
surface. embedded
However, in thewaviness
uniform laminate, whereas
can be
waviness
thickness is more
directionlikely to be visible on the surface. However, uniform waviness can be also fully
uniform waviness
fully embedded, is of
but the likely
more
occurlaminate.
onlyto beGraded
visible
locally and waviness
on the
not isthe
typically
surface.
across embedded
However,
entire uniform
thickness. in waviness
the laminate, can whereas
be also
embedded,
uniform but occur
waviness is only
more locally
likely and
to be not across
visible on the
the entire
surface. thickness.
However, uniform waviness can be also
fully embedded, but occur only locally and not across the entire thickness.
fully embedded, but occur only locally and not across the entire thickness.
Figure 29. Uniform vs. graded waviness.

Hsiao and Daniel [13,159] mathematically
Figure 29. Uniformdescribed
vs. gradedthe uniform fiber waviness as a planar
waviness.
sinusoidal wave with an local amplitude defined by
2∗π∗x

v = A ∗ sin (4)
L
where A is the amplitude and L is the wavelength. The deviation angle θ is described by a partial
derivative of the spatial position of the wavy fibers v after x.
dv 2 ∗ Pi ∗ A 2∗π∗x

tan θ = = cos (5)
dx L L
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 27 of 39
Similarly to that, the graded waviness can be described as follows
|z| 2∗π∗x

v = A∗ 1− sin (6)
h L
dv 2∗π∗A |z| 2∗π∗x

tan θ = = 1− cos (7)
dx L h L
El-Hajjar and Petersen [15] alternatively used a Gaussian function to capture the bell curve of
wavy plies, which was found to better represent the wave geometry.
(x−b)2
−
f (x) = A e 2c2 (8)
A again describes the amplitude (i.e., the height) of the bell curve, e the Euler number, x the
running coordinate, b the position of the maximum fiber deflection, and c describes the width of the
bell curve. This equation is further adapted by describing a wavy part Aw in a laminate with the
nominal thickness h and the z-coordinate Zk of the kth ply.
" 2 # x2
Z − Aw

−
v = Aw 1 − k e 2c2 (9)
h − Aw
The derivative after x again leads to the equation for the local fiber angle θ.
− x2 " 2 #
dv Axe 2c2 A − Zk
tan θ = = −1 (10)
dx c2 A−h
5.3. Phase Characteristics of the Wave Form

The iso-phase model [160], also known as in-phase model, depicted in Figure 30 (left), assumes all
fibers to be in the same phase along the x-direction. Similar to uniform waviness, each small volume
element of the composite between x and x + dx is approximated by a unidirectional fiber composite,
in which fibers are inclined at an angle θ to the x-axis. In contrast to that, the fiber orientation θ of
the random-phase waviness, shown in Figure 30 (right), is randomly distributed at each x increment.
In this case, the spatial position of wavy fibers can be described by
2 ∗ π ∗ (x − d)
!
v = A ∗ sin (11)
L
J. Compos.
where d isSci.
the2020, 4, 130
translation of the sinusoidally shaped fiber in the x-direction. 28 of 39
Figure 30.Iso-phase
Figure30. Iso-phasevs.
vs.random-phase
random-phasewaviness.
waviness.
Although the description of the random phase waviness is a rather theoretical one, this form of
5.4. Visibility
waviness can be caused by shear stresses in the thickness direction of the laminate.
In terms of detectability, outer visibility constitutes another classification (Figure 31). Embedded
5.4. Visibility
waves (i.e., not directly visible deviations of the fiber orientation from the outside surface) are more
difficult to beofdetected
In terms compared
detectability, outertovisibility
visible waves, due to
constitutes differences
another in thickness
classification t of31).
(Figure the Embedded
laminate or
deviations from a planar surface.
waves (i.e., not directly visible deviations of the fiber orientation from the outside surface) are more
Figure 30. Iso-phase vs. random-phase waviness.
Figure 30. Iso-phase vs. random-phase waviness.
5.4. Visibility
5.4. Visibility
In terms of detectability, outer visibility constitutes another classification (Figure 31). Embedded
J.waves
Compos. Sci. 2020,
In terms
(i.e., of 4,detectability,
not 130
directly outer
visible visibility
deviations ofconstitutes another classification
the fiber orientation (Figure
from the outside 28 more
31). Embedded
surface) are of 39
waves (i.e.,
difficult notdetected
to be directly compared
visible deviations
to visibleofwaves,
the fiber orientation
due frominthe
to differences outsidetsurface)
thickness are more
of the laminate or
difficult
deviations to be detected
from compared
a planar to visible waves, due to differences in thickness t of the laminate or
surface.to
difficult to be detected compared visible waves, due to differences in thickness t of the laminate or
Figure 31. Embedded vs. visible waves.

