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Communication & Computer Skills 17
Communication & Computer Skills 17
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COMMUNICATION &
COMPUTER SKILLS
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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
COMPUTER
An electronic machine that works under the control of stored programs to accept process
& output data/information for use by the operator.
A device that accepts data, processes the data in accordance with a stored program,
generates results, and usually consists of input, output, storage, and arithmetic, logic, and
control units.
A functional unit that can perform substantial computation, including numerous
arithmetic operations or logic operations, without human intervention during a run.
It is an electronic device/machine that accepts data (raw facts & figures) as input and
processes (works on it) to produce information (data converted to meaningful form) as
output.
*HARDWARE*
*SOFTWARE*
Refers to the intangible computer components, which are the programs or instructions of
the computer.
Is a set of instructions or programs instructing a computer to do specific tasks.
_Software is a generic term used to describe computer programs_
Scripts, applications, programs and a set of instructions are the terms often used to
describe software.
Everything that a computer does, it acts under instructions written out as computer
programs.
The hardware needs these instructions to function
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A computer program is a set of statements or instructions to be used directly or indirectly
in a computer in order to bring about a certain result.
*NB* _Software alone is useless, so is the hardware. The two are inseparable_
*FIRMWARE*
_Firmware was originally designed for high level software and could be changed without
having to exchange the hardware for a newer device. Firmware also retains the basic
instructions for hardware devices that make them operative. Without firmware, a
hardware device would be non-functional_
*PERIPHERAL DEVICES*
These are devices that are external (not part of the computer) but can be connected to a
computer.
They are not essential for the functioning of the computer but can be connected to the
computer for specific reasons.
Examples are: _scanners, modems, printers, speakers, digital cameras, etc._
*FUNCTIONS OF A COMPUTER*
*Input (Data)*
o The computer accepts data from outside for processing. Input is the raw
information entered into a computer from the input devices.
o Transferring of information into the system. This may be through a user
input device - i.e. keyboard, mouse, scanner etc.. Or though previously
loaded software/program, cd etc.
*Processing*
o The computer performs operations on the data that it holds internally.
o Processing is the operation of data as per given instruction.
o It is totally internal process of the computer system.
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o This is where the computer actually does the 'work' - manipulating and
controlling data over the entire system.
*Output*
o The computer produces information for external use.
o Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is
also called as Result.
o Output is the exact opposite of input.
o Output is the function that allows a computer to display information, from
the system, for the user.
o This can be accomplished through the monitor (or other graphical
display), printer, speakers etc.
*Storage*
o The computer stores data before, during and after processing.
o We can save results of processing in the storage devices for the future use.
o Most computers are able to store data both temporarily (in order to
process), but also long-term (i.e., permanently).
o Storage takes place on hard-drives or external storage devices.
*Communication*
o The computer can send or receive data to or from other computers when it is
connected on a network
HARDWARE VS SOFTWARE
HARDWARE SOFTWARE
Physical components of a computer system. Devices that are Intangible components of a computer system, which are programs or
Definition
required to store and execute (or run) the software. instructions that enables a user to interact with the computer.
Types Input, storage, processing, control, and output devices. System software, Programming software, and Application software.
CD-ROM, monitor, printer, video card, scanners, label makers, QuickBooks, Adobe Acrobat, WhatsApp , Internet Explorer ,
Examples
routers, and modems. Microsoft Word , Microsoft Excel
Inter
Hardware starts functioning once software is loaded. To deliver its set of instructions, Software is installed on hardware.
dependency
Hardware failure is random. Hardware does have increasing failure Software failure is systematic. Software does not have an increasing
Failure
at the last stage. failure rate.
Software does not wear out over time. However, bugs are
Durability Hardware wears out over time.
discovered in software as time passes.
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*INPUT UNIT*
1. It accepts (or reads) the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable format.
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further
processing.
*OUTPUT UNIT*
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence
cannot be easily understood by us.
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable (readable) form.
3. It supplied the converted results to the outside world.
*STORAGE UNIT*
1. All the data to be processed and the instruction required for processing (received from
input devices).
2. Intermediate results of processing.
3. Final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.
The CPU processes instructions it receives in the process of decoding data. In processing this
data, the CPU performs four basic steps:
1. Fetch Each instruction is stored in memory and has its own address. The processor takes
this address number from the program counter, which is responsible for tracking which
instructions the CPU should execute next.
2. Decode All programs to be executed are translated to into Assembly instructions.
Assembly code must be decoded into binary instructions, which are understandable to
your CPU. This step is called decoding.
3. Execute While executing instructions the CPU can do one of three things: Do
calculations with its ALU, move data from one memory location to another, or jump to a
different address.
4. Store The CPU must give feedback after executing an instruction and the output data is
written to the memory.
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a major component of the central processing unit of a
computer system. It does all processes related to arithmetic and logic operations that need
to be done on instruction words. In some microprocessor architectures, the ALU is
divided into the arithmetic unit (AU) and the logic unit (LU).
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_ALUs routinely perform the following operations_
*Logical Operations*: These include AND, OR, NOT, XOR, NOR, NAND, etc.
*Bit-Shifting Operations*: This pertains to shifting the positions of the bits by a
certain number of places to the right or left, which is considered a multiplication
operation.
*Arithmetic Operations*: This refers to bit addition and subtraction. Although
multiplication and division are sometimes used, these operations are more
expensive to make. Addition can be used to substitute for multiplication and
subtraction for division.
*CONTROL UNIT*
A control unit (CU) handles all processor control signals. It directs all input and output flow,
fetches code for instructions from microprograms and directs other units and models by providing
control and timing signals. A CU component is considered the processor brain because it issues
orders to just about everything and ensures correct instruction execution.
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The memory devices used for primary The secondary memory devices are
memory are semiconductor memories magnetic and optical memories.
These memories are also called as internal These memories are also called as external
memory memory
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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
*Analog Computer*
An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical
phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the
problem being solved
*Digital Computer*
A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system
1. Supercomputer
2. Mainframe Computer
3. Minicomputer
4. Microcomputer
*SUPERCOMPUTER*
The most powerful computers in terms of performance and data processing are the
Supercomputers. These are specialized and task specific computers used by large
organizations. These computers are used for research and exploration purposes, like
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NASA uses supercomputers for launching space shuttles, controlling them and for
space exploration purpose.
The supercomputers are very expensive and very large in size. It can be
accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms; some super computers can span an
entire building.
*Uses Of Supercomputers*
Space Exploration
Earthquake studies
Weather Forecasting
Nuclear weapons testing
*MAINFRAME COMPUTER*
Although Mainframes are not as powerful as supercomputers, but certainly they are
quite expensive nonetheless, and many large firms & government organizations uses
Mainframes to run their business operations.
The Mainframe computers can be accommodated in large air-conditioned rooms
because of its size.
Super-computers are the fastest computers with large data storage capacity,
Mainframes can also process & store large amount of data.
Banks educational institutions & insurance companies use mainframe computers to
store data about their customers, students & insurance policy holders.
*MINICOMPUTER*
*MICROCOMPUTER*
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones
are all types of microcomputers.
The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing computers.
These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers.
The Micro-computers are specially designed for general usage like entertainment,
education and work purposes.
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Well known manufacturers of Micro-computer are Dell, Apple, Samsung, Sony &
Toshiba.
Desktop computers, Gaming consoles, Sound & Navigation system of a car,
Netbooks, Notebooks, PDA’s, Tablet PC’s, Smartphones, Calculators are all type of
Microcomputers.
*The main differences among the above computer types are in*:
Processing speed,
Memory capacity
Number and capabilities or peripheral devices that can be attached to the
computer
Usage.
*COMPUTER APPLICATIONS*
a) Business- for administration, payroll and accounting.
b) Government- keeping database records.
c) Education- Record keeping, accounting and training in the classroom.
d) Health- Record keeping, life-support systems.
e) Sport- fitness monitoring.
f) Art and Design- desktop Publishing, technical graphics, Computer Aided Design.
g) Homes- PCs for home accounts, games, e-mail, online shopping, home education etc.
h) Banks- Record keeping and updating, on-line Automated Teller Machines (ATMs).
i) Supermarkets- Electronic point Of Sale Machines (EPOS) – tills.
1. *COST*; how much can I afford to pay for a computer? Prices of personal
computers range from a few hundred to thousands of dollars. Faster and more
feature-rich PCs are usually more expensive.
2. *AREA OF USE*; where will my new PC be used? If you will be using it only in
your home or office, a desktop computer will be suitable. However, if you will need
to take it with you, you should consider purchasing a laptop (notebook) computer.
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4. *DURATION*; How long will I keep this computer?Try to estimate the length of
time (years) you will use your computerbefore BUYING the next one. If you expect
use your PC for several years or if you think you may later want to add new
applications, CONSIDER one that is expandable, so you can add new components,
such as a modem, printer, or add-on boards. Make sure the PC has expansion slots so
you can connect these devices to your PC.
9. *MAIN MEMORY* (RAM). Main memory (RAM) is needed for the temporary
storage of programs and data while the data is being processed. Some application
software requires a considerable amount of RAM to function properly, and newer
software versions usually require more RAM than older versions. Typical PCs now
come with 2 gigabytes (GB), 5GB, or more of RAM. Make certain the PC has
sufficient RAM to run the software you will be using.
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11. *PORTS*. The number of ports (slots) available inside the system unit determines
the number of add-on boards that can be installed inside the system unit. For
example, you cannot connect a printer to your computer unless your computer is
equipped with an appropriate port (slot).
12. *INPUT DEVICES*. Typical input devices are a keyboard and a mouse, although
other kinds of input devices are available.
13. *OUTPUT DEVICES*. Output devices produce output in either soft copy or hard
copy form. Most PCs come with a monitor (for soft copy output), but you may have
to purchase a hard copy device, such as a printer, separately.
14. *MONITORS*.
Resolution refers to the clarity of the text and images being displayed. Before
making a purchase, carefully evaluate the monitor’s resolution.
Monitor size is another important consideration.
DATA
Relationship between Data and Information
Data is raw information
a collection of facts from which conclusions may be drawn; "statistical data"
INFORMATION
Data that has been processed to add or create meaning and hopefully knowledge
for the person who receives it. Information is the output of information systems.
Organized data which is understood to have significance and meaning
DATA PROCESSING
Used specifically, data processing may refer to a discrete step in the information processing cycle
in which data is acquired, entered, validated, processed, stored, and output, either in response to
queries or in the form of routine reports; the processing is the step that organizes the information
in order to form the desired output. Used in a more general sense, data processing may also refer
to the act of recording or otherwise handling one or more sets of data, and is often performed with
the use of computers. The word data is commonly used to mean “information” and often suggests
large amounts of information in a standardized format. Data may consist of letters, numbers,
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equations, dates, images, and other material, but does not usually include entire words.
The data processing cycle is the order in which data is processed. There are four stages:-
Input
This is the first event in the cycle. This stage involves collection of data from the outside or also
from within the system. One can break this stage into three more stages, namely acquisition, data
entry and validation. After the data has been acquired from the source, it is entered into the
current system, upon which the data is validated, so that correct results are given at the end of the
cycle. The input devices are many. The commonly used input devices are computer keyboard, bar
code readers, scanners, output from another system, etc.
Processing
In this stage the computer processes the minutest details entered. This processing makes the data
entered usable. If the computer was not to process the data, it would not be of any use and it
would also be a big mess of data. For example, if the spreadsheet was not to process the data, then
the data in the spreadsheet would only be a mess of numbers. The spreadsheet is a program which
gives the data out back to the user in the usable form. The system used for processing, along with
the data entered will decide the kind of output, which the user will get.
Output
If you have to look at the diagram of data/ information processing cycle, the step after processing
is the output stage. The processed information is now transmitted to the user. This stage can also
be further divided. After processing the data, there can be further interactive queries asked or
routine reports can be given. There are different forms in which the output can be given to the
user. There can be print report, which may be given to the user. The output can also be given in
the form of audio, video as well. In some cases, the results may only be displayed on the
computer monitor.
Storage
After the data has been processed, along with the output to the user, the data is also stored.
Different computer storage devices can be used for the same. Some of the commonly used data
storage methods are disk storage, tertiary storage, etc. Storing the data also serves another
purpose. You will not have to repeat the entire cycle again. Often the storage is done in both
digital as well as hard copy format. At the same time, backup of the digital format is also
maintained, which can be retrieved in case of system crash.
The most important advantage of this cycle is that the information is processed quickly. At the
same time retrieving the data is an easy task as well. The processed information can further be
passed unto the next stage directly in case the need be. The necessary data is stored, which helps
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in avoiding duplication of data as well as time.
Quality Commentary
Required
Relevant The information obtained and used should be needed for decision-making. it doesn't
matter how interesting it is. Businesses are often criticised for producing too much
information simply because their information systems can "do it". A good way of ensuring
relevance is to closely define the objectives of any information reports. Another way to
improve relevance is to produce information that focuses on "exceptions" - e.g. problems,
high or low values, where limits have been exceeded.
Up-to-date Information needs to be timely if it is to be actioned. For example, the manager of a large
retail business needs daily information on how stores are performing, which products are
selling well (or not) so that immediate action can be taken. To improve the speed with
which information is produced, businesses usually need to look at upgrading or replacing
their information systems.
Accurate As far as possible, information should be free from errors (e.g. the figures add up; data is
allocated to the correct categories). The users of information should be informed whenever
assumptions or estimates have been used. Accruate information is usually a function of
accurate data collection. If information needs to be extremely accurate, then more time
needs to be allocated for it to be checked. However, businesses need to guard against
trying to produce "perfect" information - it is often more important for the information to
be up-to-date than perfect.
Meet the needs Users of information have different needs. The managing director doesn't have time to
of the User trawl through thick printouts of each week's production or sales listings - he or she wants a
summary of the key facts. The quality control supervisor will want detailed information
about quality testing results rather than a brief one-line summary of how things are going.
It is a good idea to encourage users to help develop the style and format of information
reporting that they require.
Easy to use Information should be clearly presented (e.g. use summaries, charts) and not too long. It
and also needs to be communicated using an appropriate medium (e.g. email, printed report,
understand presentation. Businesses should also consider developing "templates" which are used
consistently throughout the organisation - so that users get used to seeing information in a
similar style.
Worth the cost Often forgotten. Information costs money. Data is costly to collect, analyse and report.
Information takes time to read and assimilate. All users should question whether the
information they recieve/have requested is worthwhile
Reliable Information should come from authoritative sources. It is good practice to quote the source
used - whether it be internal or external sources. If estimates or assumptions have been
applied, these should be clearly stated and explained.
1) Valid
2) Fit for use
3) Accessible
4) Cost effective
5) Understandable
6) Time
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COMPUTER EQUIPMENT
INPUT DEVICES:
Graphics Tablets
Cameras
Video Capture Hardware
Trackballs
Barcode reader
Digital camera
Gamepad
Joystick
Keyboard
Microphone
MIDI keyboard
Mouse (pointing device)
Scanner
Webcam
Touchpads
Pen Input
Microphone
Electronic Whiteboard
OMR
OCR
u) Punch card reader
v)MICR (Magnetic Ink character reader)
w) Magnetic Tape Drive
OUTPUT DEVICES:
Monitor (LED, LCD, CRT etc)
Printers (all types)
Plotters
Projector
LCD Projection Panels
Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
Speaker(s)
Head Phone
Visual Display Unit
Film Recorder
Microfiche
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Modems
Network cards
Touch Screen
Headsets (Headset consists of Speakers and Microphone. Speaker act Output
Device and Microphone act as Input device)
Facsimile (FAX) (It has scanner to scan the document and also have printer to
Print the document)
Audio Cards / Sound Card
INPUT DEVICES
These are some devices that feed data into the computer for processing. Some examples
include:-
1. KEYBOARD
2. MOUSE
3. TRACKBALL
4. LIGHT PEN
5. TOUCH SCREEN
6. MODEM
7. SCANNER
8. MICROPHONE
9. BAR CODE READER
10. DIGITAL CAMERA
11. VIDEO DIGITISER
12. MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION (MICR)
13. MAGNETC STRIPS OR STRIPES READER
14. KEY TO DISK
15. GRAPHICS TABLET
16. OCR
17. OMR
18. VOICE RECOGNITION SYSTEM
Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:
KEYBOARD
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting
data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter,
although there are some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
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Sr.No Keys Description
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
1 Typing Keys
generally give same layout as that of typewriters.
It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it
2 Numeric Keypad consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.
The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
3 Function Keys arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.
These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four
directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
4 Control keys
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift,
5 Special Purpose Keys
Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
MOUSE
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse
and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot
be used to enter text into the computer.
Advantages
Easy to use
Not very expensive
Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.
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JOYSTICK
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
LIGHT PEN
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the
monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
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TRACK BALL
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer
can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than
a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
SCANNER
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are
then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be
edited before they are printed.
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DIGITIZER
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer
can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever
the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet
because it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as
digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
MICROPHONE
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The
microphone is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
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MAGNETIC INK CARD READER(MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the
cheques with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR). The main advantage of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory.
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books etc.
It may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code
Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed
to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.
A barcode reader, also called a price scanner or point-of-sale ( POS ) scanner, is a hand-held or
stationary input device used to capture and read information contained in a bar code . A barcode
reader consists of a scanner , a decoder (either built-in or external), and a cable used to connect
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the reader with a computer. Because a barcode reader merely captures and translates the barcode
into numbers and/or letters, the data must be sent to a computer so that a software application can
make sense of the data. Barcode scanners can be connected to a computer through a serial port ,
keyboard port , or an interface device called a wedge . A barcode reader works by directing a
beam of light across the bar code and measuring the amount of light that is reflected back. (The
dark bars on a barcode reflect less light than the white spaces between them.) The scanner
converts the light energy into electrical energy, which is then converted into data by the decoder
and forwarded to a computer.
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen
or pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is
specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
Short for Optical Mark Reading or Optical Mark Recognition, OMR is the process of
gathering information from human beings by recognizing marks on a document. OMR is
accomplished by using a hardware device (scanner) that detects a reflection or limited
light transmittance on or through piece of paper.
OMR allows for the processing of hundreds or thousands of physical documents per hour.
For example, students may recall taking tests or surveys where they filled in bubbles on
paper (shown right) with pencil. Once the form had been completed, a teacher or teacher's
assistant would feed the cards into a system that grades or gathers information from them.
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STYLUS
In computing, a stylus is a pen-shaped instrument used with graphics tablets or
devices that utilize touchscreen input. It is used to write or draw on a screen,
similar to how you would on a sheet of paper. Unlike a pen, styluses have a
plastic or felt tip depending on its purpose and functionality. The picture example
shows the Palm Z22 Stylus.
Which devices use a stylus?
Originally, the stylus was not commonly found or used with devices other than
graphics tablets and PDAs. However, with the rising popularity of touch screens
on mobile devices, many individuals like to use a stylus as a replacement for their
finger. The reasoning varies, but it's usually for more accurate navigation or to
keep oils from their fingers off of their device's screen.
PUNCH CARD
Early method of data storage used with early computers. Punch cards also known
as Hollerith cards and IBM cards are paper cards containing several punched
holes that were punched by hand or machine to represent data. These cards
allowed companies to store and access information by entering the card into the
computer. The picture is an example of a punch card.
Punch cards are known to be used as early as 1725 for controlling textile looms.
The cards were later used to store and search for information in 1832 by Semen
Korsakov. Later in 1890, Herman Hollerith developed a method for machines to
record and store information on punch cards to be used for the US census. He
later formed the company we know as IBM.
Punch cards were the primary method of storing and retrieving data in the early
1900s, and began being replaced by other methods in the 1960s and today are
rarely used.
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TOUCHSCREEN
A touchscreen is a monitor or other flat surface with a sensitive panel directly on
the screen that registers the touch of a finger as an input. Instead of being touch-
sensitive, some touchscreens use beams across the screen to create a grid that
senses the presence of a finger.
A touchscreen allows the user to interact with a device without a mouse or
keyboard and is used with smartphones, tablets, computer screens, and
information kiosks.
How do you use the touchscreen?
Note: Not all touchscreens act the same, and any of the below actions may react
differently on your device.
Tap - A gentle touch or tap of the screen with a finger once to open an app or
select an object.
Double-tap - Depending on where you are a double-tap can have different
functions. For example, in a browser double-tapping the screen zooms into where
you double-tapped. Double-tapping text in a text editor selects a word or section
of words.
Touch and hold - Gently touching and holding your finger over an object selects
or highlights the object. For example, you could touch and hold an icon and then
drag it somewhere else on the screen or highlight text.
Drag - After you have touched and held anything on the screen while keeping the
your finger on the screen drag that object or highlight in any direction and then
lift your finger off of the screen to drop it in place or stop highlighting.
Swipe - Swiping your finger across the screen scrolls the screen in that direction.
For example, pressing the finger at the bottom of the screen and quickly moving it
up (swiping) scrolls the screen down.
Pinch - Placing two fingers on the screen and then pinching them together zooms
out and pinching your fingers together and then moving them away from each
other zooms into where you started.
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WEBCAM
DIGITAL CAMERA
A digital camera is a camera that stores the pictures and video it takes in
electronic format instead of to film. The picture is of a Casio QV-R62, a 6.0 Mega
Pixel digital camera and example of a typical digital camera.
Note: A camera that is always connected to your computer with no storage could
also be referred to as a digital camera. However, it is more appropriate to refer to
this camera as a webcam.
Digital camera advantages
Below are key advantages that make digital cameras a popular choice when
compared to film cameras.
LCD screen
The LCD screen can show photos and videos after they have been taken, which
allows you to delete the photo if you do not like the results or show other people.
Storage
A digital camera can store hundreds of pictures instead of only up to 36 pictures.
Picture development
Digital camera pictures can be developed, but you can pick and choose what
pictures to develop instead of having to develop a full role of film with pictures
you don't want.