5.5.Dimensional
5.5. DimensionalCharacteristics
Characteristics
5.5. Dimensional Characteristics
Withregard
With regardtotothe
theassessment
assessmentofoffiberfiberwaviness,
waviness,the
thedimensional
dimensionalcharacteristic
characteristicofofwaves
wavesisisanan
With distinguishing
important
important regard to the assessment
distinguishing of
thefiber
feature.IfIfthe
feature. waviness,
waviness
waviness theone
changes
changes dimensional
oneofofits characteristic
itscharacteristics
characteristics of third
ininthe
the waves is an
thirdspatial
spatial
important
direction, distinguishing
direction,this
thismust
mustalso feature.
alsobe
be Ifinto
takeninto
taken theaccount.
waviness
account. changes
Figure
Figure 32 one of its
32shows
shows characteristicsof
aarepresentation
representation in
ofathe
a2D
2Dthird
wave
wavespatial
(left)
(left)
direction,
and a 3D this
wavemust also
(right).
and a 3D wave (right). be taken into account. Figure 32 shows a representation of a 2D wave (left)
and a 3D wave (right).
Figure 32.2D
Figure32. 2Dvs.
vs.3D
3Dwaves.
waves.
Figure 32. 2D vs. 3D waves.
The
Theanalytical description
analytical for for
description uniform waviness
uniform in 2D,inbased
waviness 2D, on [13],on
based is expanded for 3D waviness
[13], is expanded for 3D
and the
Thespatial
waviness and position
analytical of position
the fiber
description
the spatial v uniform
forof and the fiber
the fiber angle
waviness
v and θincan
2D,
the fiber bebased
written
angle onas:
θ can be[13], is expanded
written as: for 3D
waviness and the spatial position of the 𝐴fiber v and thefiber angle
θ can be written as:
A y𝑦 22∗ ∗π 𝜋∗ x∗ 𝑥
v𝑣==𝐴 ∗∗𝑦 ∗∗ 11−−coscos
2 ∗L𝜋𝐿∗ 𝑥
(12)
22 w 𝑤
𝑣 = ∗ ∗ 1 − cos (12)
2 𝑑𝑣𝑤 𝐴 ∗ 𝑦 ∗ 𝑃𝑖 𝐿2 ∗ 𝜋 ∗ 𝑥
tan 𝜃 = dv = A ∗ y ∗ Pi 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 ∗ π ∗ x (13)
tan θ = 𝑑𝑣𝑑𝑥 =𝐴 ∗𝑤𝑦 ∗∗ 𝐿𝑃𝑖 sin 2 ∗ 𝜋𝐿∗ 𝑥 (13)
tan 𝜃 = dx = w ∗ L 𝑠𝑖𝑛 L (13)
where w is the width of the wave in the𝑑𝑥
third 𝑤 ∗ 𝐿 direction.𝐿
spatial
where w Sci.
J. Compos. is the width
2020, 4, 130 of the wave in the third spatial direction. 29 of 39
where w is the width of the wave in the third spatial direction.
5.6.
5.6. Continuity
Continuity of of Layers/Laminate
Layers/Laminate
Fiber
Fiberwaviness
wavinessfrequently
frequentlyoccurs
occursin
inlaminate
laminatetransition
transitionareas
areaswith
withvarying
varyingthicknesses
thicknessesresulting
resulting
from
fromply-drops
ply-drops(i.e.,
(i.e.,tapered
taperedlaminates)
laminates)oror
also through
also throughgaps andand
gaps overlaps, which
overlaps, are are
which characteristic for
characteristic
automated fiber placement (AFP) processes. In general, these types of fiber waviness
for automated fiber placement (AFP) processes. In general, these types of fiber waviness occur due occur due to
non-continuous
to non-continuouslayers
layerscompared
comparedto waviness
to wavinessin continuous
in continuouslayers or laminates
layers (Figure
or laminates 33).33).
(Figure
Figure33.
Figure 33. Waves
Wavesat
atcontinuous
continuousvs.
vs.non-continuous
non-continuousplies.
plies.
5.7. Portion and Position of the Wavy Region in the Laminate

The ratio of wavy plies (Equation (14)) to the total number of plies represents a characteristic
factor of local waviness where only a part of the laminate is wrinkled and the remaining layers are
Figure 33. Waves at continuous vs. non-continuous plies.
J.5.7. Portion
Compos. and Position
Sci. 2020, 4, 130 of the Wavy Region in the Laminate 29 of 39
Figure
The ratio of wavy plies 33. Waves(14))
(Equation at continuous vs. non-continuous
to the total number of plies plies.
represents a characteristic
factor of local waviness where only a part of the
5.7. Portion and Position of the Wavy Region in the Laminate laminate is wrinkled and the remaining layers are
5.7. Portion and Position of the Wavy Region
oriented according to the design (Figure 34). in the Laminate
The ratio of wavy plies (Equation (14)) to the total number of plies represents a characteristic
The ratio of wavy plies (Equation (14)) to the
factor of local waviness where 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
total 𝑜𝑓
is𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
wrinkled𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠
number of plies represents a characteristic
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜only a part of the
𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 laminate
a part of=the laminate
and the remaining layers(14)are
factor of local waviness where only
oriented according to the design (Figure 34). 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
is 𝑜𝑓
wrinkled 𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠and the remaining layers are
oriented according to the design (Figure 34).
Multidirectional laminates may be more prone to local fiber waviness due to varying (bending)
number o f𝑜𝑓a f𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
f ected plies
stiffnesses of the plies. Camanho oetf 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
ratio 𝑜𝑓
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 waviness == 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟strength
al. [161] introduced 𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 factors to account for(14)
correction this
(14)
total number o f
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠plies
position as well as the thickness of the layer.
stiffnesses of the plies. Camanho et al. [161] introduced strength correction factors to account for this
position as well as the thickness of the layer.
Figure 34. Portion and position of the wavy layers in the laminate.
Figure 34. Portion and position of the wavy layers in the laminate.
5.8. Phase Characteristics of the Material
stiffnesses of the plies. Camanho et al. [161] introduced strength correction factors to account for this
Foras
position the
well as theFigure
resolution 34. Portion
of fiber
thickness and and
matrix
of the position
layer. of the wavy layers
in the undisturbed in thethe
laminate laminate.
microscopic level is used.
Manufacturing effects, such as bridging or fiber washing, can result in areas without fiber material
5.8.
5.8.Phase
that Phase
can be Characteristics
Characteristics ofofthe
filled with excess theMaterial
Material
resin. These areas are visible to the naked eye in many cases, i.e., in
bridged
For corner
Forthe radii, and
theresolution
resolution of are and
offiber
fiber therefore
andmatrix
matrix referred
in
inthe to as macroscopic
theundisturbed
undisturbed laminate
laminate phases
the by resin accumulation.
the microscopic
microscopic level
level is
is used.
used.
Especially
Manufacturing in manual
Manufacturingeffects, production
effects,such
such asas steps,
bridging
bridging such
or or
fiberas hand
washing,
fiber lay-ups,
washing,cancan unwanted
result in areas
result foreign
without
in areas bodies embedded
fiber fiber
without material that
material in
the
can laminate,
thatbecan
filled
be withsuch as
filledexcess carrier foils,
resin. These
with excess knife
resin. areas blades,
Theseare etc.,
visible
areas can
are to cause
the naked
visible wrinkles
to theeye which
in many
naked eye in in turn
cases,
many can
i.e.,cases,lead
in bridged to
i.e., in
additionally
corner
bridged radii, accumulations
and
corner are therefore
radii, and are ofreferred
resin into
thereforethis
as area. This
macroscopic
referred also
to as leads by
phases to macroscopically
macroscopic resin accumulation.
phases different
by resin phases,
Especially
accumulation. in
in this
manual case
Especially by
productionforeign
in manual material.
steps, A schematic
such as steps,
production hand lay-ups, overview
unwanted
such as hand of this classification
foreign
lay-ups, is
bodiesforeign
unwanted shown
embedded in Figure
in the
bodies 35.
laminate,
embedded in
such as carriersuch
the laminate, foils,asknife blades,
carrier foils, etc.,
knifecan causeetc.,
blades, wrinkles which
can cause in turnwhich
wrinkles can lead to additionally
in turn can lead to
accumulations
additionally accumulations of resin in this area. This also leads to macroscopically different case
of resin in this area. This also leads to macroscopically different phases, in this by
phases,
foreign material.
in this case A schematic
by foreign overview
material. A schematicof thisoverview
classification is classification
of this shown in Figure 35. in Figure 35.
is shown
Figure 35. Microscopic vs. macroscopic distributed phases in wavy regions.
Figure35.
Figure 35.Microscopic
Microscopicvs.
vs.macroscopic
macroscopicdistributed
distributedphases
phasesin
inwavy
wavyregions.
regions.
5.9. Influence of t/A Ratio