Size
Because a digital camera does not need a place for film a digital camera (not an
SLR) is much smaller and can easily be carried in your pocket or purse.
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BIOMETRICS
When referring to computers and security, biometrics is the identification of a
person by the measurement of their biological features. For example, a user
identifying themselves to a computer or building by their finger print or voice is
considered a biometrics identification. When compared to a password, this type of
system is much more difficult to fake since it is unique to the person. Below is a
listing of all known biometric devices.
Other common methods of a biometrics scan are a person's face, hand, iris, and
retina.
Types of biometric devices
Face scanner - Biometric face scanners identify a person by taking measurements
of a person face. For example, the distance between the persons chin, eyes, nose,
and mouth. These types of scanners can be very secure assuming they are smart
enough to distinguish between a picture of a person and a real person.
Hand scanner - Like your finger print, the palm of your hand is also unique to
you. A biometric hand scanner will identify the person by the palm of their hand.
Finger scanner - Like the picture shown on this page a biometric finger scanner
identifies the person by their finger print. These can be a secure method of
identifying a person, however, cheap and less sophisticated finger print scanners
can be duped a number of ways. For example, in the show Myth Busters they
were able to fake a finger print using a Gummy Bear candy treat.
Retina or iris scanner - A biometric retina or iris scanner identifies a person by
scanning the iris or retina of their eyes. These scanners are more secure biometric
authentication schemes when compared to the other devices because there is no
known way to duplicate the retina or iris.
Voice scanner - Finally, a voice analysis scanner will mathematically break down
a person's voice to identify them. These scanners can help improve security but
with some less sophisticated scanners can be bypassed using a tape recording.
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PADDLE
o More commonly known as a game paddle or gamepad, a paddle is an
input device commonly used with games that may contain various buttons
used to steer and utilize different options in a game. All console game
systems utilize a paddle or gamepad for control. The picture shows an
example of a game paddle used with the Atari 2600.
o The term paddle may also be used to describe various handheld devices
that are capable of controlling a function on a computer or electronic
device.
TOUCHPAD
Alternatively referred to as a glide pad, glide point, pressure sensitive tablet, or
trackpad, a touchpad is an inputdevice on laptops and some keyboards to move
a cursor with your finger. It can be used in place of an external mouse.
A touchpad is operated by using your finger and dragging it across the flat surface
of the touchpad. As you move your finger on the surface, the mouse cursor moves
in that same direction. Like most computer mice, the touchpad also has two
buttons below the touch surface that allows you to left-click or right-click.
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MICR
Short for Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition, MICR is a font capable of
recognition using magnetically charged ink. Computers equipped with the right
hardware and software can print or read the character printed in such ink.
MICR font is commonly used to print checks, deposit slips, mortgage coupons,
etc. There are several MICR fonts, the MICR E-13B font is used in the Canada,
Panama, Puerto Rico, UK, and the United States. The MICR CRC-7 was created
according to the ISO standards and is a font used in France, Mexico, Spain, and
most other Spanish speaking countries.
LIGHT GUN
A light gun is a pointing input device that detects light using a photodiode in the
gun barrel. When the player of the game pulls the trigger on the gun, the screen is
blanked out for a fraction of a second, which allows the photodiode to determine
where the gun is pointed. Light guns were most widely used with early console
gaming systems such as the NES Zapper light gun, as shown in the picture. Using
this gun the player could play games where they were required to point the gun at
the screen and shoot targets, such as ducks in the popular Duck Hunt game.
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GRAPHICS TABLET
Alternatively referred to as a drawing tablet and pen tablet, a graphics tablet is
a hardware input device that enables an artist to draw or sketch digitally using a
pen or stylus. They are helpful because they provide a more natural and precise
feel than a standard computer mouse. The picture to the right shows an example
of a Pen Graphics Tablet from Wacom.
Similar to an artist drawing with a pencil and paper, a user draws on the graphics
tablet with a stylus. The computer will convert the drawing strokes into digital
form, displaying them on the computer screen.
The graphics tablet can also be used to capture users' signatures. This use is
similar to the signature pads found at many retail stores, where you would write
your signature after using a credit card to make a purchase.
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OUTPUT DEVICES
3D Printer
Braille embosser
Braille reader
Flat panel
GPS
Headphones
Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
Monitor
Plotter
Printer (Dot matrix printer, Inkjet printer, and Laser printer)
Projector
Sound card
Speakers
Speech-generating device (SGD)
TV
Video card
Buzzers
Motors
Switched outputs
Lights
Mechanical devices, eg a robot arm
Keep in mind that drives such as a CD-ROM, DVD, Floppy diskette drive, and USB
Flash drive may be capable of receiving information from the computer, but they are not
output devices. These are considered storage devices.
1. 3D PRINTER
Created by Charles Hull in 1984, the 3D printer is a printing device that creates a
physical object from a digital model using materials such as metal alloys,
polymers, or plastics.
An object's design typically begins in a computer aided design (CAD) software
system, where its blueprint is created. The blueprint is then sent from the CAD
system to the printer in a file format known as a Stereo lithography (STL), which
is typically used in CAD systems to design 3D objects. The printer then reads the
blueprint in cross-sections and begin the process of recreating the object just as it
appears in the computer aided design. In the picture below is an example of a 3D
printer called the FlashForge.
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Application of 3D printers
3D printers are used in many disciplines--aerospace engineering, dentistry, archaeology,
biotechnology, and information systems are a few examples of industries that utilize
them. As an example, a 3D printer might be used in the field of archaeology to physically
reconstruct ancient artifacts that have been damaged over time, thus eliminating the
2. SPEAKER
Allows a user to hear sounds and music from the computer provided the system has
installed a sound card.
3. MODEM
An Input/ Output electronic device with circuits which changes data to be transmitted
from its machine form (digital form) into a form suitable for transmission over the
telephone line (analogue form). At the receiving end it converts data vice-versa. It is
only necessary when one needs to communicate information over a long distance and
when connected to the internet.
4. HEADPHONES
Headphones give sound output from the computer. They are similar to speakers,
except they are worn on the ears so only one person can hear the output at a time
5. SOUND CARD
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The picture is an example of a sound card audio ports or audio jacks on the back of
your computer, associated colors, and the connector symbols.
Digital Out (White or Yellow; words: "Digital" or "Digital Out") - Used with
surround sound or loudspeakers.
Sound in or line in (Blue; Arrow pointing into waves) - Connection for external
audio sources, e.g. tape recorder, record player, or CD player.
Microphone or Mic (Pink; Microphone) - The connection for a microphone or
headphones.
Sound out or line out (Green; Arrow pointing out of waves) - The primary sound
connection for your speakers or headphones. This sound card also has a second
(black) and third (orange) sound out connector.
Firewire (Not pictured) - Used with some high-quality sound cards for digital
video cameras and other devices.
MIDI or joystick (15 pin yellow connector) - Used with earlier sound cards to
connect MIDI keyboard or joystick.
Tip: Usually the cables connecting to the devices are also color-coded and will match or
be close to the colors the cables connect into. For example, the end of the speakers cable
may have a green line or be completely green.
Games
Audio CDs and listening to music
Watch movies
Audio conferencing
Creating and playing Midi
Educational software
Business presentations
Record dictations
Voice recognition
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6. PLOTTERS
A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer that is used for
printing vector graphics. Instead of toner, plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or
another writing tool to draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than
a series of dots like a traditional printer. Though once widely used for
computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been phased out by
wide-format printers. Plotters are used to produce a hard copy of schematics
and other similar applications.
A plotter can be used to produce high quality, accurate, A3 size or bigger drawings.
They are usually used for Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided
Manufacture (CAM) applications such as printing out plans for houses or car parts.
Plotters:
How it works: A drum plotter prints by moving a pen sideways
over the surface of a sheet of paper.
One high precision motor moves the pen from side
to side.
Another high precision motor moves the paper
backwards and forwards.
An electromagnet lifts and drops different coloured
ink pens onto the paper to draw lines.
A flat-bed plotter uses two high precision motors, one to move the
pen in the X direction and one to move it in the Y direction.
The paper does not move.
Suitable uses: Plotters are restricted to line drawing and can only create a solid
region of colour by drawing a number of close, regular lines.
Plotters are often used in science and engineering applications for
drawing building plans, printed circuit boards and machine parts.
Advantages: They are accurate and can produce far larger printouts than
standard printers.
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Disadvantages: Slow and relatively expensive compared to printers.
They cannot print raster (photographic) images.
They can only fill solid blocks of colour using closely hatched lines.
7. SPEAKER
A speaker gives you sound output from your computer. Some speakers are built
into the computer and some are separate
8. BRAILLE READER
A braille reader, also called a braille display, is an electronic device that allows
a blind person to read the text displayed on a computer monitor. The computer
sends the text to the output device, where it is converted to Braille and
"displayed" by raising rounded pins through a flat surface on the machine.
Braille readers come in various forms, including large units (about the size of a
computer keyboard) and smaller units, designed to work with laptops and tablet
computers. There are also Braille reader apps for smartphones and tablets that
work in conjunction with a Bluetooth-connected Braille output device.
9. VIDEO CARD
Alternatively known as a display adapter, graphics card, video adapter, video board,
or video controller, a video card is an IC or internal board that creates a picture on a
display.
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Video card ports
The picture above is an example of a video card with three connections, or video ports,
on the back.
VGA connector
S-Video connector
DVI connector
In the past, VGA or SVGA was the most popular connection used with computer
monitors. Today, most flat panel displays use the DVI connector or HDMI connector (not
pictured above).
Video card expansion slots
In the picture above, the video card is inserted into the AGP expansion slot on the
computer motherboard. Over the development of computers, there have been
several types of expansion slots used for video cards. Today, the most common
expansion slot for video cards is PCIe, which replaced AGP, which replaced PCI,
which replaced ISA.
10. GPS
Short for Global Positioning System, GPS is a network of satellites that
helps users determine a location on Earth.
11. PROJECTOR
A projector is an output device that can take images generated by a computer and
reproduce them on a large, flat (usually lightly colored) surface. For example,
projectors are used in meetings to help ensure that all participants can view the
information being presented. The picture is that of a ViewSonic projector.
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The VDU is output device. It displays images and text in colour or black and white as it.
It displays results of processing. It is also called a monitor.
Flat-panel display
13. PRINTERS
It produces output on paper i.e. hard copy or on other print-key media. The 2 types of
printers are impact and non-impact.
Impact printers
The printing device being a series of pins have a direct impact on the paper. The pins
form characters on the paper by pressing a printing element and an inked ribbon
against paper. An example of such a printer is the Dot Matrix. The printers are
reasonably fast, inexpensive and can produce both text and graphics. They also
accommodate various paper sizes but are however noisy.
Non-impact printers
These are quieter printers and examples include LaserJet and inkjet printers. The
Laser printers are a more popular choice for business use. They use a printing
technique similar to that used in a photocopying machine. A laser beam is used to
form an image onto the paper using toner. The print quality is high. Lasers are fast,
and quiet. They print graphics but are more expensive.
The ink-jet printers are mainly colour printers which mix ink depending on the
image colour and spray it onto the paper. The toner has the 4 basic colours. They are
slow, expensive and have a high print quality.
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paper.Creates images on a surface
without contacting it.
Strike ribbon against the paper Use a laser beam which form an
image onto paper using toner
Slow printer Fast printers
Use ribbons or ink Use toner
Has too many moving parts hence Has fewer moving parts hence they
unreliable are reliable.
Impact printers are relatively Very expensive computers
inexpensive, and the cost of printing is
also low because ink ribbons are
inexpensive.
NON-IMPACT PRINTERS
1 - LASER PRINTERS:
How it works: These print individual pages and work in a
similar way to photocopiers.
A drum is charged to match the image and
powdered ink (toner) sticks to the surface. The
toner is then transferred to the paper and fixed
by heat and pressure.
A school or business printer would have a
typical speed of 10 to 20 pages per minute
(ppm).
Suitable uses: Common wherever fast, high quality printing is required.
Disadvantages: Non-colour laser printers are more expensive than ink-jet printers (but
the difference is narrowing).
Colour laser printers are considerably more expensive. (but their speed
and high quality output means they are becoming more popular).
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Advantages: They are quiet and fast and produce high quality printouts.
Running cost are low because although toner cartridges are expensive
to replace, they last a long time.
A type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser
alters the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled through a
reservoir of toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is
transferred to the paper through a combination of heat and pressure
2 - INK-JET PRINTERS:
How it works: The print head contains tiny nozzles
through which different coloured inks can
be sprayed onto the paper to form the
characters or the graphic images.
The ink is forced out by heat or by tiny
piezoelectric crystals which change shape
when an electric current is applied across
them.
Suitable uses: A popular choice for home use where small amounts of printing are
done and photographic quality colour printing is needed.
Disadvantages: The ink cartridges can be expensive so running costs can be high.
The printing speed is slow compared to a laser printer.
Advantages: These printers are relatively inexpensive and produce high quality
black and white or photographic quality borderless colour printing.
A type of printer that works by spraying ionized ink at a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the
ink's path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Ink-jet printersare capable of
producing high quality print approaching that produced by laser printers
3. Thermal transfer printers- A type of printer that applies heat to a ribbon and the
image or barcode is then transferred to labels or tags. This technology produces a higher quality,
longer lasting image on the tag or label.
Advantages
-1 to 2 years media shelf life
-Media is not heat sensitive
-Medium to high image quality
-Wide range of available types
-Recommended for industrial use
Disadvantages
-Special ribbons required
-Average operational cost
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
-Single-pass ribbons only
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4. Direct thermal printers - A type of printer that applies heat directly to specially
treated paper, labels or tags to form the image or barcode.
Advantages
-No ribbon required
-Low operational cost
Disadvantages
-Short media shelf life
-Very heat sensitive media
-Limited image quality
-Limited number of available types
-Not recommended for use in industrial, outdoor, or harsh environments
-Cannot print on multiple-copy paper
IMPACT PRINTERS
Suitable uses: Limited to situations where duplicate copies are needed and the quality is
not too important.
Typical uses might be in warehouses where duplicate copies of orders
need to produced quickly and cheaply.
Disadvantages The printing quality is low - these printers produce low to medium
: quality black and white printing and can only print low resolution
graphics.
Because of the impact of the pins against the paper, these printers can be
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quite noisy.
Advantages: The purchase cost is low and the running costs are very low.
They can print fairly quickly, particularly if you remember that multiple
copies are being printed in one print run.
They are robust and can operate in harsh environments.
If several sheets of self-carbonating paper are placed into the printer then
the impact will produce duplicate copies.
A type of printer that produces characters and illustrations by striking pins against an ink ribbon
to print closely spaced dots in the appropriate shape.
Advantages
-Can print to multi-page forms-
-Moderately priced
-Multi-pass ribbons (saves money)
Disadvantages
-Noisy operation
-Low-quality output
-Slow print speed
-Multi-pass ribbons (decrease in quality with each pass)
Advantages
More reliable than DMP
Better quality
The fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
Slower than DMP
Noisy
More expensive than DMP
3. LINE PRINTERS
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.
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4. DRUM PRINTER
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is
divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width
of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The
different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters
set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print
300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
Very high speed
Disadvantages
Very expensive
Characters fonts cannot be changed
5. CHAIN PRINTER
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
Character fonts can easily be changed.
Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
Noisy
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STORAGE DEVICES
Alternatively referred to as digital storage, storage, storage media, or storage medium,
a storage device is any hardware capable of holding information either temporarily or
permanently.
There are two types of storage devices used with computers: a primary storage device,
such as RAM, and a secondary storage device, like a hard drive. Secondary storage can
be removable, internal, or external storage.
Without a storage device, your computer would not be able to save any settings or
information and would be considered a dumb terminal.
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Floppy diskette
Hard drive
SuperDisk
Tape cassette
Zip diskette
Blu-Ray disc
CD-ROM disc
CD-R and CD-RW disc
DVD-R, DVD+R, DVD-RW, and DVD+RW disc
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Flash memory has started to replace magnetic media as it becomes cheaper as it is the
more efficient and reliable solution.
Cloud storage
Network media
PAPER STORAGE
Early computers had no method of using any of the above technologies for storing
information and had to rely on paper. Today, these forms of storage are rarely used or
found.
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OMR
Punch card
When saving anything on a computer, it may ask you for a storage location, which is the
area in which you would like to save the information. By default, most information is
saved to your computer hard drive. If you want to move the information to another
computer, save it to a removable storage device such as a flash drive.
These are devices that store information permanently. They are also known as Auxiliary storage
devices or Secondary storage devices. They include:-
b) FLOPPY DISKETTE
An external form of storage used for back up. Information can be deleted and rewritten
and re-saved. The storage device is common for microcomputers. The disks are either
High density or double density disks because data is stored more densely/ compactly than
on regular density disks. Common size of disk is 31/2inches.
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9. Use a soft pencil or felt-tip pen when writing on diskette labels, as the pressure of a
ballpoint may leave indentations on the magnetic surface.
10. Don’t touch the magnetic surface (the black plastic like plate) of the disk, as your
fingerprints may hinder the drive in reading from and writing to the disk .
c) CATRIDGE TAPE
Data is recorded in the form of magnetized spots on an iron oxide coating of a plastic
tape. Gaps are used to separate individual data records. The tape is similar to audiotapes.
Access of information from the tape is in sequential form and thus slow.
g) ZIP DISKS
These are high capacity removable diskettes. They have gained favor for back-up
purposes. Some zip disks use magnetic technology and others use laser. They have a
capacity of about 100MB.
Storage devices differ in terms of capacity, cost and access methods. For any device to be
used there is a need for the device drive on the computer e.g. A floppy disk drive.
Flash memory is increasingly being used in a wide range of devices. Some examples include:
Small, lightweight USB memory sticks, available for many Gigabytes.
Memory cards for digital cameras.
Main internal storage for tablet computers (SSD)
Digital audio players.
Mobile phones.
Video game hardware.
Flash memory offers very fast access to data and programs. However, retrieving data from an
external flash memory device such as a USB stick would be slower than an internal hard disk
because the speed of access is restricted by the USB link or connection.
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With the development of tablet computers, flash memory is used as the main form of internal
storage because there is no room for a traditional hard disk. These disks are called SSD (solid
state storage). In this case, access to the data stored in flash memory would be much faster
than from a hard disk because there are no moving parts involved.
Currently, the down side to using flash memory as the main storage method is that it has a
limited number of read/write cycles which limits its useful life span.
Flash memory, when packaged in a "memory card", is very resilient to damage, unlike many
other storage devices. It can withstand extremes of temperature, being immersed in water or
being accidentally dropped.
DISK CARE
HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary
to make the fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
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4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets
suck dust) and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of
hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.
TYPES OF MEMORY
COMPUTER - MEMORY
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types
Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory
CACHE MEMORY
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk
to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
Cache memory is faster than main memory.
It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:
Cache memory has limited capacity.
It is very expensive.
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Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and
ROM.
SECONDARY MEMORY
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This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example : disk,
CD-ROM, DVD etc.
Characteristic of Secondary Memory
These are magnetic and optical memories
It is known as backup memory.
It is non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
It is used for storage of data in a computer.
Computer may run without secondary memory.
Slower than primary memories.
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ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write
on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the computer
but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
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Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:
Non-volatile in nature
These cannot be accidentally changed
Cheaper than RAMs
Easy to test
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More reliable than RAMs
These are static and do not require refreshing
Its contents are always known and can be verified
Differentiate between Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
(ROM)
RAM ROM
Stands for Random-Access Stands for Read-Only Memory
Memory
Normally ROM is read only memory and it
RAM is a read and write cannot be overwritten. However, EPROMs can
memory be reprogrammed
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RAM ROM
be lost if power supply is cut-off supply
There are mainly two types of There are several types of ROM; Erasable
RAM; static RAM and Dynamic ROM, Programmable ROM, EPROM etc.
RAM
RAM stores all the applications ROM usually stores instructions that are
and data when the computer is required for starting (booting) the computer
up and running
Price of RAM is comparatively ROM chips are comparatively cheaper
high
RAM chips are bigger in size ROM chips are smaller in size
DISK CARE
HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary
to make the fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets
suck dust) and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of
hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
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7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.
1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire
easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed
to direct sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded
24hours to ensure security.
9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against
electrical faults and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power
failures, which may be fatal.
11. Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
12. Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in order
to minimize virus spread.
13. Always switch off machines if not in use.
14. Avoid overloading circuits.
15. All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered and should not
criss cross the room.
16. Leave enough space between computers and the walls.
17. Do not use chalk the computer room , dry wipe markers are encouraged.
MOTHERBOARD
The motherboard is a sheet of plastic that holds all the circuitry to connect the various components of a
computer system
A motherboard is one of the most essential parts of a computer system.
It holds together many of the crucial components of a computer, including the central processing unit
(CPU), memory and connectors for input and output devices.
The base of a motherboard consists of a very firm sheet of non-conductive material, typically some
sort of rigid plastic.
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Thin layers of copper or aluminum foil, referred to as traces, are printed onto this sheet. These traces
are very narrow and form the circuits between the various components.
In addition to circuits, a motherboard contains a number of sockets and slots to connect the other
components.
FUNCTIONS
1. Components' Hub
A primary function of the motherboard is to serve as the base upon which a computer’s
components are built. The motherboard is, in essence, a hub that houses a number of essential
components such as the Central Processing Unit (CPU), system memory (RAM) and graphics
card. The typical computer is designed with these components built onto the motherboard.
2. Computer Circuitry
The motherboard is the computer’s main circuit board, bearing all the basic circuitry and
components that are required for the computer to function. It has electrical pathways called buses,
which enable data to be relayed to the different computer components as well as between them.
3. Data Traffic
The motherboard serves as a communications hub for all of the components that are attached to it
directly or indirectly. It is responsible for managing the traffic of information within the computer
system, which it does by means of the motherboard chipset. The function of the motherboard
chipset is to direct the flow of data that the computer components require or acquire.