The influence of wavy layers strongly depends on the affected thickness of the laminate (Figure 36).
Especially in thin-walled laminates with a correspondingly large degree of waviness (t << A),
in addition to the influences on the material properties, structural influences [12] become apparent.
In such cases, a complex mix of both material and structural type behavior leads to strongly nonlinear
geometric constraints, requiring the calculation of stresses resulting from the bending of the wave.
and The
𝑦 = influence
) leads toof wavy layers strongly depends on the affected thickness of the laminate (Figure
36). Especially in thin-walled laminates with a correspondingly large degree of waviness (t << A), in
addition to the influences on the material𝜎properties, 𝑀 6𝜎 𝐴
= 𝑦 = structural influences [12] become apparent. (15)In
𝐽
such cases, a complex mix of both material and structural 𝑡 type behavior leads to strongly nonlinear
geometric
Thus,constraints,
the resulting requiring
bendingthe calculation
stresses, with of stresses resulting
a maximum from the bending
in the longitudinal ofof
center thethe
wave.
wave,
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 30 of 39
The substantial influence of both the amplitude A and thickness
increases with increasing amplitude and decreases with increasing thickness. t, in view of the resulting
bending stresses, are shown in a simplified analytical consideration, Equation (15), using the Euler–
Bernoulli beam theory (neutral axis coincides with the beam centroid line, bending moment 𝑀 =
𝐹 𝐴 = 𝜎 𝑏 𝑡 𝐴, where A is the amplitude, the moment of inertia for rectangular cross section 𝐽 =
and 𝑦 = ) leads to
𝑀 6𝜎 𝐴
𝜎 = 𝑦= (15)
𝐽 𝑡
Thus, the resulting bendingFigurestresses,
Figure 36. with a maximum
36. Material
Material vs.
vs. structural
structuralinlevel.
the longitudinal center of the wave,
level.
increases with increasing amplitude and decreases with increasing thickness.
5.10.The substantial
Geometric influence
Position of both
of the Wavy in the PartA and thickness t, in view of the resulting bending
the amplitude
Region
stresses, are shown in a simplified analytical consideration, Equation (15), using the Euler–Bernoulli
beamThere
theoryis(neutral
a growing
axisinterest in the
coincides withuse
theofbeam
thickcentroid
walled composite
line, bendingparts to replace
moment MB complex
= F A = metallic
σx b t A,
fittings for specific applications [162]. Additionally, the integral design of composite parts b t3 allows for
where A is the amplitude, the moment of inertia for rectangular cross section J y = 12 and y = 2t )
an integration of several functions. However, these parts often have quite complex geometries and
leads to
consist of radii, T-joints and varying wall thicknesses
MB 6 σx A are prone to fiber waviness. Examples of
which
σ = y= (15)
fiber waviness in areas of radii or T-jointsB are shown
Jy in Figure
t 37 (right).
Thus, the resulting bending stresses, with a maximum in the longitudinal center of the wave,
Figure 36. Material vs. structural level.
increases with increasing amplitude and decreases with increasing thickness.
5.10. Geometric Position of the Wavy Region in the Part
5.10. Geometric Position of the Wavy Region in the Part
There is a growing interest in the use of thick walled composite parts to replace complex metallic
There is a growing interest in the use of thick walled composite parts to replace complex metallic
fittings for specific applications [162]. Additionally, the integral design of composite parts allows for
fittings for specific applications [162]. Additionally, the integral design of composite parts allows for
consist of radii, T-joints and varying wall thicknesses which are prone to fiber waviness. Examples of
consist of radii, T-joints and varying wall thicknesses which are prone to fiber waviness. Examples of
fiber waviness in areas of radii or T-joints are shown in Figure 37 (right).
fiber waviness in areas of radii or T-joints are shown in Figure 37 (right).
Figure 37. Waves in flat or slightly curved areas vs. complex geometries.
6. Examples for Waviness Classification