4. BIOS
The motherboard has a built-in Read Only Memory (ROM), which is separate from the PC’s
RAM and which contains the computer’s Basic Input/Output System (BIOS). A key function of
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the BIOS is to manage the boot-up process when you power your computer on, and load your
operating system.
5. Peripherals
The motherboard allows for the use of external components and devices, which greatly increases
the versatility of a computer system. These include printers, keyboard devices, audio jacks,
external hard drives and game controllers. These peripherals can be connected to the computer by
plugging them directly into the motherboard by means of external ports, sockets and connectors,
which are built into it.
Schematic Diagram
Another useful way to look at the motherboard is as a schematic diagram. This is more of a logical
organization of how the various parts are connected rather than where they are physically located
on the sheet of plastic. The connections between these components are referred to as buses. So
there is a CPU bus, a memory bus, etc.
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The function of power unit is to convert the electrical power (AC) comes from wall
socket to a suitable type and voltage (DC) so that each component of a computer works
properly.
Lack of proper supply of power will damage a computer system.
The power supply receives 120 or 230V and converts into 3.3V, 5.5V and 12V. Why
different converted power? That is because all components of a computer system don’t
need the same power.
For example, motherboard and cards use 3.3V. The most power demand parts such as
Fan and drives need 12V to operate
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Your files safely saved on this storage unit unless you intentionally erase the files. All installed
applications/programs and your data reside on the hard drive. It is your main storage unit in a
computer system.
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• Data is recorded by magnetizing a spot on the disk. There is a gap between the disk and
the head, the head is capable of producing a small magnetic field when current passed
through it. The field direction is reversed when the direction of current is reversed, thus
the two binary digits (0 and 1) are easily represented by changes in direction of current.
• As soon as the spinning disks go through under these heads, the magnetic field produced
by the heads comes in contact with the magnetic coating on the disk platters. This
magnetizes a small spot on the coating, leaving a tiny permanent magnet.
• Data is read when the tiny magnetic fields are being moved rapidly past the reading head
(now the action of write changes to read when voltage is reversed on the head). The
moment each created field comes in contact with the head, it produces an electric current
in the head.
• The direction of the current depends on the direction of the field, which was determined
by whether a 1 or a 0 was originally recorded. Thus the original information is read back.
• Data is written on the disk platter in concentric rings called tracks. Tracks are divided
into sectors. The matching tracks on both side of a platter then grouped into a cylinder.
• Each sector holds 512bytes of data.
• This division is meant to use the space on the hard drives efficiently. Having more
sectors per track is one indication of a fast hard drive.
• Physically, we can’t tell where the divisions end and start. Simply, we can’t see the
divisions, it is an electronic one.
• However, you can easily know how many tracks and sectors are on your computer hard
drives by reading your computer System Information.
• To get system information, Click ‘Start’ — ‘All programs’ – ‘Accessories’ – ‘System
tools’ – ‘System information’.
• When you buy hard disks you will find sector, track, cylinder, revolution per minute
(RPM) and other information on the tag (found on top of a disk).
• Normally, the speed of hard disks means the rotation of the platters per minute. It is
measured in RPM (revolution per minute).
• Presently, hard disks are able to rotate up to 15,000rpm, the most common RPMs are
5400, 6400, 7200 and 10000. A hard drive with high RPM is a fast drive that will load
files quickly.
• Hard disk types are determined by their connection type to the motherboard, IDE or
SATA.
• IDE (integrated device electronics) is uses cables to connect to the motherboard. Now
this type of hard disk connection is phasing out.
• SATA (serial advanced technology attachment) is the current and the advanced type to
connect hard disk and other optical drives to the motherboard.
• The other type is SCSI (small computer system interface), which is used in high-end
computers such as servers and workstations.
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• Today the size of hard disks is skyrocketing. The most common hard drives sizes are
160GB, 250GB, 320GB, and 500GB.
• Rotation speed
• Fast mounting head mechanism and
• Having more sectors per track
Magnetic Storage drives capacity is can be measured in bit (short form of binary digits), byte,
KB, MB, GB, and TB. A bit stores only a 0 or a 1. Byte is a set of eight bits; it is the basic unit of
memory since it holds a single character or bit. Usually, it is the most common used storage size
measurement.
Storage measurement
Term Bytes
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• floppy disk drive, disk drive, diskette drive, 3.5" drive, 5.25" drive
• While still a component of some existing computers, floppy drives are essentially
obsolete, replaced by inexpensive flash drives and other portable media drives.
• A floppy drive is no longer standard equipment in new computer systems.
• Traditional floppy drives that install inside of a computer case are becoming less and less
available. Typically, the best option when adding a floppy drive will be to purchase an
external one, probably USB-based like the one pictured here.
• A traditional 3.5" floppy drive is about the size and weight of a few decks of cards. Some
external USB versions are only slightly larger than floppy disks themselves.
• The front of the floppy drive has a slot to insert the disk into and a small button to eject it.
• The sides of the traditional floppy drive have pre-drilled, threaded holes for easy
mounting in the 3.5-inch drive bay in the computer case. Mounting is also possible in a
larger 5.25-inch drive bay with a 5.25-to-3.5 bracket.
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• The floppy drive is mounted so the end with the connections faces inside the computer
and the slot for the disk faces outside.
• The back end of the traditional floppy drive contains a port for a standard cable that
connects to the motherboard. Also here is a connection for power from the power supply.
• An external floppy drive will only have whatever connection is necessary to hook it up to
the computer, usually a cable with a USB Type A connector.
CD/DVD drives are used to read data and applications from CDs (compact disk) and DVDs
(digital versatile disk). It is a device which uses laser technology to read and write data on/from
optical disks.
Typical CD drive
• Data is written on optical disk by burning pits on the disk with laser. Later on, data can be
read by reflecting low-power laser onto the surface of the disk. The photo detector then
translates the bouncing lights back into sound or data.
• As the name implies, CD-ROM (compact disk read only memory) drives are only for
reading data from disk, they can’t write back.
• Currently, this type of drive is phasing out since it is replaced by the more advanced and
additional capabilities of DVD drives. All desktop computers come with at least CD-
ROM drives, though this is changing now.
• Presently, DVD rewritable becomes a standard on most new desktop and laptop
computers. So, make sure this when you buy a new PC. Using this drive you can
read/write both CD and DVD disks. DVD drives can read all types of CDs but CD drives
are not capable of reading DVDs.
• Varieties of information can be recorded using optical disks. Whether you are a computer
user to backup data or application developer to record software or in entertainment
industry (movies), CD/DVDs are simple mediums to distribute any kind of information
easily.
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These optical disks are preferable because of the following reasons:
Inexpensive
Stores a large amount of data
Easy for handling
Longevity
• Both types are made with the same material and size, but differ in their storage capacity
and durability.
• CDs can store up to 700MB size of data. The standard DVDs store 4.7GB, more than 6
normal CDs of data. In addition, DVD disks are more durable than the compact disks.
• Today, the application development and entertainment industry are using DVD to sell
their production.
• So far, two kinds of CDs are available other than CD-ROM: CD-R and CD-RW CD-R
(CD-recordable) - can be written on it only once.
• CD-RW (CD-rewritable) - can be written repeatedly (means erase and re-write), usually
used for back up.
• Two kinds of DVDs are available other than DVD-ROM: DVD-R and DVD-RW DVD-
R and DVD+R - can be written on it only once.
• DVD-RW, DVD+RW - can be written repeatedly (means erase and re-write), usually
used for back up.
• These are the two types of high-definition disk formats. HD-DVD is developed by
Toshiba and the other disk format, Blu-ray is developed by the electronics giant, Sony.
• Recently, there was a competition between the two formats. Because of size and
durability Blu-ray outranks HD-DVD and chosen by entertainment industries.
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• For example, Single-layer HD DVD disc stores 14.7GB data whereas Blu-ray single layer
disc stores up to 25GB data.
PROCESSOR
• The processor is the main “brain” of a computer system.
• It performs all of the instructions and calculations that are needed and manages the flow
of information through a computer.
• It is also called the CPU (central processing unit), although this term can also be used to
describe a computer case along with all of the hardware found inside it.
• Another name for the processor is a computer “chip” although this term can refer to other
lesser processors (such as the BIOS).
• Processors are continually evolving and becoming faster and more powerful. The speed
of a processor is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
• An older computer might have a processor with a speed of 1000 MHz (equivalent to 1
GHz) or lower, but processors with speeds of over 2 GHz are now common.
• One processor company, Intel, made a popular series of processors called Pentium.
What is CPU?
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is an electronic component that interprets and carries
out the instructions of any application that run on a computer. It is a place where all the
computing is done.
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It is often called the “brain”, “engine” of a computer system. CPU is contained on a
single integrated circuit called a microprocessor. All the other parts of the computer are
there to serve the CPU.
Functions of CPU
The control unit is responsible for decoding program instructions by accessing sequentially,
coordinates the flow of data in/out of ALU, registers, storages and various output devices.
Register is in charge of holding small units of program instructions after, during and before the
execution of CPU.
• Here, we need to talk a little about system bus. The computer components transfer data to
each other through buses. Bus is a common pathway for all system elements on the
motherboard. Each elements use bus to transfer data to and from it.
• It is characterized by the amount of data it transfers. For example, an 8-bits data bus transfers
8-bits of data at a time, 16-bits data bus transfers 16-bits of data. The more widened bus, the
faster the transfer of data and processing.
• The system buses have different speed of transferring data. The CPU connects with memory
or cache across high-speed data bus. This is because it processes a large amount of data in a
second. It is called processor bus or FSB (Front Side Bus). It is the fastest bus in a computer
system.
• The other bus type is Input/Output bus (I/O bus). It includes more than two bus types. This
type of bus is used for to connect graphic port and other peripheral components.
• The efficiency of computer processor is measured in using the machine cycle and clock
speed.
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• Machine cycle = instruction + execution.
• Clock speed = a series of pulse produced by the CPU at predetermined time.
• Machine cycle is affected by the CPU clock speed. The shorter the gap between the
pulses, the faster the processing speed would be. The machine cycle is measured in
nanoseconds (one-billionth of one second) and pico seconds (one-trillionth of one
second).
• Clock speed is measured in megahertz, MHz (millions of cycles per second) or
gigahertz, GHz (billions of cycles per second).The clock speed determines the speed at
which the processor executes instructions.
• A computer with 3.4GHz microprocessor means it operates at a speed of 3.4 billion
cycles per second. This tells us a 3.4GHz processor is faster than 3.0GHz processor.
• However, the speed of the processor doesn't necessarily mean speed of a computer. It
also depends on motherboard speed.
• This takes the form of a stand-alone device that is separate from the computer. External
drives are connected to the computer with a cable plugged into a suitable interface such
as an USB port. Data then passes back and forth across the interface.
• Once an external drive is attached to the system, it appears as an extra drive letter in the
folder tree, for example, E drive or K drive. The user can transfer files in the usual way
by using the drag and drop method.
• The main advantage of external drives is that they are portable and so data is easily
moved from one location to another. External drives also allow safe backup of internally
stored data.
• The main disadvantage compared to an internal drive is data transfer is slower and they
also take up space around the computer. Constant plugging in and out can also physically
wear out the port over time.
External storage takes many forms, for example:
portable hard disks
magnetic tape
memory stick / flash drive
solid state memory cards
DVD or CDs
Each type of external storage has to have the correct interface on the computer in order to
connect.
• Some storage devices are classed as 'internal' which means they are inside the computer
case.
• Most computers have some form of internal storage. The most common type of internal
storage is the hard disk.
• At the most basic level, internal storage is needed to hold the operating system so that the
computer is able to access the input and output devices.
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• It will also be used to store the applications software that you use and more than likely,
the original copies of your data files.
• Internal storage allows the data and applications to be loaded very rapidly into memory,
ready for use. The data can be accessed much faster than data which is stored on an
external storage device. This is because internal storage devices are connected directly to
the motherboard and its data bus whereas external devices are connected through a
hardware interface such as USB, which means they are considerably slower to access.
• Internal storage also means that if the computer is moved around, it will still retain its
most commonly used data.
• The main disadvantage of internal storage is that when the hard disk fails (and it will), all
the data and applications may be lost.
• This can be avoided to some extent by using more than one hard disk within the machine.
Each hard disk has a copy of all the data, so if one fails the other can carry on. This is
called a RAID array. An alternative is to use external drives for backup.
--------------------------------------------------------------------
An internal drive is, naturally, always powered by the device it's within: your PC,
your phone, your tablet.
Some external devices contain their own power supplies and plug in
independently of the controlling device: most RAID, JBOD, eSATA, and NAS
devices do this, either because the data connection doesn't provide power, or
because the device needs more power than the interface can provide.
Others can be powered by the controlling device. USB hard drives go both ways
(computer-powered or self-powered), but memory cards and USB memory sticks
are nearly always powered by the controlling device (or a powered hub).
The interface can vary a bit, too. The original parallel SATA was pretty much an
in-the-box only interconnect. Back in those days, if you took apart an external
USB drive box, you'd probably find a PSATA drive inside, along with a tiny
controller board that converted USB protocols to SATA protocols. These days, if
you open up an external USB hard drive or SSD, you'll probably find a SATA
device inside. And of course, most SSDs and HDDs are still SATA these days,
inside the computer.
COMPUTER SECURITY
DISK CARE
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8) Avoid using rubber bands, paper clips and erasers on floppy disks
HARDWARE CARE
1) Make sure there is enough space for the machines to breathe. (Fresh air is necessary to make the
fan keep the electronics cool).
2) Do not block air vents with books.
3) Keep the computer dry.
4) House the machine in a dust free environment e.g. 1ST floor carpeted-room (Carpets suck dust)
and, use a vacuum cleaner to clean the carpet. (Dust is the biggest killer of hard drives).
5) Do not expose the machine to extreme temperatures.
6) Properly shut down the machine before turn-off.
7) Pull the plug out of socket when there is thunder and lightning.
8) Do not move the system when the computer is on. The hard drive can be damaged.
9) Use of UPS- Uninterruptible Power Supply in case of power failures,
10) Use of Surge Protectors against too high voltages.
1. Cleanliness [books, manuals not encouraged] because they bring dust & caught fire easily.
2. Air conditioners, which control the room and dehumidates it.
3. It should be dust free; dust is the biggest “killer” of hard drives.
4. No carpets, they caught fire more easily.
5. You are not allowed to eat, smoke or drink in the computer room.
6. No magnetic material should be in the computer room.
7. The computer room should be located in such a way that computers are not exposed to direct
sunlight or hot environments, use curtains if otherwise.
8. The computer room should be fitted with burglar bars, alarm systems, or guarded 24hours to
ensure security.
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9. The computer room should have surge protectors or suppressors to guard against electrical faults
and high voltages.
10. The computer room should have UPS [uninterrupted power supply] in case of power failures,
which may be fatal.
11. Computer room should be well ventilated, to allow for air circulation,
12. Foreign media, such as floppy diskettes, flash disks should not be allowed in order to minimize
virus spread.
13. Always switch off machines if not in use.
14. Avoid overloading circuits.
15. All cabling and wiring should not be exposed; it should be covered and should not criss cross the
room.
16. Leave enough space between computers and the walls.
17. Do not use chalk the computer room , dry wipe markers are encouraged.
Refers to keeping data safe from various hazards or dangers like natural hazards,
deliberate corruption or destruction of software & hardware by malicious or terrorist acts,
illegal access to data by hackers [people who break into the system] & accidental
destruction of data by hardware or software failure [operator error].
1. DATA ENCRYPTION/DECRYPTION
Data is coded before transmission over a WAN & decrypted only if you have the key & code to
decrypt the data on the receiving end. The process of transforming a message in ordinary language i.e.
plain text to produce what is called cipher text which is then send along a communication line/link.
The receiving computer uses another transformation to decode the message.
Decryption
The process of converting encrypted content back into its original form, often the process of
converting cipher text to plaintext. Decryption is the opposite of encryption.
Encryption
Any procedure used in cryptography to convert plaintext into cipher text in order to prevent
anyone except the intended recipient from reading that data. There are many types of data
encryption, and they are the basis of network security. Common types include Data Encryption
Standard and public-key encryption.
Cipher text
Data that has been transformed by encryption so that its semantic information content (ie, its
meaning) is no longer intelligible or directly available.
2. FIREWALL-
a firewall is a software program designed to prevent unauthorized access to a PC or network
through a connection to the Internet. It works by monitoring all data sent to and from the PC
and comparing the data with a set of user-defined security criteria. Any data that does not
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meet that criteria is blocked. Firewalls also process encrypted data. They verify the validity of
the user. User would require access to the firewall before they can transmit data. Latest
firewalls also have the ability to detect virus software in packets of data that is sent through
the network. Firewalls disallow data transmission if it detects strains of virus on the data
being transmitted.
Most installations have card readers, voice recognition systems or keypads on the doors that
prohibit entry to unauthorized personnel.
Making regular back-ups of files. (Back up copies should be stored safely in fireproof
safes or in another building.)
Protecting yourself against viruses by running anti-virus software.
Using a system of passwords so that access to data is restricted.
Safe storage of important files stored on removable disks - eg locked away in a fireproof
and waterproof safe.
Allowing only authorized staff into certain computer areas, eg by controlling entry to
these areas by means of ID cards or magnetic swipe cards.
Always logging off or turning terminals off and if possible locking them.
Avoiding accidentally deletion of files by write-protecting disks.
Using data encryption techniques to code data so that it makes no apparent sense
Data can be lost or damaged during a system crash - especially one affecting the hard
disk.
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Data can become corrupt as a result of faulty disks or disk drives, or power failures.
Data can be lost by accidentally deleting or overwriting files.
Data can be lost or become corrupted by computer viruses.
Data can be hacked into by unauthorized users and deleted or altered.
Data can be destroyed by terrorist activities, war, bombs and fire.
Data can be deleted or altered by unpleasant employees wishing to make money or seek
revenge on their employers.
Explain 5 major threats to information systems; for each threat describe its impact and
preventative measure you would adopt to prevent it..
Human error
Computer abuse
The willful or negligent unauthorized activity that affects the availability, confidentiality,
or integrity of computer resources. Computer abuse includes fraud, embezzlement, theft,
malicious damage, unauthorized use, denial of service, and misappropriation
Hacking
Unauthorized use, or attempts to circumvent or bypass the security mechanisms of an
information system or network. Hacking means illegally accessing other people's
computer systems for destroying, disrupting or carrying out illegal activities on the
network or computer systems.
COMPUTER CRIME/FRAUD
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Computer crimes are criminal activities, which involve the use of information technology
to gain an illegal or an unauthorized access to a computer system with intent of
damaging, deleting or altering computer data. Computer crimes also include the activities
such as electronic frauds, misuse of devices, identity theft and data as well as system
interference. Computer crimes may not necessarily involve damage to physical property.
They rather include the manipulation of confidential data and critical information.
Computer crimes involve activities of software theft, wherein the privacy of the users is
hampered. These criminal activities involve the breach of human and information
privacy, as also the theft and illegal alteration of system critical information. The
different types of computer crimes have necessitated the introduction and use of newer
and more effective security measures.
Computer Fraud/Crime
Criminal actions accomplished through the use of computer systems, especially
with the intent to defraud, destroy, damage, or make unauthorized use of
computer resources.
E.g. improper transfer of funds from one account to another
Hacking: The activity of breaking into a computer system to gain an unauthorized access is
known as hacking. The act of defeating the security capabilities of a computer system in order to
obtain an illegal access to the information stored on the computer system is called hacking. The
unauthorized revelation of passwords with intent to gain an unauthorized access to the private
communication of an organization of a user is one of the widely known computer crimes. Another
highly dangerous computer crime is the hacking of IP addresses in order to transact with a false
identity, thus remaining anonymous while carrying out the criminal activities.
Phishing: Phishing is the act of attempting to acquire sensitive information like usernames,
passwords and credit card details by disguising as a trustworthy source. Phishing is carried out
through emails or by luring the users to enter personal information through fake websites.
Criminals often use websites that have a look and feel of some popular website, which makes the
users feel safe to enter their details there.
Computer Viruses: Computer viruses are computer programs that can replicate themselves and
harm the computer systems on a network without the knowledge of the system users. Viruses
spread to other computers through network file system, through the network, Internet or by the
means of removable devices like USB drives and CDs. Computer viruses are after all, forms of
malicious codes written with an aim to harm a computer system and destroy information. Writing
computer viruses is a criminal activity as virus infections can crash computer systems, thereby
destroying great amounts of critical data.
Cyberstalking: The use of communication technology, mainly the Internet, to torture other
individuals is known as cyberstalking. False accusations, transmission of threats and damage to
data and equipment fall under the class of cyberstalking activities. Cyberstalkers often target the
users by means of chat rooms, online forums and social networking websites to gather user
information and harass the users on the basis of the information gathered. Obscene emails,
abusive phone calls and other such serious effects of cyberstalking have made it a type of
computer crime.
Identity Theft: This is one of the most serious frauds as it involves stealing money and obtaining
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other benefits through the use of a false identity. It is the act of pretending to be someone else by
using someone else's identity as one's own. Financial identity theft involves the use of a false
identity to obtain goods and services and a commercial identity theft is the using of someone
else’s business name or credit card details for commercial purposes. Identity cloning is the use of
another user's information to pose as a false user. Illegal migration, terrorism and blackmail are
often made possible by means of identity theft.
The different types of computer crimes involve an illegal exploitation of the computer and
communication technology for criminal activities. While the advancing technology has served as
a boon to mankind, the destructively directed human intellects are all set to turn technology into a
curse. However, crimes are sure to end, as it is truth that always triumphs!
1. Intellectual crime – cracking into a computer system with the sole aim of transferring or
stealing funds, e.g. Salami slicing which is the activity of obtaining or stealing money
repeatedly in extremely small quantities over a period of time
2. Destruction of property
3. Software piracy
4. Deliberate circumvention of computer security systems or unauthorized access to or
modification of computer programs and data; i.e. hacking which attempts to bypass the
security mechanism of a computer system or network
5. Theft of computer hardware and software or taking away software without the owner’s
consent
6. Making and distributing pornography
Cloutier shares his tip for crafting a hard-to-crack password: use a combination of capital
and lower-case letters, numbers and symbols and make it 8 to 12 characters long.
You should definitely avoid using: any personal data (such as your birthdate), common
words spelled backwards and sequences of characters or numbers, or those that are close
together on the keyboard.
Use their convenient password checker to see how strong yours is.
As for how often you should change your password, Cloutier says that the industry
standard is "every 90 days," but don't hesitate to do it more frequently if your data is
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highly-sensitive.
Another key: make sure every individual has their own username and password for any
login system, from desktops to your CMS. "Never just use one shared password," says
Cloutier.
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Getting your data compromised is a painful experience -- having it all backed up so you
don't completely lose it will make it much less so.
8. Be careful with e-mail, IM and surfing the Web
It's not uncommon for a unsuspecting employee to click on a link or download an
attachment that they believe is harmless -- only to discover they've been infected with a
nasty virus, or worse.
9. Educate your employees
Teaching your employees about safe online habits and proactive defense is crucial.
"Educating them about what they are doing and why it is dangerous is a more effective
strategy than expecting your IT security staff to constantly react to end users’ bad
decisions," Watchinski says.
It's not easy: "One of the most difficult things to do is protect end users against
themselves," he adds. But ultimately, prevention is the best approach to handling your
data security.
Make sure your employees understand how important your company's data is, and all the
measures they can take to protect it.
10. Data encryption
Encryption scrambles data, and is used to protect information that is being held on a
computer, stored on external media such as DVDs or transmitted over a network.
11. Intrusion detection
These products monitor system and network activity to spot potential security breaches.
If a detection system suspects an attack, it can generate an alarm, such as an email alert,
based upon the type of activity it has identified.
COMPUTER VIRUS
What is it?
An executable computer program written intentionally to alter the way a
computer operates without permission, to do harm to the computer.
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DEFINITION2.
A virus is acomputer program designed to enter yourcomputer and tamper with your files without
your knowledge. Once the program containing the virus is open, the activated virus can not only
infect other programs and documents on youcomputerr, it can duplicate and transmit itself to
other computers that are connected to yours, just like a physical virus can move from one human
host to another.
Viruses began in the late 1980s as personal computers and electronic bulletin boards became
more common. Back then, operating systems, word processing programs and other programs
were stored on floppy disks. Hidden Viruses were programmed onto these disks; as the disks
were transferred from person to person, the virus spread.
Where do Viruses come from? Every virus is created by an author with a different motive—but
all virus builders feel their actions are justified. For some, a killer virus is the ultimate technical
challenge, like climbing a mountain. For others, creating Viruses is a form of self-expression.
Some disgruntled employees, consumers or citizens turn to virus building as revenge for
perceived injustices. And though it’s a frightening thought, some Viruses are built and aimed by
legitimate (but disreputable) businesses to weaken competitors. Other virus authors want to make
their mark in Internet history; these writers get a thrill out of seeing their virus cause damage
enough to attract news headlines both online and on the evening news.
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Unrecognized files appear.
File names change.
The keyboard makes a clicking noise.
The screen becomes distorted.
Text on screen does unusual things.
CMOS settings, AUTOEXEC.BAT, or CONFIG.SYS files change unexpectedly
(Symantec).
A large part of detection is anti-virus software. Like a doctor, anti-virus software
often uses the above listed symptoms to identify and eradicate an infection.
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There isn’t much you can do to stop these kinds of infections, short of having your
network administrator ensure that everyone’s antivirus software is up to date so that the
invading bug can be removed as quickly as possible.
Internet downloads including software piracy
Rogue Websites. It is depressing to know that you may become infected with spyware or
a virus by doing nothing more than simply visiting a website, but it is true. Many adult
websites, gambling websites and other less than trustworthy websites will attempt to
automatically access your computer when you visit them. They often install adware bugs
that will cause a flurry of pop ups to appear on your screen. This adware will often allow
for other programs with even more nefarious purposes to be installed and before you
know it, your computer will be swamped. To stop these rogue websites, adjust the
settings on your antivirus software and firewall so that no outside connections can be
made and no programs can be installed without your express permission.
The demonstrated characteristics of computer viruses include several remarkable items, including
size, versatility, propagation, effectiveness, functionality, and persistence.
1) Size.The sizes of the program code required for computer viruses has been demonstrated to
be surprisingly small. This has facilitated the ability of these programs to attach themselves to
other applications and escape notice for long periods of time.
2) Versatility.computer viruses have appeared with the ability to generically attack a wide
variety of applications. Many do not even require information about the program they are
infecting.
3) Propagation. Once a computer virus has infected a program, while this program is running,
the virus is able to spread to other programs and files accessible to the computer system. The
ability to propagate is essential to a virus program.
4) Effectiveness. Many of thecomputer viruses that have received widespread publicity have
had far-reaching and catastrophic effects on their victims. These have included total loss of
data, programs, and even the operating systems.
5) Functionality. A wide variety of functions has been demonstrated in virus programs. Some
virus programs merely spread themselves to applications without otherwise attacking data
files, program functions, or operating systems activities. Other virus programs are
programmed to damage or delete files and systems. The effectiveness of these programs is
enhanced through the use of several phases of operation, in which the virus propagates
through a system or lies dormant until triggered by a specified event. This allows the virus
program increased time to spread before the victim system's user becomes aware of its
presence.
6) Persistence. Even after the virus program has been detected, recovery of data, programs, and
even system operation has been difficult and time consuming. In many cases, especially in
networked operations, eradication of viruses has been complicated by the ability of the virus
program to repeatedly spread and reoccur through the networked system from a single
infected copy.
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Attributes of computer viruses
o Auto replicating [self replicating].
o Attaches itself to a program or file
o It infects as it travels
o Reproduces itself
o Distribute itself
o Copies itself
o Duplicate copies of itself
o It spreads
o It is software
o It can destroy
o It hides
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6. Prevention includes creating user awareness, implementing hygiene rules, using disk
authorization software, or providing isolated 'quarantine' PCs.
7. Detection involves the use of anti-virus software to detect, report and (sometimes)
disinfect viruses..
8. Containment involves identifying and isolating the infected items.
9. Recovery involves disinfecting or removing infected items, and recovering or
replacing corrupted data.
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for the ride. Only download these files from trusted sites that you can count on, or, at the very
least, scan them before you open them.
Updates, Updates, Updates – There is a reason why Windows has a feature called Critical
Updates. There is an entire branch of Microsoft dedicated to staying one step ahead of the
hackers out there so when they manage to fix a possible security loophole, you need to download
the patch right away. Help Microsoft help you prevent computer viruses from causing too much
trouble.
Know What To Look For – Even if you are just a casual computer user, you should have an
idea of how your machine operates, what normal pop up windows look like and what popular
viruses are out there, that way, when your computer begins exhibiting tell tale signs, you’ll know.
You can help prevent computer viruses by staying updated and educated.
Stay Away From Cracked Software – It is so secret that you can download illegal, cracked
versions of some programs online. As tempting as it may be, these files are almost always
infested with advanced and difficult to detect bugs. Play it safe and get your software from the
source.
Install a Firewall – A firewall is a program that screens incoming Internet and network traffic.
Along with your virus program, it can help prevent unauthorized access to your computer.
Be prepared to Lock Down – If you hear of a virus that is spreading like wildfire through the
Internet, make an extra effort to be careful. Don’t open any suspicious emails or accept any
downloads for a week or two until your virus protection program has been updated and you are,
once again, safe.
SOFTWARE
Software
Are basically programs, which are in a computer system?
Computer programs and procedures concerned with the operation of a computer system.
Software
Written coded commands that tell a computer what tasks to perform. For example, Word,
PhotoShop, Picture Easy, and Photo Deluxe are software programs.
Coded instructions (programs) that make a computer do useful work.
Computer software
• Refers to the various programs or instructions that are stored in the computer (stored
program concept) and used to either manage or control the operation of a computer
system or to direct the computer in solving specific problems. Software is divided into
two major types.
SOFTWARE HIERARCHY
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SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Refers to the operating system and all utilityprograms that manage computerresources at
a low level. Programs that control and support operations of a computer system.
Systems software includes compilers, loaders, linkers, and debuggers.
System software includes a variety of programs such Operating Systems, DBMS,
Communication control programs. Service and utility programs, and programming
language translators.
A term for a complicated set of programs that act together to allow a computer, and other
programs, to function. Different from an page layout application that the user may have,
system software is what allows the page layout application to interact with the monitor
display, the RAM, the hard drive and the rest of the computer.
OPERATING SYSTEM
The main control of a computer system.
It is a system of programs that controls & coordinates the execution of computer
programs and may provide scheduling, debugging, input/output control, system
accounting, compilation, storage assignment, data management and related services.
The software that the rest of the software depends on to make the computer functional.
On most PCs this is Windows or the Macintosh OS. Unix and Linux are other operating
systems often found in scientific and technical environments.
A computer program that controls the components of a computer system and facilitates
the operation of applications. Windows Me, Windows XP, Linux, and MacOS are
common operating systems.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
o Applications software comprises programs designed for an end user, such as word
processors, database systems, and spreadsheet programs.
o Programs that specify the information processing activities required for the completion of
specific tasks of computer users. E.g. Electronic Spreadsheet and word processing
programs or inventory or payroll programs.
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o Software that is designed and written for a specific personal,
organizational, or processing task, such as graphics software.
o These programs accomplish the specialized tasks of the user, while
operating system software allows the computer to work. A computer-
aided dispatch system is application software, as is each word processing
program.
FREEWARE
Public domain softwarethat is freely available in magazines and on the internet at
no charge to users though manuals may be offered at a cost. Freeware may or
may not have copyrights and may or may not have distribution restrictions.
SHAREWARE
Refers to software that is widely distributed in much the same way as freeware
BUT is always copyrighted and includes a software license that requires its users
to pay for the privilege of using the software beyond a certain trial period. If you
decide to use it, you are expected to pay for the license. There is usually a
disabling system in the program after a certain period of time i.e. a month.
OPERATING SYSTEM
WINDOWS
A windows based operating system is more advanced than the MS-DOS based operating
system.
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It features graphical user interfaces (GUIs) – User can feed commands into the computer
through the selection of relevant icons, bars, buttons, boxes or other forms of images
(mostly resembling the intended device or operation).
True multitasking – the operating system allows for numerous tasks to be done at the
same time.
Networking – the operating system is multi-usable – many users can use it at the same
time. It is capable of holding a number of computer systems networked together.
Multimedia Presentations- the operating system allows for the presentation of
information in a variety of media including text, graphic displays, voice and other audio,
photographs and video.
Virtual Memory – It allows for the use of storage devices as extension of the main
memory thus giving the appearance of a larger main memory than actually exists.
Deleted files go to the recycle bin
Makes use of easier input methods, e.g. mouse, joystick
Windows operating system has MS-DOS option
Examples of Windows Operating Systems packages, Windows NT (new technology) and
Windows 95.
In computer terms, a window is one section of a computer’s multiple section display
screen that can have a different display.
OS/2
It is called the Operating System /2
It is an operating system developed by IBM and was introduced in 1994 with the OS/2
Warp version as the latest one.
It provides graphical user interfaces (GUIs), multitasking, virtual memory and
telecommunications.
UNIX
Originally developed by AT&T but now being offered by many other vendors.
It is a multitasking, multi-user and net-work managing operating system
Because of its portability, it can be used on mainframes, midrange computers and
microcomputers.
It is a popular choice for network servers.
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3.Windows95/98/Me 32 bits X cooperative
4.WindowsNT/2000 32 bits X pre-emptive
5.WindowsXP 32/64 bits X pre-emptive
6.Unix / Linux 32/64 bits X pre-emptive
7.MAC/OS X 32 bits X pre-emptive
8.VMS 32 bits X pre-emptive
9.Windows Vista
10.Windows 7,8, 10
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has to be quick enough to respond to inputs in a predictable way. Embedded
computers often contain an RTOS as many are used to control something.
Computers operating in real time are often dedicated to the control of systems such
as industrial processes, planes and space flights. Another example of real time
processing is computer games. For example, when an action is selected in a game, the
data is fed back to the computer and the systems updated.
Multi-programming
Multi-programming is a method of operating such that several programs appear to be
running at once.
The jobs are usually given priorities. The operating system switches jobs in and out
of processor time according to priority. For example, while one job is being allocated
printer time, another will be being processed in memory. The processor is so fast
that it seems that many jobs are being processed at the same time.
Multi-tasking
This isn't just about running more than one application at the same time. Multi-
tasking allows multiple tasks to run concurrently, taking turns using the resources of
the computer.
This can mean running a couple of applications, sending a document to the printer
and downloading a web page.
However, operating systems are not truly multi-tasking - in order to do this, you
would need parallel processors, which are now appearing on personal computers.
Multiprocessing
An operating system technique which can manage multiple instruction processors,
assigning each to operate upon a different instruction stream (program or job)
concurrently.
Multiprocessing is the use of two or more central processing units (CPUs) within a
single computer system. The term also refers to the ability of a system to support more
than one processor and/or the ability to allocate tasks between them.[1] There are many
variations on this basic theme, and the definition of multiprocessing can vary with
context, mostly as a function of how CPUs are defined (multiple cores on one die,
multiple chips in one package, multiple packages in one system unit, etc.).
Multiprocessing sometimes refers to the execution of multiple concurrent software
processes in a system as opposed to a single process at any one instant. However, the
terms multitasking or multiprogramming are more appropriate to describe this concept,
which is implemented mostly in software, whereas multiprocessing is more appropriate to
describe the use of multiple hardware CPUs. A system can be both multiprocessing and
multiprogramming, only one of the two, or neither of the two.
Multi-access or multi-user
A multi-access (or multi-user) system is one where a number of users are able to use the
same system together.
Modern personal computers can allow multi user access i.e. more than one person can
make use of the computer resources at the same time via a LAN.
The central processor deals with users in turn; clearly the more users, the slower the
response time. Generally, however, the processor is so fast that the response time at the
most is a fraction of a second and the user feels they are being dealt with immediately.
o Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application software that
allows concurrent access by multiple users of a computer. Time-sharing systems
are multi-user systems. Most batch processing systems for mainframe computers
may also be considered "multi-user", to avoid leaving the CPU idle while it waits
for I/O operations to complete. However, the term "multitasking" is more
common in this context.
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o An example is a UNIX server where multiple remote users have access (such as
via Secure Shell) to the UNIX shell prompt at the same time. Another example
uses multiple X Window sessions spread across multiple terminals powered by a
single machine - this is an example of the use of thin client.
o Management systems are implicitly designed to be used by multiple users,
typically one system administrator or more and an end-user community.
Single-user
Is most commonly used when talking about an operating system being usable only by one
person at a time, or in reference to a single-user software license agreement. Multi-user
operating systems such as UNIX sometimes have a single user process available for
emergency maintenance.
Batch processing
A batch processing system is where programs or data are collected together in a batch
and processed in one go. Typically the processing of payrolls, electricity bills, invoices
and daily transactions are dealt with this way.
This method of operation lends itself to jobs with similar inputs, processing and outputs
where no human intervention is needed. Jobs are stored in a queue until the computer is
ready to deal with them. Often batch processed jobs are done overnight.
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3. Management of input/output: the operating system allows unification and control
of access of programmes to material resources via drivers (also known as peripheral
administrators or input/output administrators).
4. Management of execution of applications: the operating system is responsible for
smooth execution of applications by allocating the resources required for them to
operate. This means an application that is not responding correctly can be "killed".
5. Management of authorisations: the operating system is responsible for security
relating to execution of programmes by guaranteeing that the resources are used only
by programmes and users with the relevent authorisations.
6. File management: the operating system manages reading and writing in the file
system and the user and application file access authorisations.
The OS manages reading from and writing to files and also controls the creation,
manipulation and access to files.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connections with
file management:
File creation and deletion
Directory creation and deletion
Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media
8. ERROR DETECTION
The OS is responsible for detecting and any hardware or software malfunctioning and
reporting them to the user
9. USER/SYSTEM INTERFACE
The OS acts as an interface between the computer and the user, hiding all the
complexities of the computer from the user and making the computer more user
friendly
10. PREPARATION OF A SYSTEM LOG
The OS compiles a report on the events that take place in a computer from the time a
user logs on to a computer, what he/she does up to the time he/she logs off
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Resource management manages processor time, memory space, disk space and
peripheral devices.
Reports errors when they occur.
Task management. Manage the accomplishment of the computing tasks of end users. It
may involve multitasking capability where several computing tasks can occur at the
same time.
Minimizes the amount of human intervention required during processing.
COMPUTER INTERFACE
A command line interface allows the user to interact with the computer by typing in commands.
The computer displays a prompt, the user keys in the command and presses enter or return. A
COMMAND-LINE INTERFACE (CLI) is a mechanism for interacting with a computer
operating system or software by typing commands to perform specific tasks. This text-only
interface contrasts with the use of a mouse pointer with a graphical user interface (GUI) to click
on options, or menus on a text user interface (TUI) to select options.
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A command line interface can run many programs, for example a batch file could launch
half a dozen programs to do its task.
An inexperienced user can sometimes find a command driven program difficult to use
because of the number of commands that have to be learnt.
An example of a common command-driven interface is MS-DOS, the original operating system
for all Microsoft-compatible PCs. The MS-DOS command to display all files on drive a would
be: dir c:\.
Graphical user interface is sometimes shortened to GUI. The user chooses an option usually by
pointing a mouse at an icon representing that option. A GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE
(GUI) is a type of user interface item that allows people to interact with programs in more ways
than typing such as computers; hand-held devices such as MP3 Players, Portable Media Players
or Gaming devices; household appliances and office equipment with images rather than text
commands. A GUI offers graphical icons, and visual indicators, as opposed to text-based
interfaces, typed command labels or text navigation to fully represent the information and actions
available to a user.
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'view' of the computer and its facilities than non-WIMP operating systems provide
"Windows, /images/, Menus and Pointer", or "Windows, /images/, Mouse and Pull-down
menus" This is a graphical interface which makes access to computers much more
straightforward and intuitive than the main alternative, the command-line interface. The
WIMP interface has been used on Apple Macintosh computers since they were invented,
and are coming into use on PCs through Microsoft Windows and on Unix and other
workstations through the X Window system.
4. Menu driven interfaces
The user is offered a simple menu from which to choose an option. One menu often leads to a
further menu. Part of the screen may have an instruction followed by a numbered list of options to
choose from:
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
consists of programs that manage and support a computer system and its information processing
activities. These programs serve as a vital software interface between computer system hardware
and the application programs of end users.
System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide
a platform for running application software.
Computer purchasers seldom buy a computer primarily because of its system software. Rather,
system software serves as a useful (even necessary) level of infrastructure code, generally built-in
or pre-installed.
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In contrast to system software, software that allows users to do things like create text documents,
play games, listen to music, or surf the web is called application software.
APPLICATION PACKAGES/SOFTWARE
Are programs that are or were developed to solve specific user problems?
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Word processors and spreadsheets fall into this category.
Software application packages can be custom built or they can be bought off the shelf.
# APPLICATION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
SOFTWARE
1 Word processing A word processor is used to produce documents such as letters, memos and reports. Ms word,
software The latest versions of word processing software contain many features and can also Word
be used for "desktop publishing" to create newsletters, brochures, business cards, perfect,
signs and more. The latest word processing software will allow you to easily type Word star,
into columns, add pictures and charts to your page, create custom borders, and Ms works
experiment with a variety of type faces (fonts) in a wide range of sizes. You can even word
combine different fonts on the same page. processor
Word processing software offers many exciting formatting and editing features to ,WordPro
make your work easier. You can easily check the spelling of a word or the entire
document. The built in thesaurus will help you find an alternate word to use. Blocks
of text can be easily moved, copied or erased.
Use this kind of tool to create worksheets, type letters, type papers, etc, e.g. MS
Word, WordPerfect,....
2 Spreadsheet A spreadsheet is used to manage, analyze and present numeric information. Some Ms Excel,
software common uses of spreadsheet software are financial reports, personal finances and Lotus 1-2-3
business finances. Spreadsheet programs can also create a chart from the numeric
data.
The working screen is laid out in rows and columns, much like a ledger. The
information is typed into a "cell." A cell is the intersection of a row and a column.
The cell can contain a number, a word or phrase (generally used to identify what the
number represents, such as a column or row heading), or a math function or formula.
Spreadsheets allow you to use simple math expressions such as add, subtract,
multiply or divide, or advanced math such as the type of calculations performed by
architects, engineers, economists and scientists. Spreadsheets also have a special
group of built-in formulas, called functions, that let you perform calculations without
having to type long, complex formulas. Functions are grouped into categories, such
as financial, statistical, engineering, logical, math and trigonometry, database and list
management, date and time, and information.
One of the reasons many people use a computer for their spreadsheet projects is
because it is easy to change your information once it has been entered. If you change
a number, the spreadsheet will automatically recalculate the results. You can also
take advantage of this feature to perform a "what-if" analysis. For example, you input
the data for a small business venture you are considering and the spreadsheet
calculates your net profit for the first year of business. If you are not pleased with the
result, you can change a few numbers to see how the change would affect the
outcome.
Use this kind of tool to compute number-intensive problems such as budgeting,
forecasting, etc. A spreadsheet will plot nice graphs very easily, e.g. MS Excel,
Quattro Pro, Lotus 1-2-3,
3 Database Allows user to prepare reports based on data found in different records. DBMS is an Ms Access,
management important managerial decision support tool for managers at all levels of the DbaseIV,
software organization. A database is an organised store of information, for example an address Oracle
book, list of employees, list of students, customers or items of assets. Database
package is used to store records. Data can be sorted or filtered for separate viewing.