Some examples for waviness classification are shown in Table 3.
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 31 of 39
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 31 of 39
J.J.J.Compos.
Compos.Sci.
Compos. Sci.2020,
Sci. 4,130
2020,4,4,
2020, 130
130 31of
31
31 of39
of 39
39
Table 3. Examples for waviness classification.

Table 3. Examples for waviness classification.
Table
Table3.3.Examples
Table Examplesfor
Examples forwaviness
wavinessclassification.
classification.
Through- Geometric
Number and Through- Phase Geometric
Number and Through-
Thickness
Through- Phase Visibility Continuity of Position Geometric
Position
Geometric
Number
Numberand
Distribution
and Thickness Phase
Characteristics
Phase Visibility Continuity of Position Phase Level of Position Geometric
Number
Distribution Thickness
Wave
Thickness Characteristics Visibility
(Embedded,
Visibility Dimensional Continuity of
Layers/Laminate
Continuity of Position
(Centered,
Position Phase Level of Position
(Flat or
Position
Example of Distribution
(Single,
Distribution Wave of the WavePhase (Embedded,
Characteristics
Characteristics Dimensional Layers/Laminate (Centered, Phase
Characteristics
Phase Level
Levelof
Influence
of (Flat or Position
Example of and
(Single, Wave
Form
Wave of the Wave VisibilityCharacteristics
(Embedded,
Hump,
(Embedded, Dimensional
Dimensional Layers/Laminate
(Continuous,
Layers/Laminate Outer Position
(Centered,
Plies,
(Centered, Characteristics Influence (Flat
(Flator
Slightly
or (Flat or
Example
Fiber of
Waviness
Example of (Single,
Stochastic or
(Single,or Through-Thickness
Form of the Wave
Characteristics
Form
of the Wave Hump, Characteristics Continuity
(Continuous, of
Outer Plies, Characteristics
Phase
(Microscopic,
Characteristics Influence
(Material, Level
Influence Curvedof
Slightly
Example
Fiber of
Waviness Distribution
Stochastic Form
(Uniform
Form Form Hump,
(Embedded,
Indention,
Hump, Characteristics
Dimensional
(2D, 3D)
Characteristics (Continuous,
Non-
(Continuous, Outer Plies,
(Centered,
Whole
Outer Plies, (Microscopic, (Material, Slightly
Areas,
Slightly
Fiber Waviness
Fiber Waviness Stochastic
In-Phase
Stochastic or Wave
(Uniform Form Form
of the
(Iso-Phase, Wave Indention, (2D, 3D) Layers/Laminate
Non- Whole (Microscopic,
Macroscopic) (Material,
Characteristics Influence
Structure) Curved Slightly
Areas,
Fiber In-Phase or
(Single, (Uniform
vs.
(Uniform
Form
(Iso-Phase, Indention,
Wave)Hump, (2D,
Indention, (2D, 3D)
Characteristics
3D) Non-
Continuous)
Non- Whole
Laminate)
Whole
(Microscopic,
Outer Plies,
Macroscopic) (Material, Curved
Structure) Areas,
Complex
Curved Areas,Curved
In-Phase
Distributed)
In-Phase (Uniform
vs. vs. (Iso-Phase,
Random-Phase) Form
(Iso-Phase, Wave) (Continuous,
Continuous) Laminate) Macroscopic) Structure)
(Microscopic, (Material,
Complex
Waviness Stochastic
Distributed) vs.
Graded)
vs. Random-Phase) Wave)
Indention, (2D, 3D) Continuous) Laminate) WholeMacroscopic) Structure) Complex
Geometries)
Distributed) Graded)
Graded) (Iso-Phase, Wave)
Random-Phase) Continuous)
Non-Continuous)Laminate) Macroscopic) Structure) Complex Areas,
Geometries)
or Distributed)
In-Phase Graded)
Graded)
Random-Phase) Wave) Laminate) Geometries)
Geometries)Complex
Random-Phase)
Distributed)
Whole Geometries)
Single Uniform Iso-phase Wave 2D Continuous Whole Microscopic Structural Flat
Single Uniform Iso-phase Wave 2D Continuous Whole
laminate Microscopic
WholeWholeMicroscopic Structural Flat
Single
Single Uniform
Uniform Iso-phase
Iso-phase Wave
WaveWave 2D
2D 2D Continuous
Continuous laminate Microscopic Structural
Structural Flat
Single Uniform Iso-phase Continuous laminate