Also Calculations and comparisons between data items can be done. Popular
database packages are: Microsoft Excel, lotus Approach, Paradox, dBase IV, Data
Ease.
Use this software to store data such as address, membership and other text
information. A database can be used to easily sort and organize records
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6 Presentation Lets users or managers prepare slides containing charts, text and images. Presentation Ms
graphics software graphics software usually provides libraries of clip art images that can be cut and PowerPoint,
pasted into a slide to make the slide more attractive and informative. These are Lotus
applications designed solely for designing graphs and text charts/posters and often freelance
used to produce slides for use on overhead projectors, or presentations on computer- graphs
projectors. They can also produce various types of charts. Examples of graphics
packages are: Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance, Harvard Graphics and Corel
Draw, HyperStudio, Flash, Director.
Use this software to create multimedia stacks of cards/screens that can effectively
present a lesson or a sales pitch. The user often clicks on buttons to advance to the
next screen in a sequence
7 Desktop Publishing Use this software to make signs, banners, greeting cards, illustrative worksheets, Ms
newsletters, etc publisher,
Desktop Publishing (DTP) applications give users powerful and versatile page design Aldus
capabilities. The user can incorporate text and graphics on very exact page layouts.
These applications produce magazines, catalogues, invitation cards, business cards
and other sophisticated documents. It links up well with other applications as the user
can import text and graphics from the other applications. Examples of DTP packages
are: Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Ventura and Frame maker.
State five advantages of using a word processor (e.g. MS Word) rather than a manual
typewriter in an office [10].
Ability to correct mistakes
Ability to view documents on screen before printing
Ability to incorporate diagrams
Ability to move parts of text to other sections of the document.
Ability to save or store documents for future reference or use.
Ability to alter or change document layout.
Ability to print a lot of copies [ no retyping]
Ability to insert tables
Ability to format document [font, paragraphs, bullets etc] Spelling and grammar checker
Import files
Mail merge
WYSIWYG capability
Creation of templates
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Automatic creation of index and table of contents
o ther - Good reasoning [ 2 marks each for 5 & 1 mark each for more than 5]
Is a program or set of programs used to enter, edit, format, store and print
documents. A document may be anything from a single memo to a complete
book.
An application package that involves the use of computers to manipulate text
data in order to produce office communications in the form of documents.
Any of many popular application programs designed for composing,
revising, printing, and filing written documents.
Word Processing is the efficient and effective production of written
communications at the lowest possible cost through the combined use of
systems management procedures, automated technology, and accomplished
personnel. The equipment used in word processing applications includes but
is not limited to the following: dictation and transcription equipment,
automatic repetitive typewriters, visual display text editing typewriters,
keyboard terminals, etc.
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1. Cost. This includes the original cost of the package, technical support, and upgrades.
2. Portability, can it be installed on one type of hardware or a variety
3. Relevance of the software to the task at hand.
4. Compatibility with existing hardware & software. Will the package run on existing
hardware? Can files be easily transferred from existing systems without re-keying? Can
files created in the package be exported to other systems in use in the company?
5. It should be on a media compatible with your computer i.e. if you purchase software
on CD media your computer should have compact disk drive.
6. Sophistication, simple programs are usually easy to learn, cost less and are appropriate
for those who use the software infrequently.
7. Should include enough documentation such as installation instructions, system
requirements e.g. Pentium 4, reference manual, registration information, supplier details
and user manual.
8. Standard software, which is well supported locally i.e. used by most people in that area
9. Is the application upgradeable and does it support future upgrades.
10. Easiness of installation
11. Technical support. Is support available? Is it very costly? Often, technical support
contract can add 50% or more to the price of a package, but without it no support at all
will be given by the manufacturer.
12. Easy of learning. Are tutorials supplied? Are books on the software available in
bookshops? Are training courses available?
13. Easy of use and user- friendliness. Is it easy to use, for example using pull down
menus, icons, helpful error messages when you do something wrong?
14. Is the application from a reputable supplier e.g. Microsoft.
15. Do you have enough resourceson your PC to install it e.g. it may require 256MB
RAM, 80GB HDD. Memory requirements; software packages vary in the amount of
memory they require. Will the system require expenditure on more powerful hardware?
16. Does the version of the product that I am considering run on my personalcomputer
system? Is it compatible with my platform (PC, Macintosh, Sun, and so on)? with the
processor used in my computer (486, Pentium, Motorola 6040, PowerPC, and so on)?
and with the operating system that I am running (DOS, Windows, NeXT Step, UNIX)?
17. Is the product compatible with other programs, such as extensions and device drivers,
that I have on my personalcomputer system?
18. Does the product do all that I want it to do? Is it simple enough to use immediately but
powerful enough to provide the capabilities that I will want as my familiarity with the
program increases?
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19. Is the product an up-to-date, current version or release?
20. Does the product have a clear, step-by-step tutorial? Is the product easy to learn?
21. Is the product accompanied by clear, easy-to-follow instructions, or documentation?
22. Does the manufacturer provide technical assistance? Is a toll-free technical assistance
number included in the software documentation? Does the manufacturer have a bulletin
board or Internet address for technical assistance questions? Does the manufacturer
charge for technical assistance? for product revisions or upgrades?
23. Can I find instruction, or training, in the use of the product?
24. Is the product from a respected, well known manufacturer?
25. Does the program have any known problems, or bugs, and will these affect my use of the
program?
26. Does the product come with a warranty, and what are the conditions of that warranty?
27. Does the product cost more or less than comparable products on the market?
COMPUTER MEMORY
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) This is the most common type of computer memory. DRAM
needs refreshing and is refreshed hundreds of times each second in order to retain data.
During recharging it cannot be accessed by the CPS
SRAM (Static RAM) SRAM is approximately 5 times faster (and twice as expensive, as
DRAM). It does not have to be constantly refreshed. Because of its lower cost and
smaller size, DRAM is preferred for the main memory, while SRAM is used primarily for
cache memory.
SDRAM (synchronous dynamic RAM) is the standard memory offering in the PC
industry and is faster than DRAM because it's synchronized to the system clock. . It is
designed for mainstream home and business applications, email, and basic audio and
video streaming. It provides single-channel memory and is available on our mainstream
and value desktop system.
DDR SDRAM (double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM) takes all the features of
ordinary SDRAM and increases the frequency bandwidth to improve system performance
and speed.
RDRAM (Rambus dynamic RAM) is able to load a new stream of data before the
previous stream has completed, resulting in faster access speeds. The RDRAM memory
features dual-channel processing which doubles data throughput to further enhance
performance. This type of memory is optimized for high-end multimedia tasks involving
video and audio. Dual Channel RDRAM is shipped on our performance desktop systems
powered by Pentium 4 processors
VRAM: Memory designed for storing the image to be displayed.
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CACHE RAM is a small block of high-speed memory located between the Processor
and main memory and is used to store frequently requested data and instructions. When
the processor requests data, it will check in the cache first
The computer has two types of memory chips within the system unit, known as RAM
and ROM.
VARIATIONS OF ROM
Allow users to store and in some cases to change data stored in ROM
PROM [Programmable ROM] is not programmed during manufacture but can
be programmed by the user. It is programmed according to the needs of the user
organization. If you make a mistake the ROM once programmed will became
permanent to the effect that any errors will never be corrected thus the user will
throw away any chip if errors are made.
EPROM [Erasable Programmable ROM] can be programmed and erased as
many times. This time you don’t have to worry about errors too much because
there is room for correction. The programming is done electronically. Stored data
can be lost by exposing it to Ultra Violet light over a period of minutes.
1) EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM] can be read, erased,
rewritten, without removing from the computer. The erasing & rewriting process
is very slow compared with reading, which limits their use. These can be erased
& programmed with electrical pulses. Can be erased in a few Milliseconds
MEMORY CAPACITY
Everything entering into the computer is converted into digital (number) form, and is
stored in that form. When one needs to view the information, it is converted into human
sensible text, graphics, audio or video by the operating system. A binary digit is known as
a bit being either a ‘0’(zero) or a ‘1’(one). It is the smallest item that can be stored in a
computer’s memory.
Memory capacity is measured in bytes, a byte being a set of eight(8) bits and the byte often
represents a single character. Measurement units used for computer memory are:-
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NETWORKING
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5. May interfere with other technologies
Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication, e.g.,
amateur radio. It may also interfere with last mile access technologies such as ADSL and
VDSL.
6. May be difficult to set up
A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very costly to set
up an effective computer network in a large organization or company.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A network topology is the arrangement of elements (such as data links or nodes) in a network. It
is the physical arrangement of terminals in a local area network. The choice of topology is
dependent upon
type and number of equipment being used
planned applications and rate of data transfers
required response times
cost
Definitions of hub on the Web:
A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one
port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. A
passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or
segment) to another. ...
Node – a terminal point in a communications network.
Workstation – A computer terminal or micro- or minicomputer system designed to
support the work of one person.
MESH TOPOLOGY
Mesh topology work on the concept of routes. In Mesh topology, message sent to the destination
can take any possible shortest, easiest route to reach its destination. In the previous topologies star
and bus, messages are usually broadcasted to every computer, especially in bus topology.
Similarly in the Ring topology message can travel in only one direction i.e clockwise or
anticlockwise. Internet employs the Mesh topology and the message finds its route for its
destination. Router works in find the routes for the messages and in reaching them to their
destinations. The topology in which every devices connects to every other device is called a full
Mesh topology unlike in the partial mesh in which every device is indirectly connected to the
other devices.
STAR TOPOLOGY
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A network topology in the form of a star. At the center of the star is a wiring hub or
concentrator, and the nodes or workstations are arranged around the central point
representing the points of the star.
BUS/LINEAR TOPOLOGY
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Describes a network in which each node is connected to a common line.
This is also sometimes called a horizontal, multidrop or multi point network.
Though it is preferable to use the last terms for connections with a
mainframe/mini computer as in the following diagram.
In a bus messages travel in both directions and do not go through the individual
nodes but every node can hear each message as it goes past.
When the signal/message reaches an end of the bus, a terminator absorbs it, to
keep it from traveling back again along the bus line, to avoid interference with
other messages already in the line.
The data/signals/messages are transmitted in packets along the bus.
Each packet is send with a receiver identification code that is an address of
destination and all computers on the network are permanently on the alert for any
messages coming to them.
Definitions of bus network on the Web:
A single-cable LAN, in which all computers on the network are connected in series to a
single cable. On a bus network, each computer hears all of the transmissions going down
the line, and selects only those that are addressed to its location. This is the simplest and
most common LAN technology.
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If the network cable breaks the whole network is affected
TREE TOPOLOGY
Tree topologies are comprised of the multiple star topologies on a bus. Tree topologies integrate
multiple star topologies together onto a bus. Only the hub devices can connect directly with the
tree bus and each Hub functions as a root of a tree of the network devices. This bus/star/hybrid
combination supports future expandability of the computer networks, much better than a bus or
star.
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Ethernet, Token Ring
A LAN is a Local Area Network covering a small area such as one building e.g. in a school or a
college.
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ADVANTAGES OF INSTALLING A NETWORK
1. Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and transferring files. Without
a network, copying them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from one
computer to another shares files. This method of transferring files (referred to as sneaker-
net) is very time-consuming.
3. Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as "copy inhibit," so that
you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs. Also, passwords can be
established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users. Security is good
- users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
5. Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a network exceeds stand-
alone computers. Some organizations cannot afford enough laser printers, fax machines,
modems, scanners, and CD-ROM players for each computer. However, if these or
similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by many users. Resource
sharing is the primary benefit of networking. It allows users on different machines to
share modems, printers, tape drives and disk space, for example, users can send network
messages requesting to use a central printer, allowing everyone to share that resource.
Users realize the benefit of sharing information. Data files can be shared between
machines on the network, allowing users to see invoices, results of surveys, company
newsletters, and other information.
6. Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware necessary to install
an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and professional communication for all school
personnel, and it facilitates the dissemination of general information to the entire school
staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to communicate with teachers and
peers at their own school. If the LAN is connected to the Internet, students can
communicate with others throughout the world.
7. Flexible Access. Networks allow data & information access from any computer in the
campus.
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located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas
about new curriculum standards to the same document and spreadsheets.
DISADVANTAGES
3. File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible to failure than any
other computer, when the files server "goes down," the entire network may come to a
halt. When this happens, the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and
files.
4. Cables May Break. Some of the configurations are designed to minimize the
inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop
the entire network.
5. Security concerns. Some user can gain unauthorized access to private data. There is a
danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are needed
to prevent such abuse. Of all the disadvantages, the greatest drawback is security
concerns; therefore, network security is a priority in the development of network
applications.
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9. If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. E-mail
might still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used as stand
alones.
INTERNET
The Internet is the network of networks being a worldwide collection of computers that
communicate with one another over cables, satellites and optical fibers. It is literally the
whole hardware mass. The Internet is the network used to transport information.
Internet, by definition is a network of networks that interact with each other through
exchange of data packets. The Internet hosts an enormous information base and carries
numerous information resources and services..
When we refer to the Internet we are usually talking about the World Wide Web
(WWW) which is the most used feature of the Internet.
The WWW stores millions of web pages on web servers. These pages can contain text,
pictures, movies, animation and sound. Web pages are written in a language or code
called HTML (Hypertext Markup Language). A set of web pages is called a website.
Each web page has its own unique address or URL. The URL will have the format "http"
and a domain (such as ."co.uk"). What goes in between is arbitrary, but often has the term
"www "such as in "http://www.name.co.uk". but it doesn’t have to (e.g.
http://news.bbc.co.uk).
Most sites have a page that links the user to the other main areas of the site. This is called
the homepage.
Web pages are connected by hypertext links. When a link is clicked you will be taken to
another page which could be on another server in any part of the world.
When you move around web pages you are said to be surfing the net. For this you need a
program to read the pages (called a browser), such as Firefox or Internet Explorer.
To search for a particular item or topic on the net you use a search engine. There are
many different kinds of search engine, each using slightly different ways of searching and
indexing web content. Google, BING and YAHOO are all examples of search engines.
The World Wide Web Is software that runs on the internet which includes all
documentation that is shared and accessed on the internet.
A Web page is a document designed to be accessed and read over the WWW. It must
have an address in a recognized format.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
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A business that delivers access to the Internet.
Are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used ISPs in
Zimbabwe are:
1. PowerTel 4. Ecoweb 7. BSAT
2. ZOL 5. Telecel 8. Brodacom
3. Africom 6. Comone 9. Mweb
Most offer the same basic package of Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own
pages and local rate call charges.
Search engines
Internet search engines help users find web pages on a given subject. The search engines
maintain databases of web sites and use programs (often referred to as "spiders" or "robots")
to collect information, which is then indexed by the search engine. Similar services are
provided by "directories," which maintain ordered lists of websites, eg Yahoo!
Examples of search engines are: Google, MSN, Bing, Yahoo, AltaVista
Internet address
The numbering system used in TCP/IP internetwork communications to specify a particular
network or a particular host on that network with which to communicate. Internet addresses
are commonly denoted in dotted decimal form.
Examples of internet addresses
1. www.facebook.com
2. www.google.com
3. www.yahoo.com
4. www.gmail.com
5. www.herald.co.zw
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique number, a kind of telephone number,
used by machines (usually computers) to refer to each other when sending information
through the Internet. This allows machines passing the information onwards on behalf of the
sender to know where to send it next, and for the machine receiving the information to know
that it is the intended destination.
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1) Access to a wide range of information from any location worldwide where there is
internet access. i.e. airlines, resorts, books, authors.
2) Research on any topic i.e. a professor, current affairs.
3) Online Shopping i.e. for cars, specific dress.
4) Online ordering and carrying out other business transactions e.g.. Ordering a cheque
book, advertising a product.
5) Online conferencing – communicating across international boundaries.
6) Ability to access e-mail from any location worldwide.
7) Reading newspapers online.
Disadvantages
Spamming
Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk, which provide no purpose and needlessly
obstruct the entire system. Such illegal activities can be very frustrating for you as it makes your
Internet slower and less reliable.
Virus Threat
Internet users are often plagued by virus attacks on their systems. Virus programs are
inconspicuous and may get activated if you click a seemingly harmless link. Computers
connected to the Internet are very prone to targeted virus attacks and may end up crashing.
Pornography
Pornography is perhaps the biggest disadvantage of the Internet. Internet allows you to access and
download millions of pornographic photos, videos and other X-rated stuff. Such unrestricted
access to porn can be detrimental for children and teenagers. It can even play a havoc in marital
and social lives of adults.
Social Disconnect
Thanks to the Internet, people now only meet on social networks. More and more people are
getting engulfed in virtual world and drifting apart from their friends and family. Even children
prefer to play online games rather than going out and mingling with other kids. This may hamper
a healthy social development in children
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3 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
To send e-mail access the Internet, both the sender and receiver need:
An analogue modem and an ordinary phone line. This type of modem links your
computer to the phone and converts computer signals to analogue phone line
signals - and back again. Typical analogue modem speeds are 56Kbps (bps
stands for bits per second) which means they can receive about 6000 characters
per second. This is the slowest and oldest type of connection and becoming less
common with the introduction of broadband.
An ISDN line and terminal adaptor. This digital connection is slightly faster than
an analogue connection.
ISPs are the companies who provide you with access to the internet. Commonly used ISPs
include Freeserve, AOL, Virgin, Tesco, BT and many more. Most offer the same basic package
of Internet access, email addresses, web space for your own pages and local rate call charges.
A browser is a program that allows you to view the pages on the Web. The most widely used
are Internet Explorer and Firefox.
All browsers will have a number of similar features to help you use the Web:
Forward and back buttons to move between pages
A history folder which stores details of recently visited web pages
A stop button if a page is taking too long to load
Favorites and bookmark options to store often visited pages
Options to cut, copy, save and print the information viewed
ELECTRONIC MAIL
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Electronic mail or email is a means of sending messages, text, and computer files between
computers via the telephone network. Because the telephone network covers the whole world,
email enables you to communicate world wide.
Email and web mail
Email
To set up email you need:
A computer
An internet connection via an analogue modem (ordinary phone line) or terminal adaptor
(ISDN) or broadband modem (ADSL and cable)
An account with an ISP (Internet Service Provider)
Email software
Your Internet Service Provider will give you an email account, a password and a mailbox such as
yourname@hostname.co.uk. You can also set up an email account with a mailbox and
passwords with non-ISPs such as Google and Hotmail.
With a dial-up connection, you have to pay the cost of your internet phone calls (local rate), and
in most cases a subscription to your provider (though some are free). A broadband connection is
'always on', with only a flat-rate subscription. Very few people pay by the minute nowadays and
the majority of people pay a monthly fee for broadband access.
Anti-virus scanning is becoming standard on email accounts and many email providers now offer
an anti spam (electronic junk mail) service.
Web mail
Web mail, as its name suggests, is web-based email. To use web mail, you do not need any email
software - just a computer connected to the internet via any one of the connection types listed
above, and a browser.
Users simply sign up to the web mail service of a web portal such as MSN or Yahoo. They are
given a unique user name and a personal mailbox on the portal's email server, and they can then
send and receive messages via a special web page.
A basic web mail account is usually free, although this will have a very limited amount of
storage.
The advantage of web mail is that users can receive and send mail from any computer in the
world with internet access. If you have a dial-up connection you can download your emails and
then read them offline to avoid staying on-line for long periods.
Some ISPs will enable their regular email customers to access their mailbox via web mail as well
as through the email software on their PC.
Features of email
Automatic reply to messages
Auto forward and redirection of messages
Facility to send copies of a message to many people
Automatic filing and retrieval of messages
Addresses can be stored in an address book and retrieved instantly
Notification if message cannot be delivered
Automatically date and time stamped
Signatures can be attached
Files, graphics or sound can be sent as attachments, often in compressed formats
Web mail and mobile email can be used to receive and send messages while on the move.
Using email
Broadband email
- Your connection is always on - so simply write and address your message and hit 'send'
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to send your mail and 'receive' to download any incoming messages from your email
provider's server.
Web mail
- Connect to the internet (if using a dial-up account) and open your browser.
- navigate to your web mail provider's portal and enter your user-name and password.
- all incoming mail will now be visible, and you can also compose and send mail, and
download attachments to your computer.
- When you're done, log out and close your connection.
Dial-up email
- Prepare your message offline as typing your message online will increase phone
charges.
- Connect to the internet and log on to your email account.
- Send your message and download any incoming mail sitting on your service provider's
computer.
- Log off and close your connection.
Email is evolving...
Many mobile phones already allow messages to be sent to the recipient's email inbox
while the sender is on the move. The latest generation of mobile phones enables users to
send and receive wireless email in exactly the same way as a static computer.
Email can be sent and received via digital TV, specially adapted phones, public kiosk
terminals and the latest generation of games console.
A spreading network of wireless 'hotspots' in public places allows people to send and
receive email via laptop computers.
A new range of in-car phones will enable motorists to check their email on the road
Benefits and concerns of using email
Email benefits
Fast delivery of your message
Available 365 days, 24 hours per day - and, with web mail, wherever you are in the world
as long as you have access to the internet.
Cheap: when using broadband, individual mail transfers are effectively free. When going
online from a dial-up account, calls are charged at local rates and (for conventional
email) need only last a few seconds.
Facility to send the same message to more than one person
Email concerns
It can only be sent to people who themselves have access to the internet.
Viruses are easily spread via email attachments - anti virus measures must be in place to
avoid this and are now offered by many e-mail providers.
Phishing - sending an e-mail to a user falsely claiming to be a legitimate company to
scam the user into providing information such as personal information and bank account
numbers on a bogus website. The details will then be used for identity theft.
No guarantee the mail will be read until the user logs on and checks their mail.
Spam! Or Junk mail
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1. Eye Strain:
Position your terminal at right angles to the window if possible; avoid facing directly into
bright light (coming at you from behind your computer screen).
Install an anti-glare screen.
Adjust the brightness controls on the screen until they are comfortable to your eyes.
2. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome:
Adjust your chair or table height to have your elbow angle at 90-100 degrees.
Position your keyboard so that you don't have to bend your hands uncomfortably upward
to reach the keys; place a raised wrist rest on the table in front of the keyboard if
necessary.
Clinch your fists, hold for one second, then stretch your fingers out wide and hold for 5
seconds.
Organize your workday, if possible, to intersperse other tasks with your computer work
so that you're not sitting at the computer for several hours without a break. Variety is key.
Hold the mouse loosely and click lightly.
3. Neck and Back Strain:
Check your posture - sit up straight. Thanks Mom.
The monitor screen surface should be approximately 18-24 inches away from your torso.
Preferably chairs should be on wheels, have backrest tilt adjustment, and have arms.
Be sure you have enough desktop space for work papers and other equipment.
4. Conjunctivitis (itchy, bloodshot eyes) and Dermatitis:
Be sure the screen doesn't flicker or wave - this could indicate that service or adjustment
is needed.
Look away from the screen periodically.
Don't forget to blink - your eyes need the moisture.
5. The vision disorder
Due to excessive computer use has been identified as Computer Vision Syndrome. Symptoms are
dry eyes, headaches, blurred vision, eyestrain, and shoulder back pain.
To alleviate the problem it is suggested that computer users take
regular breaks, blink their eyes frequently, occasionally close their eyes
for a few minutes and every fifteen minutes or so look away from the
computer to stare at an object in the distance.
6. For the back pain and other muscular related problems,
It is suggested that people get up every hour, stretch and move around for about five minutes.
They should also do an activity which moves each foot and leg.
A computer user should be seated at least two feet away from the
screen with the screen below eye level. Their chair should be
comfortable and they should sit up straight in the chair with feet firmly
on the floor. They should not cross their legs.
7. Posture-related injuries
Back and neck pain, headaches, and shoulder and arm pain are common computer-related
injuries. Such muscle and joint problems can be caused or made worse by poor workstation
design, bad posture and sitting for extended periods of time.
Although sitting requires less muscular effort, it still causes fatigue and requires parts of the body
to be held steady for long periods of time. This reduces circulation to the muscles, bones, tendons
and ligaments and can result in stiffness and pain. If a workstation is not set up properly, these
steady positions can put even greater stress on muscles and joints.
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Prevention tips – muscle and joint injuries
Suggestions to reduce the risk of muscle and joint problems include:
Use an adjustable desk designed for use with computers; position the monitor so that it is
either at eye level or slightly lower.
Position your keyboard at a height that allows your elbows to rest comfortably at your
side. Forearms should be roughly parallel with the floor and level with your keyboard.
Adjust your chair so that your feet rest flat on the floor.
Use a footstool (if your feet do not rest on the floor when the chair is adjusted for good
arm position).
Switch to an ergonomic chair, which helps your spine to naturally hold its curve while
sitting.
Use an ergonomic keyboard to offer your hands and wrists a more natural holding
position.
Take frequent short breaks and go for a walk or perform stretching exercises at your desk.
Stand often.
8. Overuse injuries of the upper limbs
Muscles and tendons can become painful with repetitive movements and awkward postures. This
is known as ‘overuse injury’ and these typically occur in the elbow, wrist or hand of computer
users. Symptoms of overuse injuries in the upper limbs include pain, swelling, stiffness of the
joints, weakness and numbness.
The illuminated computer screen can also contribute to eye fatigue. While there is no evidence
that eye fatigue is associated with damage to the eyesight, computer users may experience
symptoms such as blurred vision, temporary inability to focus on faraway objects and headaches.
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Pain in the buttocks
Pain in the buttocks radiating down the thigh can be caused by a chair seat that is too long and
causing pressure behind the knees or from inadequate lumbar support.
Pain in the shoulders
Pain in the shoulders can be caused by having arms on the chair that cannot be adjusted
this causes the user to sit with the arms sticking out.
Sitting at the desk with one elbow supported on the desk and the other held lower or
twisting the torso to look at the monitor will also cause pain.
Pain in the knees
Pain in the knees can be caused by the fact that when the chair has been adjusted to the
correct height to allow the fingers to be horizontal to the keys, the feet are left
unsupported, the solution is to purchase a footrest the small step type called (twin plus in
the Lyreco catalogue are best because they do not take up much space under the desk,
they can be adjusted according to the height of the person using them.)
If transcription is carried out it is better to have a large surface area on the footrest and
the ability to keep this level to support the footswitch.
Pain in the knees can also be caused by a seat that is too long resulting in pressure behind
the knees.
Eye strain
Eyestrain can be caused by glare from the monitor or from overhead lights. Ideally the
desk should be placed between lights and not directly under them. If this is not possible
you may be able to switch the overhead light off and use an angle poise lamp.
Glare from windows without blinds or with incorrectly fitted blinds.
Where there are casement window at the top and blinds cannot be used there is often
glare from the sun on the screen. Some vertical blinds are not efficient and additional
blackout roller blinds would improve efficiency and keep the room cool. If blinds cannot
be fitted it may be possible to fit a tinted transparent film to the window.
1. SIMPLEX
Data in a Simplex transmission is always one way. Simplex transmission are not often used because
it is not possible to send back error or control signals to the transmit end.
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2. HALF DUPLEX
A half-duplex transmission can send and receive in one direction, but not at the same time. It's like a
one-lane bridge where two-way traffic must give way in order to cross. Only one end transmits at a
time, the other end receives. In addition, it is possible to perform error detection and request the
sender to retransmit information that arrived corrupted. In some aspects, you can think of Internet
surfing as being half-duplex, as a user issues a request for a web document, then that document is
downloaded and displayed before the user issues another request.
Another example of half-duplex is talkback radio, and CB Radio (Citizens Band). You might have
seen movies where a truck driver (drivers of very big trucks) communicates to each other, and when
they want the other person to speak they say "over". This is because only one person can talk at a
time
3. FULL DUPLEX
Data can travel in both directions simultaneously. There is no need to switch from transmit to
receive mode like in half duplex. It like a two lane bridge on a two-lane highway. Have you ever
watched these television talk shows where the host has a number of people on the show, and they all
try to talk at once. Well, that's full duplex!
Of course, in the world of data communications, full duplex allows both way communications
simultaneously. An example can be a consumer, which uses a cable connection not only, receives
TV channels, but also the same cable to support their phone and Internet surfing. All these activities
can occur simultaneously.
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PRACTICAL QUESTION
a. Name any 2 word processing packages.
b. What is page break in word processing and why is it used/
c. How do you save a file on a floppy disk using the word processor you have studied?
d. How do you underline a block of previously typed text using the word processor you
have studied?
e. Explain the difference between
i. SAVE & SAVE AS
ii. COPY & CUT
iii. DELETE & BACK SPACE
iv. PORTRAIT & LANDSCAPE
v. TOGGLE CASE & UPPERCASE
f. Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions in a windows
environment.
i. Creating a folder ix. Arrange icons on the desktop
ii. Opening a folder x. Change screen saver
iii. Searching folders or files xi. Click
iv. Renaming a file or folder xii. Right click
v. Creating a shortcut for a file or xiii. Double click
folder xiv. Drag
vi. Copy file from one folder to xv. Loading windows
another xvi. Shutting down a computer
vii. Move a file from one folder to xvii. Emptying recycle bin
another xviii.
viii. Deleting a file or folder
g. Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions using a
spreadsheet of your choice
i. Expanding a cell
ii. Adding a list of figures in the range A10 to D10
iii. Insert a full border around a document
iv. Adding and Renaming Worksheets
v. Resizing Rows and Columns
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Briefly outline the procedures for performing the following functions using a word
processor of your choice
1. Opening a Microsoft word program for typing
2. Saving a document
3. Retrieving a document
4. Setting landscape or portrait orientation
5. Print preview
6. Formatting text into italics
7. Setting left and right margins
8. Inserting a header or a footer
9. Open a document which has been saved before
10. Insert a picture
11. Insert a table
12. Printing a word document
13. Exit MS Word
14. Save a document
15. Copy a document or a word
16. Double line spacing
17. Insert a header
18. Insert page number
19. Save a document onto a floppy disk
20. Mail merge
21. JUSTIFYING TEXT
22. Inserting bullets
23. Indenting text
24. Moving a block of text
25. Copying a block of text
26. Creating a table
27. Adding rows to a table
28. Adding columns to a table
29. Deleting rows of a table
30. Deleting columns of a table
31. Shading a table
32. Merging cells of a table
33. Splitting cells
34. Changing text direction
35. Inserting drop caps
36. Having 2 columns on a word document
37. Bordering and shading a paragraph
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INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION DEFINITIONS:
1. The process by which information, ideas, attitudes and emotions are exchanged between one
person and another by the use of a common system of symbols, signs and behaviour.
(Hammond S 1998:19)
2. The giving, receiving or exchange of information, opinions or ideas by writing, speech or
visual means or a combination of these three- so that the material communicated is
understood by everyone.
3. The transaction (an exchange) whereby participants together create meaning through the
exchange of symbols. (Michael Fielding 1993:4)
4. Communication is a skill acquired by an individual to exchange messages, facts, ideas,
opinions and even express emotions.
5.
The definition stresses 4 major points which are:
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication starts with the transmission of information related to business and ends with the
feedback from the receiver. The sender transmits messages with a view to exchange
understanding with the receiver. This understanding depends on positive response from the
receiver. In business, two-ways communication is always desirable as it ensures feedback from
the receiver. However, the success of business communication depends on some aspects or
elements. The elements are discussed in short below:
1. Two or more parties: Business communication must involve at least two parties. One
party acts as the sender of message and another is the receiver of that message.
2. Meaningful message: The second important elements of communication are message or
information that the sender wants to communicate. Messages may take the form of
feelings, wishes, attitudes, ideas, facts, information or any other perceivable matter. The
messages that a sender wants to send, should be meaningful to the receiver.
3. Business related information: Information that the sender transmits should be related to
business. Similarly the feedback from the receiver should also be business based.
4. Media or channel: Channel of medium is a pre-requisite of communication. It is the
means of transmitting messages from sender to receiver. Communication media can be
verbal and nonverbal. The verbal media may be of oral and written. Verbal media of
communication include telephonic conversation, fax, newspaper, books, journals etc. On
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the other hand, gestures, and body language, facial expression etc. Are the media of non-
verbal communication. The sender must select appropriate media for successful
communication.
5. Feedback: The final element of communication is feedback. It is the response or reaction
of the receiver regarding the sender’s message. Feedback describes how the message is
being interpreted by the receiver. It is regarded as the instrument for evaluating the
success of communication process.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication is really a different field that has some various objectives. To gain individual
objectives, communication performs quite a few functions. Some of its major functions are as
follows:
1. Informing: The principal function of communication is informing messages to others. It
really is done verbally or non-verbally. Verbal messages might be either oral or written.
Over a other hand, non-verbal messages can be sent via human body language, gestures,
posture etc.
2. Persuading: One more essential functionality of communication is persuading a single
party by another. In business, management persuades the employees to make certain that
employees persuade management so that management accepts their ideas, opinions and
suggestions. The business also communicates with external stakeholders to persuade
them.
3. Integrating various divisions and departments: Attainment of organizational goals
requires integration and coordination of activities performed by various individuals,
groups and departments. Management can put together and coordinate those people
divisions and departments by building a communication network for the whole
organization.
4. Creating relationships through external parties: Communication creates relationships
not just with internal parties but also with the external parties like customers, suppliers,
investors, general community and government. Communication through these external
parties could be the for survival of an organization.
5. Improving labor-management association: There’s no option to excellent labor-
management relationship for achieving organizational goals. Therefore, a significant
purpose of communication is to increase labor management relationship. Communication
helps each party to express themselves and produce an atmosphere of cooperation.
6. Helping in choice making: Management is absolutely nothing but producing decisions
for creating decision, management requirements information. The function of
communication is to supply relevant info on the management in time so that they are able
to make appropriate decisions.
7. Reducing misunderstanding: In the absence of communication, misunderstanding,
distance, conflict, controversies etc. May perhaps a rise inside the organization.
Communication helps to overcome and avoid these misunderstanding, disagreement and
controversies.
8. Solving troubles: Difficulties are favorite to every business. A business faces good deal
of difficulties in its day-to-day operations. Achievement of business depends on timely
items of individual problems. Item of these problems is impossible without the need of
appropriate communication with the concerned parties.
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FIVE MAJOR FORMS OF COMMUNICATION:
Intrapersonal Communication
Interpersonal/Dyadic Communication
Extra personal
Small Group Communication
Public Communication
Mass Communication
INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
Intrapersonal communication is a communication which happens yourself. Here both
Source (sender) and receiver is only one. so, the feedback works without any interruption.
Example: A person can communicate himself through pain, thinking, feelings and
emotion etc.
Intrapersonal communication is self-talk or a conversation you hold with yourself
under certain circumstances – for example, when you need to make an important decision
or learn something about yourself. You may wonder whether intrapersonal
communication is just another way of describing the thinking process. In a way, that
would be correct.
Intrapersonal communication is a form of thinking that goes on inside us which relies on
language to express itself. It is similar to the Shakespearean “soliloquy” where the
character in question engages in self-talk to reflect on events that have. Intrapersonal
communication often increases self-awareness and mindfulness, and hones critical
thinking skills.
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very often directly affects the other party. Interpersonal communication can take place
face to face as well as through electronic channels like video-conferencing, chat rooms,
e-mail and Twitter.
PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
In public communication, Source or messages from a single person will reach or received
by huge number of audience. But in this communication there is no mutual feedbacks
between source and receiver like small group communication and it’s only focused on
Speaker.
Public communication, also known as public speaking, involves communication
between a speaker and an audience. This audience may range from just a few people to
thousands or even millions of people. The aim of the speaker is usually to inform or to
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persuade the audience to act, buy, or think in a certain way. A teacher may address an
assembly of students on codes of behaviour or school rules. A politician may make
speeches on how he will be dealing with certain issues in order to win their votes. An
executive may give a business presentation to get more sales. It is important to
understand some of the basic principles of effective public speaking so that you are able
to influence, persuade as well as entertain your audience when you communicate with
them.
MASS COMMUNICATION
In mass communication, basically have a large number of audience and they are all can’t
grouped together in one place so we need certain tool or technology for communication
process. But in mass communication, there is no direct access with receiver. So, for that
they need media like newspaper, radio, television and internet. Here the audience
feedback is very less or delayed.
Mass communication is communication that is sent out from a source to many receivers
all over the world. It takes place through media like films, radio, videos and television.
Modern avenues of mass communication like the Internet and blogs can be very powerful
indeed as information is disseminated instantly.
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- Shouting at an inanimate object (Like a toaster) for not working.
- People who are quite mentally stable but talk to themselves when alone.
- Praying to God.
COMMUNICATION THEORIES
******??????
COMMUNICATION MODELS
There are many models of communication developed by noted theorists of different disciplines.
Among the theorists, Aristotle, Lasswell, Shannon, Weaver, McLuhan, MacLean, Rileys,
Westley, Gerbner, Rothstein, Schramn, Berlo, Osgood, Johnson, Cherry are the renowned ones.
Some important and well-known models are discussed below:
1. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL:
Aristotle, your well known Ancient greek thinker, unveiled an operation involving by oral
communication within his / her creating 3 hundred years prior to the birth involving Christ. The
task is regarded worthy inside analyze involving modern day communication. He articulates of
any communication practice consisting of a new loudspeaker, a message and also a listener. The
Aristotelian model of communication can be as follows:
Aristotle pointed out that the person at the end of communication process plays the key role to
whether or not communication takes place.
2. LASSWELL’S MODEL:
Harold Lasswell, a politics scientist, designed a communication exchanges type mixing the main
elements of communication exchanges. His model has become widely discussed given that 1940s.
He or she expressed the actual type because, “Who affirms exactly what, in which funnel, to be
able to which, in doing what effect. ” Which means, Lasswell’s style of verbal exchanges consists
of several parts- Sender (who), Message (what) in addition to receiver (whom). Lasswell included
solely the actual component-channel. The majority of modern-day theorists talk about these
several areas of the actual communication procedure by employing diverse terminology. The
particular Lasswell’s type can be found beneath:
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3. CLAUDE SHANNON AND ALSO WARREN WEAVER MODEL:
United States applied mathematician Claude Shannon and also Industrial engineer Warren
Weaver produced a new mathematical theory regarding conversation within 1949 although
working at bell Mobile phone Laboratories in the United States. Afterwards his / her style has
grown to be well-known because “information theory”. Shannon and also Weaver’s style is
commonly recognized because the course from which communication studies has exploded.
Shannon along with Weaver product contains the subsequent 5 things:
An data source, which usually yields an email
Some sort of transmitter, which encodes the particular communication in to indicators
Some sort of sales channel, to be able to which usually indicators usually are taken for
sign
Some sort of receiver, which ‘decodes’ (reconstructs) the particular communication from
the indication
Some sort of desired destination, in which the communication occurs.
In the model, they indicated a sixth element, noise as a dysfunctional factor. The model is shown
below:
Advantages of Shannon and Weaver’s model: The strengths of Shannon and Weaver’s model are:
Simplicity
Generality and
Quantifiability
Such advantages made this model attractive to several academic disciplines.
4. SCHRAMM’S MODEL:
Wibur Scharmm, the well-known communication theorist, designed an easy devices
communication model in his book “The course of action in addition to Effects involving Mass
Communication. ” Within the product, Schramm found because Aristotle would, of which
communication usually requires about three elements-the resource, this communication plus the
desired destination. Ultimately, the original source encodes a communication in addition to direct
that to its desired destination via some programmers, in which the message is usually obtained in
addition to decoded. Schramm’s product is really as comes after:
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The mode indicates the communicator (C) emerges as part of a larger pattern , who sends
messages in accordance with the expectations and actions of other persons and groups within the
same social structure. it is also true in the case of the receiver (R) in the communications process.
in addition, both the communicator and receiver are part of an overall social system. The model
clearly illustrates that communication is a two-way process.
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Receiver: Receiver is the final element in the communication process. The receiver is the
audience of the message.
7. CONTEMPORARY MODEL:
The modern day style of communication features developed primarily from the early on work
associated with Shannon along with Weaver along with Schramm. These experts have been
related to expounding on the process of communication in a way that may be useful in most
situations.
Off their work the ultra-modern as well as modern day style of communication developed. The
normal regions of modern day style of communication incorporate communicator, encoding,
information, moderate, recipient, decoding, and suggestions along with sounds.
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
LINEAR MODEL
The linear model views communication as a one-way or linear process in which the speaker
speaks and the listener listens.
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Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) model includes noise or interference that distorts understanding
between the speaker and the listener. Figure shows a linear model of communication:
1. Sender : The originator of message or the information source selects desire message
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process which affect the communication flow or the receiver may not receive the correct
message
Note: The model clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or signals
from external sources. For example: If there is any problems occur in network which directly
affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages
INTERACTIVE MODEL
The main flaw in the linear model is that it depicts communication as a one-way process where
speakers only speak and never listen. It also implies that listeners listen and never speak or send
messages.
Schramm (1955) in Wood (2009) came out with a more interactive model that saw the receiver or
listener providing feedback to the sender or speaker. The speaker or sender of the message also
listens to the feedback given by the receiver or listener. Both the speaker and the listener take
turns to speak and listen to each other. Feedback is given either verbally or non-verbally, or in
both ways.
This model also indicates that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common
fields of experience, or fields which overlap
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL
The main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not indicate that communicators can
both send and receive messages simultaneously. This model also fails to show that
communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.
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The transactional model shows that the elements in communication are interdependent. Each
person in the communication act is both a speaker and a listener, and can be simultaneously
sending and receiving messages.
There are three implications in the transactional model:
i. “Transactional” means that communication is an ongoing and continuously changing
process. You are changing, the people with whom you are communicating are changing,
and your environment is also continually changing as well.
ii. In any transactional process, each element exists in relation to all the other elements.
There is this interdependence where there can be no source without a receiver and no
message without a source.
iii. Each person in the communication process reacts depending on factors such as their
background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-esteem.
Figure below shows a transactional model of communication that takes into account “noise” or
interference in communication as well as the time factor. The outer lines of the model indicate
that communication happens within systems that both communicators share (e.g., a common
campus, hometown, and culture) or personal systems (e.g., family, religion, friends, etc). It also
takes into account changes that happen in the communicators’ fields of personal and common
experiences. The model also labels each communicator as both sender as well as receiver
simultaneously.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNICATION PROCESS AND COMMUNICATION
MODEL
Communication model and process are closely related to each other. Communication process is
made up of some sequential parts of exchanging information. This process includes sender,
encodings, message, channel, receiver, decoding and feedback. On the other hand,
communication model is the symbolic presentation of communication process. Thus, it seems that
communication process and model are similar to each other. Yet, there exists some differences
between them. The differences are below:
Nature: Communication process is theoretical in nature and Communication model is the
pictorial presentation of communication process.
Understandability: Since communication process is a theoretical matter, it requires
descriptive analysis of components and Since model is a symbolic representation, on can
understand the model by simply looking at it.
Complicacy: The process is descriptive in nature and therefore, it is a complex matter
and The model is relatively less complex as it is presented in the form of picture of
diagram.
Time involvement: Theoretical analysis of communication process and Developing
communication model requires less time than the process.
Requirement of expert: There is hardly any need of expert to design a communication
process and Experts are essential to develop a well thought out model.
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Non-inclusion of some aspects: In a communication model, only the important aspects
of communication process are included and less important aspects are ignored. But in
some cases these unimportant aspects become important.
Lack of detailed explanation: Communication model represents the communication
process through symbols. Elaborate explanation is not always available in the
communication model.