laminate Microscopic StructuralFlat Flat
laminate
Whole
Single
Single Graded
Graded Iso-phase
Iso-phase Embedded
Embedded 2D Continuous Whole Whole Microscopic Material Flat
Single Graded Iso-phase Embedded 2D 2D Continuous laminate
Continuous Whole Microscopic
Microscopic
laminateMicroscopic
Whole Material MaterialFlat Flat
Single
Single Graded
Graded Iso-phase
Iso-phase Embedded
Embedded 2D
2D Continuous
Continuous laminate Microscopic Material
Material Flat
Flat
laminate
laminate
Stochastic Whole
Stochastic
Stochastic Graded Random-phase Embedded 3D Non-continuous Whole Whole Microscopic Material T-joint
Stochastic
distributed
Stochastic Graded
Graded Random-phase Embedded
Random-phase Embedded 3D 3D Non-continuous Whole
Non-continuouslaminate
laminate
Whole Microscopic Material Material
Microscopic T-joint T-joint
[162] distributed
distributed Graded
Graded Random-phase
Random-phase Embedded
Embedded 3D
3D Non-continuous
Non-continuous laminateMicroscopic
Microscopic Material
Material T-joint
T-joint
[162]
[162] distributed
distributed laminate
laminate
[162]
[162]
Whole
Single Graded Iso-phase Hump 2D Continuous Whole Macroscopic Material Flat
Single Graded Iso-phase Hump 2D Continuous Whole
WholeWholeMacroscopic
laminate Macroscopic Material Flat
[11] Single
Single
Single Graded
Graded
Graded Iso-phase
Iso-phase
Iso-phase Hump
Hump
Hump 2D
2D 2D Continuous
Continuous laminate
Continuous laminate Material
Macroscopic
Macroscopic MaterialMaterialFlat
Flat Flat
[11] laminate
laminate
[11]
[11]
[11]
J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130 32 of 39
7. Conclusions
This paper provides an overview of various types of out-of-plane fiber waviness (wrinkles) and
their origins. Since the manufacturing processes of composite materials are very different, a variety of
waviness types may occur. Potential root causes are described and, based on that, a generic classification
scheme was developed to differentiate between types of waviness. Among others, process parameters
(e.g., temperature, pressure and deformation rate), the selection of the fiber and tooling material and
its properties (e.g., CTE), as well as the complexity of the geometry of the final component are the
main parameters that influence the occurrence of fiber waviness. These influencing parameters often
exhibit mutual dependencies and a distinct assignment of a resulting waviness to a specific origin
can be difficult. Nevertheless, this work contributes to the understanding of the formation of fiber
waviness and provides a guideline for reducing or, in the best case, completely avoiding them.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.T.; methodology, M.T.; validation, M.T., M.G.R.S. and R.M.H.; formal
analysis, M.T.; investigation, M.T.; resources, M.T.; data curation, M.T.; writing—original draft preparation, M.T.;
writing—review and editing, M.T., M.G.R.S. and R.M.H.; visualization, M.T.; supervision, M.G.R.S. and R.M.H.;
project administration, M.T.; funding acquisition, M.T. and R.M.H. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The Austrian Research Promotion Agency (FFG) is gratefully acknowledged for funding this research in
the BRIDGE 1 program (Project FiberWave; Grant No. 855711) and the TakeOff program (Project BeyondInspection;
Grant No. 874540).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.
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© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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Fiber Waviness in Composite Materials-A Review: Mechanisms of Origin and Classification of Out-of-Plane