Non-availability of experts: Another limitation in developing a communication model
is that expert hands are not always available. As a result, development of time befitting
model is difficult.
A model can be defined as a visual presentation that identifies, classifies and describes various
parts of a process. In the communication process, sender, message, media and receiver are
associated. Communication process starts with the transmission of message by communicator and
end with receiver’s feedback. When this communication process is represented through a line or
picture, it is called communication model. In other words, pictorial presentation of
communication process is known as communication model.
The simple model of communication consists of a sender, message and receiver. However, this
simple model ignores many other parts of communication process. So by incorporating all parts
of communication process, a comprehensive communication model is presented below:
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various aspects of communication logically that help the researchers are in understanding
the pattern of communication. So with the help of communication models, the researchers
can undertake communication research programmers and perform those efficiently.
3. Predicting the success or failure of communication process: Another function of
communication model is to predict or forecast the success or failure of a particular
communication process. Through this model, one can ascertain the causes of success or
failure of communication.
Importance or objectives of communication model:
Communication model has evolved to understand the communication process. It helps to
understand the important aspects of communication. Some points highlighting the importance or
objectives of communication model are given below:
1. Easy understanding of communication process: Communication model helps to
understand the communication process easily and logically.
2. Showing information flow: Communication model shows how information flows form
one person to another in the organization.
3. Introducing the parts of communication process: Communication model is also
helpful to orient the various parts of communication process to its readers.
4. Easy presentation of communication process: Communication process is a complex
issue. Through a model, this complex issue can be presented easily.
5. Understanding the communication complexities: Complex issues of commutation
process cannot be show in the communication model. Comparing these complexities with
the model, one can measure the degree of complexities in a given communication issue.
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Communication process consists of some interrelated steps or parts through which messages are
sent form sender to receiver. The process of communication begins when the sender wants to
transmit a fact, idea, opinion or other information to the receiver and ends with receiver’s
feedback to the sender. The main components of communication process are sender, message,
channel, receiver and feedback
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Steps or elements of communication process
The communication process refers to the steps through which communication takes place
between the sender and the receiver. This process starts with conceptualizing an idea or message
by the sender and ends with the feedback from the receiver. In details, communication process
consists of the following eight steps:
1. Developing idea by the sender: In the first step, the communicator develops or
conceptualizes an idea to be sent. It is also known as the planning stage since in this stage
the communicator plans the subject matter of communication.
2. Encoding: Encoding means converting or translation the idea into a perceivable form that
can be communicated to others.
3. Developing the message: After encoding the sender gets a message that can be
transmitted to the receiver. The message can be oral, written, symbolic or nonverbal. For
example, when people talk, speech is the message; when people write a letter, the words
and sentences are the message; when people cries, the crying is the message.
4. Selecting the medium: Medium is the channel or means of transmitting the message to
the receiver. Once the sender has encoded his into a message, the next step is to select a
suitable medium for transmitting it to the receiver. The medium of communication can be
speaking, writing, signaling, gesturing etc.
5. Transmission of message: In this step, the sender actually transmits the message through
chosen medium. In the communication cycle, the tasks of the sender end with the
transmission of the message.
6. Receiving the message by receiver: This stage simply involves the reception of sender’s
message by the receiver. The message can be received in the form of hearing, seeing,
feeling and so on.
7. Decoding: Decoding is the receiver’s interpretation of the sender’s message. Here the
receiver converts the message into thoughts and tries to analyze and understand it.
Effective communication can occur only when both the sender and the receiver assign the
same or similar meanings to the message.
8. Feedback: The final step of communication process is feedback. Feedback means
receiver’s response to sender’s message. It increases the effectiveness of communication.
It ensures that the receiver has correctly understood the message. Feedback is the essence
of two-way communication
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communication. Two-way communication is represented in the following diagrams:
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8. Creating congenial relationship: Congenial relationship between workers and
management is essential to achieve organizational goals. In order to create such
relationship, management must listen to the opinions and views of employees. Two-way
communication makes it possible.
9. Creating informal relationship: Another positive aspect of two-way communication is
that it enhances informal relationship between sender and receiver. Since two-way
communication allows both the participants to exchange whatever they think, they can
develop a sense of mutual understanding. The result is a better relationship between
them.
10. Increasing effectiveness of communication: Effective communication depends on
proper understanding of message by both sender and receiver. Through two-way
communication, both parties can evaluate each other’s opinion and thus can increase
effectiveness of their communication.
11. Increasing efficiency: Two-way communication also positively contributes to the
efficiency of the receiver. In this communication, the receiver can seek clarification and
analysis of sender’s message that ultimately increases his knowledge, understanding and
efficiency.
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that two-way communication plays vital role in
improving organizational performance. This is the only complete communication process. For
this reason, so much importance is placed on two-way communication
Feedback refers to the response or reaction of receiver to the sender’s message. Feedback is the
essence of communication and is the final step of communication process. Without feedback
from the receiver, communication process remains incomplete. This feedback may be an oral or
written message, or an action or simply a silence.
Transmitting or sending message is half of the communication process. When messages reach to
the receiver, he decodes the message and sends his response to the sender to complete the
communication process. Feedback enables the sender to evaluate the effectiveness of his
message. If the receiver does not understand what the sender wants to convey, then the sender
refines or repeats the message.
In the opinion of Bartol and Martin, “Feedback is the receiver’s basic response to the
interpreted message.”
Boone, Kurtz and Block defined, “Feedback consists of messages-verbal and non-verbal-
that convey a reaction to the communication’s message.”
According to Bovee, Thill and Wood, “Feedback is a response from the receiver that
informs the sender how the message is being interpreted form the receiver that informs
the sender how the message is being interpreted and how the communication is being
received in general.”
Weihrich and Koontz said, “A feedback is an information input in a system transmitting
message of system operation to indicate whether the system is operating as planned,
information concerning any type of planned operations relayed to the responsible person
for evaluations.”
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Feedback in communication is shown in the fallowing diagram
The earlier discussion brings to conclusion that feedback is the return message or reaction of
receiver with regard to the sender’s message.
NECESSITY OF FEEDBACK |
Feedback is the essence of two-way communication. In two-way communication, the sender must
wait for receiver’s response before deciding what to say nest and how to say it. Feedback is the
check on how much successful one has been in transferring his message as originally intended. If
there is no feedback. Communication will be incomplete and ineffective. Based on feedback, a
sender may either alter the presentation of the message or cancel it entirely. Thus, there is no
alternative to feedback,. Some points highlighting the importance of feedback are mentioned
below:
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and Thakur said, “The receiver’s feedback to the sender completes the communication
process loop.”
2. Measuring the effectiveness of communication: Feedback ensures the sender regarding
the effectiveness of his communication. By means of feedback, sender can be sure that
the receiver received the message and understood it in the proper way. Sender needs
feedback in order to determine the success or failure of communication.
3. Understanding the receiver’s view: Feedback helps to understand the receiver’s view
and opinion about the sender’s message. With this understanding, sender can determine
the next course of action.
4. Measuring the appropriateness of media: Message can be transmitted using various
media. Improper media cannot convey the message to the receiver properly. So proper
understanding of the message by the receiver and his feedback proves that the sender has
selected the right media.
5. Making correct decision: Feedback communicates the receiver’s opinion to the sender.
Considering this opinion, the communicator can take proper decision. Information of the
receiver can also improve the quality of decision.
6. Collection of information: One-way communication only sends information. If
communicator wants to gather information, he must seek feedback.
7. Coordination of activities: Responsibility of performing organizational activities is
assigned to various departments. In this case, organizational success depends on proper
coordination of inter-departmental activities. Feedback helps top management to ensure
proper coordination.
8. Improving labor-management relationships: Healthy labor-management relationship is
essential for organizational success. If management wants to build a congenial
atmosphere, they should encourage two-way communication. That means, management
should seek feedback from employees as well as they should provide feedback to the
employees. Through this practice, managers can create democratic atmosphere in the
organization.
The above discussion reveals that feedback is an essential element of communication process.
Through feedback, the sender and receiver can know each other and accordingly they can decide
their next course of action.
COMMUNICATION BREAKDOWN
Sender transmits a message with the expectation that the receiver will receive, understand and act
on it. However, messages do not always reach to its intended receiver in way the sender think.
Some causes or factors impede the flow of message, it’s interpretation and understanding. Such
factors or causes are known as communication barriers. Some definitions on communication
barrier are quoted below:
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According to Dr. Suruj Kumar Debnath, defined, “Barriers to communication mean
obstacles to the process of communication.
In the opinion of Louise E. Boone and Others, “Communication barriers are the problems
that arise at every stage of the communication process and have the potential to create
misunderstanding and confusion.
According to C. B. Mamoria, “Communication, when it is impeded and does not reach
the receiver is often somewhat ineffective and the impediments are known as barriers.”
By considering the above discussion and definitions, it can be concluded that communication
barriers are the factors that inhibit the effective flow of information that communication barriers
are the factors that inhibit the effective flow of information in the process of communication.
Communication barriers impede the flow of information or create problems in understanding and
acceptance of information.
These four categories of communication barriers are shown in the following diagram:
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1. ORGANIZATIONAL BARRIERS: The barriers that generate form within the organization
are known as organizational barriers may be of the following types:
o Negative organizational climate: The main aspect of organizational climate that
acts as communication barrier is the negative attitude of top management. Negative
attitude of top management discourages communication initiative of the employees.
o Absence of communication policy: Well-designed communication policy
encourages communication in the organization. In the absence of such policies,
employees fail hesitate to communicate.
o Excessive authority layers: Excessive authority layers acts as a severe impediment
to successful communication. In the case of excessive authority impediment to
successful communication. In the case of excessive authority layers, information
reaches to its final destination passing through several hierarchical levels. As a result,
information may be distorted or lost. Excessive authority layers also causes delay in
communication.
o Filtering: Filtering implies willful distortion of information. This problem usually
arise in upward communication. In upward communication, employees tend to pass
only those messages that create positive impression about them.
2. INDIVIDUAL BARRIERS: Barriers created by the sender and receiver are known as
individual barriers. Such barriers include the following:
o Differences in personality: Personality is the set of attributes that define a person.
Every person holds a distinct personality. This individual nature of personality acts as
barrier to communication.
o Perceptual differences: Perception is the unique way in which people respond or
interpret an object. Difference in perception is a very common problem in effective
communication. It for example, a subscriber of BTTB’s land phone in Bangladesh
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may positively react to the government’s move to privatize BTTB expecting a better
service. But an employee of BTTB might view this as step to cut jobs and retrench
existing employees.
o Fear: Fear of reprisal or attack, fear of criticism for knowing very little etc. may
create problem in communication.
o Stereotyping: Stereotyping is generalizing about a class of people or events that is
widely held by a given culture. In case of stereotyping, people develop
communication statements and mindsets about others. This orientation exposes itself
in such statements and mindsets. For example, “All used car salesmen are dishonest,”
or “All foreign recruiting agents are liars.” Such all inclusive perceptions not only are
seldom correct but they also block mental activity that is necessary for successful
communication.
o Halo Effect: The halo effect is the tendency to use a general impression based on one
or a few characteristics to judge other characteristics of that same individual. For
example, a manger might identify one trait of an employee, such as an excellent
attendance record, and perceive that the employee’s productivity and quality of work
must also be outstanding.
o Inattention: Sometimes communication does not reach due to the inattention of the
receiver. Such inattention may result from busyness, lack of interest about subject,
suffering from disease or family problem etc.
o
3. LANGUAGE OR SEMANTIC BARRIER: A common barrier to effective communication
is semantic distortion, which can be deliberate or accidental. Semantic problem arises when
words and symbols have different meanings for different people that lead to a
misunderstanding. For examples, an advertisement states, “we sell for less.” It is ambiguous
and raises the question: less than what? In another case, during meeting, a male colleague
said to one of his female colleague, “Why don’t you dye it?” meaning her hair. The female
colleague thought he said, “Why don’t you diet?” she did not speak to him for a month.
Semantic barrier presents difficult challenge when people from different cultures
communicate with each other.
4. OTHER BARRIERS: The following factors also act as the barrier to effective
communication:
o Information Overload: Information overload may also be a problem of effective
communication. Information overload is the situation when a person is given too
much information at a time.
o Faulty expression: Faulty expression of message fails to convey exact meaning to
the receiver. It happens due to lack of clarity, use of vague terms, badly expressed
information, improper organization of ideas etc.
o Status or power difference: Communication problem may arise when people of
different power or status try to communicate with each other. For example, the
manger of a company may neglect suggestion from his subordinates simply because
of difference in their status. This under treatment of people makes the communication
ineffective.
o Negative attitudes to change: Some people always resist any kind of change in the
organization. They think that ‘old is good, and are fearful about the changes.
Therefore, they create problems in communication through inattention, false
interpretation, rumor, resistance and non-cooperation.
o Noise: Environment factors may also disrupt effective communication. One such
factor is noise. For example, in oral communication, noise hiders smooth flow of
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information or message. In factories, loud noise of machines makes oral
communication very difficult.
Overcome the communication barriers are essential to ensure effective communication. Although
it is not possible to eliminate all the barriers, they can be minimized to a great extent. The
following guidelines are offered in this regard:
1. Clear organizational policy: Organization should have adequate, clear and explicit
communication policies. Such policies will reduce confusion and promote the flow of
communication.
2. Provision for feedback: In order to make communicate effective, mangers should
actively seek feedback from subordinates. Feedback reduces the chance of
misunderstanding and disparity between the messages sends and received.
3. Reorganization: In order to create a favorable communication climate, complex
organization structure should be reorganized. Reorganization may involve reducing
authority layers and establishing clear authority and responsibility relationship.
4. Management development: For improving communication skills, management
development is necessary. This development is possible through delegation of authority,
decentralization, arranging seminars and workshops, providing training on computers and
other electronic means of communication.
5. Orientation: Orientation refers to introducing the newly appointed employees with the
company mission, goals, policies, rules and regulations, procedures etc. this can greatly
enhance the effectiveness of communication in the organization.
6. Promoting informal relationship: Informal relationship can play a vital role in
promoting communication. Hence, management should use informal communication
channel along with the formal channels.
7. Selecting proper media: Effectiveness of communication largely depends on
appropriateness of media. Therefore, media should be selecting considering some factors
such as importance of message, communication environment, knowledge of the receiver
etc.
8. Communication training: To make the employees efficient communicator,
organizations can arrange various training programs for them.
9. Reducing information overload: Communication system becomes defective if more
information flows at a time than is necessity. To resolve this problem, only necessary
information should be conveyed. Moreover, separate messages should be communicated
after certain intervals.
10. Communication audit: According to Howard H. Greenbaum, one way to improve
communication in organization is to conduct a communication audit. Communication
audit means examining and evaluating communication networks, communication
functions and communication principle. If communication audit is undertaken after
certain intervals, communication will obviously improve.
The following measures can be taken to overcome the communication problems that exist in the
business enterprises of any country:
Developing flat organization structure: In modern time, organizations prefer flat
structure to tall one. Flat structure has fewer heretical levels that reduce communication
gap between superiors and subordinates. Therefore, business enterprises in any country
should design flat structure in place of the traditional tall structure.
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Specifying objective of communication: In order to overcome the problem of
ambiguity, communicator should specify the objective of communication. This will help
him to arrange the message concisely and clearly.
Clear-cut message: Top executives should send clear orders, instructions, policies,
procedures and directions so that misunderstanding and confusion do not arise. This will
enhance the effectiveness of communication.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of
communicating also affects communication. So, there are variety of types of communication.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION:
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When messages or information is exchanged or communicated through words is called verbal
communication. Verbal communication may be two types: written and oral communication.
Verbal communication takes place through face-to-face conversations, group discussions,
counseling, interview, radio, television, calls, memos, letters, reports, notes, email etc. some
definitions of verbal communications are as follows:
According to Bovee and others: Verbal communication is the expression of information
through language which is composed of words and grammar.”
According to Penrose and others, “Verbal communication consists of sharing thoughts
thought the meaning of words.”
So, verbal communication is the process of exchanged of information or message between two or
more persons through written or oral words.
Verbal communication is the expression or exchanged of information or messages through
written or oral words. Forms of verbal communication are as follows:
1. Oral communication: Oral communication is the process of communication in which
messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver
through the word of mouth. It can be divided into two ways: a. Speaking b. Listening.
2. Written communication: Written communication is the process of communication in
which messages or information is exchanged or communicated within sender and
receiver through written form. It can be divided into two ways: a. Writing b. Reading.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION:
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Easy to preserve: The documents of written communication are easy to preserve. Oral
and non-verbal communication cannot be preserved. If it is needed, important
information can be collected from the preserved documents.
Easy presentation of complex matter: Written communication is the best way to
represent any complex matter easily and attractively.
Permanent record: The documents of written communication act as a permanent record.
When it is needed, important information can be easily collected from the preserved
documents.
Prevention of wastage of time and money: Written communication prevents the waste
of money and time. Without meeting with each other the communicator and
communicate can exchange their views.
Accurate presentation: Through the documents of the written communication top
executive can present the information more accurately and clearly. As it is a legal
document everybody takes much care does draft it.
Use as a reference: If it is needed, written communication can be used as future
reference.
Delegation of authority: Written communication can help the authority to delegate the
power and authority to the subordinate. It is quite impossible to delegate power without a
written document.
Longevity: Written document can be preserved for a long time easily. That is why; all
the important issues of an organization should be back and white.
Effective communication: Written communication helps to make communication
effective. It is more dependable and effective than those of other forms of
communication.
Maintaining image: Written communication helps to maintain the images of both the
person and the organization. It also protects the images of the company or organization.
Proper information: It is a proper and complete communication system. There is no
opportunity to include any unnecessary information in a written document.
Less distortion possibility: In this communication system information is recorded
permanently. So, there is less possibility of distortion and alteration of the information.
No opportunity to misinterpret: there is any opportunity to misinterpret the information
or messages of written communication.
Controlling tool: Written communication can help to control the organizational activity.
The written document may be used as a tool for controlling.
Easy to verify: The information and messages that are preserved can be verified easily.
If there arises any misunderstanding any party can easily verify the information.
Others: Clear understanding, Legal document, Acceptability, Reduction of risk, Creating
confidence, Easy circulation, Wide access or coverage etc.
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Difficult to maintain secrecy: It is an unexpected medium to keep business secrecy.
Secrecy is not always possible to maintain through written communication. Because here
needs to discuss everything in black and white.
Lack of flexibility: Since writing documents cannot be changed easily at any time. Lack
of flexibility is one of the most important limitations of written communication.
Delay in response: It takes much time to get a response from the message receiver;
prompt response is not possible in case of written communication that is possible in oral
communication.
Delay in decision making: Written communication takes much time to communicate
with all the parties concerned. So the decision maker cannot take decisions quickly.
Cost in record keeping: It is very difficult and expensive to keep all the records in
written communication.
Complex words: Sometimes the writer uses complex words in writing a message. It
becomes difficult to meaning out to the reader. So the objectives of the communication
may lose.
Lack of direct relation: If there is no direct relation between the writer and the reader,
writer communication cannot help to establish a direct relation between them.
Other: Prompt feedback is impossible, Slowness, Bureaucratic attitude, Understanding
problem between boos and subordinates, lack in quick clarification and correction,
formality problem, lack of personal intimacy, etc.
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5. Employee’s notebook: Sometimes the management supplies notebook to the employees
in which speech of executives, history of the organization, planning, policy, order for the
work are stated.
6. Reading rack: Necessary books for the employees can be arranged on the shelf so that
they can read and get knowledge.
7. Notice: Notice is an important medium to communicate with employees. By which the
employees are invited to attend a special meeting.
8. Internal circular: It is one of the most important media of written communication. It is
used for internal communication. When all the employees are informed at a time, internal
circular is used.
9. Daily Newspaper: Daily newspaper is used to warn the employees due to a long absence
from the organization. Sometimes it is used as a precious notice before termination.
10. Complain Book: A complains book can be kept in a definite place so that the employees
can write their complaints with it.
11. Memo: Memo is a popular medium of internal written communication. The memo is a
short form of letter usually used to communicate with the employees of the same
organization.
12. Report: Report is an organized statement of facts and findings that contains information
obtained by proper inquiry and examination and evaluation of any past event relating to a
particular subject or problem that helps to decision making.
13. Other media: Salary envelope, annual financial reports or statements, Note sheets,
Question box, Essay competition etc.
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral communication is the process of communication in which message or information is
exchanged or communicated within sender and receiver through the word of mouth.
The channels or methods or oral communication may be classified broadly in two categories non
mechanical channels and mechanical channels which are described below:
A. Non mechanical channels
Conversation: conversation means the informal discussion among the people. When one
person discusses his views, opinion to another person and exchanges their views in the
presence of both then it is called face to face conversation. It also includes the face-to-
face discussion on a particular issue. In this method both the information receiver and
sender can exchange their views freely and fairly.
Interview: It suggests a meeting between two or more persons for the purpose of getting
a view of each other or for knowing each other. When we normally think of an interview,
we think a situation in which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a job. The
employer’s aim is to know whether the applicant can be fit for service to this organization
and the applicant’s aim is to find whether the job being offered by the organization can be
suitable to him. Its first, the speaker asks questions to the listener and then the listener
answers the question. There are three major techniques of interview. They are as follows:
o Direct questioning
o Non-directive interview and
o Guided interview
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Does speech: Speech means what the speaker says in front of the audience. It is fully
audience-oriented system. Generally the political leaders, the managers, the business man
or the workers’ leaders use this system sometimes. It can build tension or it can relax
tension. This system is practiced in public gathering at company meetings, inauguration
and seminars etc. In needs to considerable skills otherwise it is not effective.
Group discussion: Group discussion is a popular method of oral communication.
Management arranges group discussion to take a decision on a special matter. Group
discussion is very helpful to human relation, idea getting an idea development and
training.