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Review

Mechanisms of Origin and Classification of Out-of-Plane

Keywords: review; composite materials; manufacturing effects; fiber waviness; wrinkling

J. Compos. Sci. 2020, 4, 130; doi:10.3390/jcs4030130 www.mdpi.com/journal/jcs

Figure 2. Parameters influencing the mechanical properties (e.g., amplitude A, wavelength L,

thermoplastic matrices), or in an uncured sticky stage when using thermoset pre-impregnated

Figure 6. Force analysis in 3D stamp forming, modified from [44].

Figure 9. Schematic illustration of an anisotropic plate on elastic foundation illustrating an approach

Slit-Tape Width Typical Minimum Steering Radius

Slit-Tape Width Typical Minimum Steering Radius

4.2.4. Consolidation in Corner Areas, External Radii, Stepped, or Tapered Laminates

Figure (a) (a)

where pc is the critical load and τ(γ) the shear stress.

4.3. Non-Uniform Pressure Distribution

4.3.1. Co-Bonding (or Pre-Cured Parts in LCM Process)

4.3. Non-Uniform Pressure Distribution

4.3.3. Welding Spots

Figure 15. Ply

4.4. Interaction between Tool–Ply and Ply–Ply

4.4.1. Inter-Ply Slippage

4.5. Lay-Up Sequence

4.5.1. Gaps and Overlaps

4.5.2. Ply Drops in Tapered Laminates

4.6. Textile Architecture

4.6.1. Inherent Undulations in Woven and Braided Fabrics

4.6.2. Shear Locking Angle of Woven Fabrics

4.6.3. Stitches in Non-Crimped Fabrics

4.6.4. Stitches in Dry Fiber Placements

4.7. Foreign Objects

4.7.1. Intended Foreign Objects (e.g., Optical Sensors, Pins, Inserts)

4.8. Flow-Induced Waviness

4.8.1. Fiber Wash-Out

4.9. Cure-Induced Waviness

Figure 26. Shrinkage

4.9.2. Large Temperature Gradient in Thick Laminates

4.10. Unique Characteristics of Fabrication Processes

4.10.1. Filament Winding

Figure 28. Single vs. distributed waviness.

Figure 29. Uniform vs. graded waviness.

Similarly to that, the graded waviness can be described as follows

dv 2∗π∗A |z| 2∗π∗x

5.3. Phase Characteristics of the Wave Form

Figure 31. Embedded vs. visible waves.

5.7. Portion and Position of the Wavy Region in the Laminate

Figure 35. Microscopic vs. macroscopic distributed phases in wavy regions.

5.9. Influence of t/A Ratio

6. Examples for Waviness Classification

Table 3. Examples for waviness classification.

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