Formal training courses: Effective communication can be performed through formal
training courses. It is a wide used technique of oral communication. Both the trainer and
the trainee can exchange their views directly.
Meeting: Meeting means the formal group discussion about a specific predetermined
topic or subject. Meeting members to get together and discuss about a problem or issue or
a special matter. There are several types of meeting such as –
o Security meeting
o Minutes meeting
o Social meeting
o General meeting itself
Counseling: Counseling is an effective medium of oral communication. Generally it
held yearly or bi-yearly. It is adopted by the higher authority for their followers.
Committee: Committee is an organization. The committee meeting is a popular
technique of oral communication. Special decision is taken through face to face
discussion of a committee meeting.
Special prize-giving ceremony: Sometimes the businessmen can meet with others
arranging a special prize giving ceremony for the workers. In this ceremony the
businessmen can exchange their views and ideas orally.
Conference: Conference is a kind of meeting at which participants exchange views and
talk together. A conference may be held to exchange views on some problem being faced
by the organization or some other issue related to it and it may even suggest a solution
but the suggestions from a conference are not binding. They are more in the nature of the
recommendation.
Lectures: Lecture is used to create an understanding of a topic or to influence behavior,
attitudes of the trainee through spoken words. The lecture is telling someone about
something. The method is an effective way to introduce new information or concepts to a
group of learners who gathered at on place. A lecture is given to enhance the knowledge
of the listener or to give him the theoretical aspect of a topic.
Informal communication: Informal communication is another technique to exchange
information orally. It can be occurred in the playground, tea table etc. In those situations
both the boss and subordinate can exchange their views informally.
Others: Invitation to a lunch, Brainstorming, Advisory board, Inspection of factory and
office.
B. Mechanical channels
Telephone: Telephone set is an instrument that converts voice and other sound signals into a form
that can be transmitted to remote locations and that receives and reconverts waves into the waves
into sound signals. The telephone plays a vital role in communication when the two persons stay
in different places they communicate with each other by telephone. Their exchange information
and their views and immediate feedback are possible under this system. Now-a-days we can see
that every organization is using the telephone to exchange the information and views orally.
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Mobile or cell phone: A mobile phone (also known as a cellular phone, cell phone and a
hand phone) is a portable telephone that connects to the telephone network over the radio
wave transmission. It connects to a wireless communications network through radio wave
or satellite transmissions.
Radio: Radio is the indirect media of oral communication. It is a one-way
communication system. The receiver can only hear the message from the sender. The
receiver cannot reply.
Television: Television is also the indirect media of oral communication. It is a one-way
communication system. Here, receiver cans here the messages and side by side see the
sender. The receiver cannot reply.
Video conference: Video conference is a kind of teleconferencing communication where
people staying in different corner or locations and participate in a face-to-face group
meeting or group discussion through the help of electronic video camera technology.
Teleconferencing: Teleconferencing is a kind of communication where people staying in
different corner or locations and participate in group meetings or group discussion
through electronic telephone technology.
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10. Correction of errors: If any error is expressed at the time of oral communication. It was
possible to rectify at that time or within a very short time.
11. Informal communication: In oral communication, no need to maintain such formalities
which are needed in written communication. So it is easy and helpful to any organization.
12. Motivation: In oral communication system, top executives and sub ordinates staff can sit
face-to-face and exchange their views directly, so sub-ordinates are motivated day by
day.
13. Special applications: Oral communication is more helpful in communicating messages
to groups of people at assembly meetings etc.
14. Maintaining secrecy: Interested parties of oral communication can maintain the secrecy
of messages easily.
Oral communication contains many advantages. In spite of this, there are oral some
disadvantages which are given below:
1. No record: In oral communication, messages are difficult to record. So it is impossible to
preserve the message for future.
2. Expensive: It is also expensive media of communication. Sometimes the audience can be
managed by paying T. A and D. A. On the other hand Technological devices that are
used in this system are costly.
3. Distortion of the word: If distortion of the word occurs in oral communication, then
main goals of the organization may be filed.
4. Inaccuracy: There is very possibility of inaccurate messages to reach the destination. So,
the reverse result of expected plan may be occurred.
5. Limited use: The scope of usage of oral communication is limited. It is not suitable for
lengthy messages. It should be sued for short message.
6. Probability of omitting main subject: Sometimes, main subject may be omitted to
express a word for communicating. So, expected result may not be achieved.
7. Confused speech: Sometimes the receiver fails to understand the meaning of a message
due to habitual productions of the speaker.
8. No legal validity: there is any legal validity of the oral message. As, the oral messages
are not taped and kept records, so it can be denied easily if the situation goes against the
speaker.
9. Late decision: It takes time to reach a decision. At the beginning stage, sometime is
killed in the discussion of any personal matters. Besides some time is also wasted for
irrelevant discussion. In this way decision making is delayed.
10. Less important: In oral communication, meaningless speech can mislead the main
effects of the communication. But when the information comes out in written, we take it
seriously.
11. Lack of secrecy: In oral communication, the important and secret information may be
disclosed.
12. Defective: Oral communication is defective for company’s policy, procedure, programs,
law and other important information.
13. Creates misunderstanding: The speaker often gives message without having properly
organized it earlier. So, it is possible that he may not be able to make himself properly to
communicate with the receiver. As a result, misunderstanding May develops.
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NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Meaning of non-verbal communication: When messages or information is exchanged or
communicated without using any spoken or written word is known as nonverbal communication.
Non-verbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of communication
through sending and receiving wordless messages.
Non-verbal communication is a powerful arsenal in the face-to-face communication encounters,
expressed consciously in the presence of others and perceived either consciously or
unconsciously. Much of non-verbal communication is unintentional people are not even aware
that they are sending messages. Non-verbal communication takes place though gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact, physical proximity, touching etc. some important definitions of non-
verbal communication are as follows:
According to L. C. Bove and others, “Non-verbal communication is communication that
takes place through non-verbal cues: through such form of non-verbal communication as
gesture, eye contact, facial expression, clothing and space; and through the non-verbal
vocal communication known as Para-language.”
According to Lesikar and Pettit, “Nonverbal communication means all communication
that occurs without words (body movements, space, time, touch, voice patterns, color,
layout, design of surroundings.)”
According to Himstreet and Baty, “Non-verbal communication includes any
communication occurring without the use of words.”
So, non-verbal communication is the exchanged of information or message between two or
more persons through gestures, facial expressions eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and
without using any spoken or written word.
Non-verbal communication is any information that is communicated without using words. The
important characteristics of non-verbal communication are as follows:
No use of words: Non-verbal communication is a communication without words or
language like oral or written communication. It uses gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, physical proximity, touching etc. for communicating with others.
Culturally determined: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to
you by your parents and others with whom you associate. Through this process of
growing up in a particular society, you adopt the taints and mannerisms of your cultural
group.
Different meaning: Non-verbal symbols can many meanings. Cross-culture aspects give
various meanings to same expression in respect of non-verbal communication.
Vague and imprecise: Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in
this communication there is no use of words or language which expresses clear meaning
to the receiver.
May conflict with verbal message: Non-verbal communication is so deeply rooted, so
unconscious, that you can express a verbal message and then directly contradict it with a
nonverbal message.
Largely unconscious: Non-verbal communication is unconscious in the sense that it is
usually not planned nor rehearsed. It comes almost instantaneously.
Shows feelings and attitudes: Facial expressions, gestures, body movements, the way
you use your eyes – all communicate your feelings and emotions to others.
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Informality: Non verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or structure
like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and habitually
engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the body.
There is a proverb “Actions speak louder than words.” In essence, this underscores the
importance of non-verbal communication. Non-verbal communication is especially significant in
intercultural situations. Researches in communication suggest that many more feelings and
intentions are sent and received non-verbally than verbally. Meharabian and wiener following
suggested that only 7 % of message is sent through words, with remaining 93% sent non-verbal
expressions (depending on author, verbal part goes up to 35%). It has multiple advantages or
functions:
1. Complementary: Non-verbal cues complement a verbal message by adding to its
meaning. You can pat someone you offended at the back as you say sorry to him or her.
2. Easy presentation: Information can be easily presented in non-verbal communication
through using visual, audio-visual and silent means of non-verbal communication.
3. Substituting: Non-verbal message may substitute for the verbal message especially if it
is blocked by noise, interruption, long distance etc. for example: gestures-finger to lips to
indicate need for quite, facial expressions- a nod instead of a yes.
4. Accenting: Often used to accent a verbal message. Verbal tone indicates the actual
meaning of the specific words.
5. Repeat: Used to repeat the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating
directions.)
6. Help to illiterate people: This type of communication use gestures, facial expressions,
eye contact, proximity, touching etc. and without using any spoken or written word. So, it
is very much helpful for illiterate people.
7. Help to handicapped people: Non-verbal cues of communication greatly help in
handicapped people especially to deaf people. Deaf people are exchange message through
the movements of hands, fingers, eye ball etc.
8. Attractive presentation: Non-verbal communication is based on visual, picture, graph,
sign etc. that can be seen very much attractive.
9. Reducing wastage of time: The message of non-verbal communication reached the
receiver very fast. For this reason it reduces the wastage of valuable time of the
communicator.
10. Quick expression of message: Non-verbal cues of communication like sign and symbol
can also communicate some messages very quickly than written or oral messages.
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3. Multi-channel: while watching someone’s eyes, you may miss something significant in a
hand gesture. Everything is happening at once and therefore it may be confusing to try to
keep up with everything. Most of us simply do not do so, at least not consciously.
4. Culture-bound: Non-verbal communication is learnt in childhood, passed on to you by
your parents and others with whom you associate. A few other gestures seem to be
universal. Evidence suggests that humans of all cultures smile when happy and frown
when unhappy. However, most nonverbal symbols seem to be even further disconnected
from any “essential meaning” than verbal symbols. Gestures seen as positive in one
culture (Like the thumbs-up gesture in the USA) may be seen as obscene in another
culture.
5. Long conversations are not possible: In non-verbal communication, long conversation
and necessary explanations are not possible. No party can discuss the particular issues of
the messages.
6. Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in non-
verbal communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions eye contact, touch etc.
for communicating with others which may not be understandable for the simple and
foolish people.
7. Not everybody prefers: Everybody not prefers to communicate through non-verbal
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or
listeners. It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere. It is cannot be used as a
public tool for communication.
8. Lack of formality: Non-verbal communication does not follow any rules, formality or
structure like other communication. Most of the cases people unconsciously and
habitually engaged in non-verbal communication by moving the various parts of the
body.
9. Costly: In some cases non-verbal communication involves huge cost. For example, neon
sign, power point presentation, cinema etc are very much costly compared to others form
of communication.
10. Distortion of information: Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch,
sign, sound, paralanguage etc. for communicating with others, there is a great possibility
in distortion of information in non-verbal communication.
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A. Body language: Some parts of our body can express many indications without any sound.
Message can be transmitted with the help of our body movements which is called body language.
Body language is a form of non-verbal communication, which consists of posture, gestures, facial
expressions, eye movements etc.
1. Facial expression: A facial expression is one or more motions or positions of the
muscles in the skin of face. These movements convey the emotional state of the
individual to observers. Facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger and fear are
similar throughout the world. Proverb says, “Face is the index of mind.”Example: By
waving our hands we express ‘good-bye’; by shaking our head from side to side we
express “we do not know”.
2. Gestures: Gestures refers to visible bodily actions communicate particular messages
which include movement of the hands, face, eyes, head or other parts of the body.
Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate numeric
amounts. Culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the
hand wave used in western cultures for “hello” and “goodbye”.
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3. Posture: Posture indicates the position in which we hold the body when standing or
sitting. It can help to communicate non-verbally. Consider the following actions and note
cultural differences:
o Bowing not done criticized or affected in US; shows rank in Japan.
o Slouching rude in most Northern European areas.
o Hands in pocket-disrespectful in Turkey.
o Sitting with legs crossed-offensive in Ghana, Turkey.
o Showing soles of feet-offensive in Thailand, Saudi Arabia.
4. Eye Gaze or Eye contact: Eye contact indicates looking, staring and blinking etc. which
is important in nonverbal behaviors. Looking at another person can indicate a range of
emotions, including hostility, attention, interest and attraction, defines power and status
and has a central role in managing impressions of others.
5. Appearance and dress: External appearances also play a vital role to communicate
others. Our clothes an dresses provide a good visual signal to our interest, age,
personality, taste and sex. Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles and other factors
affecting appearance are also considered a means of nonverbal can evoke different
moods. Consider differing cultural standards on what is attractive in dress and on what
constitutes modesty. For example, seeing the dress of army officers, we can easily
determine the job status.
6. Touch: Touch is culturally determined. But each culture has clear concept of what parts
of the body one may not touch. Basic message of touch is to affect or control-protect,
support and disapprove (i.e. hug, kiss, hit, kick)
USA-Handshake is common (even for strangers), hugs and kisses for those of opposite
gender or of family (usually) on an increasingly more intimate basis.
Islamic and Hindu- Typically don’t touch with the left hand. Left hand is for toilet
functions.
Islamic cultures generally don’t approve of any touching to opposite genders (even
handshakes). But consider such touching (including hand holding, hugs) between same
sexes to be appropriate.
7. Silence: Silence is another form of non-verbal communication which expresses the positive or
negative meanings of particular messages. In a classroom, silence indicates that students are
listening carefully and attentively.
B. Space or proximity: People often refer to their need for “personal space”, which are also
important types of nonverbal communication. The physical distance between you and others
signals your level of intimacy and comfort. If someone you don’t know stand too close or touches
too often, you will probably begin to feel uncomfortable.
C. Time: Another type of non-verbal communication involves time. Thant is how we give
meaning to time communicates to other. For example, begin late in work everybody a worker can
be considered as a man of carelessness but if a manager does it; we say it is a symbol of power.
We know, time can play a vital role to reduce tension, conflict among groups. It is said that- “Kill
the time to delay the justice”.
D. Paralinguistic (Tone and volume of voice): Paralinguistic refers to vocal communication that
is separate from actual language. Paralanguage also include such vocal characteristics as rate
(speed of speaking), pitch (highness of lowness of tone), inflection, volume (loudness) and
quality (pleasing or unpleasant sound).
Vocal characterizers (laugh, cry, yell, moan, whine, belch and yawn). These send
different message in different cultures (Japan- giggling indicates embarrassment; India-
belch indicates satisfaction)
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Vocal qualifiers (volume, pitch, rhythm, tempo and tone). Loudness indicates strength in
Arabic cultures and softness indicates weakness; indicates confidence and authority to the
Germans; indicates impoliteness to the Thai; indicates loss of control to the Japanese.
(Generally, one learns not to “shout” in Asia for nearly any reason). Gender based as well
women tend to speak higher and more softly than men.
Vocal segregates (UN-huh, shh, uh, ooh, mmmh, hummm, eh mah, lah). Segretates
indicate formality, acceptance, assent, uncertainty.
E. Visual communication: When communication takes place by means of any visual aid, it is
known as visual communication. Such as facial expression, gesture, eye contact, signals, map,
chart, poster, slide, sign etc. for example, to indicate ‘danger’, we use red sign, to indicate ‘no
smoking’, we use an image showing a lighted cigarette with across mark on it etc.
Non Verbal Communication Types It is a way of making others react with ideas, thoughts,
feelings and values transmitting the information or conveying the message. Here are seven other
nonverbal communications that, if you do correctly, will improve your chances of landing the
job.Communication is the exchange of information between people by means of speaking, writing
or using a common system of signs or behavior.
1. Tone of Voice: On the other hand, speaking up and changing the tone of your voices
makes you appear engaging. During phone interviews, for example, the only way your
interviewer can get an idea of your personality is whether or not you change the tone of
your voice. Dull, monotone talking has a tendency to make you appear unexciting. The
tone of your voice also acts as a form of nonverbal communication.
2. Hands: Also, does not talk too much with your hands or it may take away from the
content of your answers? Your hands should sit on the table, maybe gentle clasp together.
They should not fidget, nor should you do the “power pyramid” since you do not want to
be seen as intimidating. Hand gestures can portray a lot of information.
3. Leaving Space: You always want to be far enough that the interviewer is comfortable,
but you do not want to be too far either or you will give the impression you are distancing
yourself from the individual. Nonverbal communications occur all of the time. A perfect
example is with the personal space you give your interviewer.
4. Smile: smile during your interview is a good way to build points with the interviewer.
Smiles are addicting and disarming. A good smile will relax your interviewer just as
much as it conveys a positive attitude.
5. Ticks: Interviewers do expect nervousness, but when you are answering an important
question, you do not want to appear nervous, which can take away from the strength of
your answer. You do not want to appear nervous and awkward. If you have nervous ticks,
such as shaking your leg up and down, clearing your throat, etc., try to do your best to
avoid them.
6. Good Posture: Keep your back straight and sit in your chair. Proper posture also displays
confidence. There is a certain aspect of trustworthiness that interviewers pick up on as
well.
7. Eye Contact:Eye contact shows confidence and clarity, and is also useful for building
rapport with your interviewer. Eye contact should be personable, but there is no need to
stare. Eye contact is a major part of nonverbal communication.
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Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears
their own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:
1. Formal Communication
2. Informal Communication
1. Formal Communication
In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while
communicating message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style.
Usually professional settings, corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal
pattern.
In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct
pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal
communication.
2. Informal Communication
Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal
communication channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of
members in an organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and
family. In informal communication use of slang words, foul language is not
restricted. Usually. informal communication is done orally and using gestures.
Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority
lines. In an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more
when talking informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.
Horizontal communication occurs between people holding the same hierarchical position. Both
written and oral methods are used to make horizontal communication effective. The methods or
media or horizontal communication are discussed below:
Oral Method: Horizontal communication is most effective when it is done through oral
means. Telephonic conversation, face-to-face discussion, meetings, interviews, seminars,
conferences etc. are the widely used oral means of horizontal communication.
Written communication: Horizontal communication also takes place through written
media; the written means of horizontal communication include letters, memos, reports
etc.
At last, it can be concluded that the efficacy of horizontal communication primarily depends on
verbal means, yet written methods can be used to transmit important messages.
Differences between horizontal and vertical communication
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Horizontal and vertical communications are the two different types of internal communication.
These two types of communications differ in the following ways:
Meaning: When information flows between persons holding the same position in the in
the organization, it is called horizontal communication. When communication occurs
between superior and subordinates, it is called vertical communication.
Purpose: The purpose of horizontal communication is to coordinate the activities of
various departments and divisions of the organization. The purpose of vertical
communication is to provide necessary orders, instructions, and directives to the
subordinates in downward direction; and receiving suggestion, opinion and feedback
from the subordinates in upward direction.
Information flow: In this communication, information flows between people holding
same rank and status. In this communication, information flows form superior to
subordinates and vice-versa.
Degree of formality: Horizontal communication enjoys greater degree of informality.
Vertical communication is more formal than horizontal communication.
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Method of communication: Horizontal communication is mostly done through oral
media. Vertical communication is mostly done through written media.
Possibility of distortion: Message of horizontal communication are usually free form
distortion. Message of vertical communication may suffer from distortion.
Length of communication line: Horizontal communication occurs in short line as it
happens directly between sender and receiver. Vertical communication passes through a
long line of communication.
When information flows form subordinated to superiors, it is called upward communication. The
purpose of upward communication is to provide information to the managers form subordinates.
Through this communication, subordinates convey their opinions, suggestions, complaints etc. to
their superiors. The lower-level employees initiate up-ward communication and the message
ultimately reaches to the upper-level management. It may take place in the form of feedback of
downward communication. Some definitions of upward communication are mentioned below:
According to Ricky W. Griffin, “Upward communication consists of messages from subordinates
to superiors.”
In the opinion of Weihrich and Koontz, “Upward communication travels from
subordinates to superiors and continue up the organizational hierarchy.”
Boone, Kurtz and Block said, “Communication that flows form a supervisee to a
supervisor, is known as upward communication.”
According to L. C. Bovee and Others, “Upward communication is the flow of
information from lower to higher levels in the organization.”
Bartol and Martin defined, “When the vertical flow of communication is form a lower
level to one or higher levels in the organization, it is known as upward communication.”
The following figure represents the upward flow of information:
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that the communication where information flows
form subordinates to superiors is known as upward communication. Upward communication
conveys information related to periodic updates, requests for data, clarification of directives and
requests for additional financial support.
Media or ways of upward communication
The subordinates can communicate their problems, attitudes, complaints and suggestion to their
superiors through various ways. That means, there are a number ways or means or methods of
upward communication. The important media of upward communication are mentioned in the
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followed table:
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o Employer-employee meeting: Meeting between employer and employees is a very
useful medium of upward communication. In the meeting, the superior can raise
problems and seek information, guidelines or suggestions from the subordinates.
3. Other Media: In addition to written and oral media, superiors can encourage upward
communication through the following symbolic medium.
o Open-door-policy: Open-door-policy of management inspires the employees to feel
that the manger’s doors are always open to them. Whenever they want they can enter
into the manager’s room and talk everything to the superiors without any fear or
hesitation.
These are the commonly used media of upward communication. However, all the media
are not suitable for every message. Selection of a particular medium in a particular
situation depends on the nature and importance of the message.
So, downward communication is the communication where information or messages flows from
the top level of the organizational structure form the bottom level of the organizational structure.
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Downward communication is that communication in which information flows form superior to
subordinates. Through downward communication, managers communicate organizational goals,
policies, procedures, orders, instructions, decisions etc. to their subordinates.
In the process of downward communication, messages of the top executive reach to the lower
levels moving through the chain of hierarchy. Downward communication can be of written or
oral. Written forms of downward communication are manuals, handbook, notices, electronic
news displays etc. whereas, face-to-face conversation, telephonic conversations, speeches,
meetings etc. are the oral media of downward communication. In the following, some quotations
on downward communication are cited:
In the opinion of Weihrich and Koontz, “Downward communication flows from people
at higher levels to those at lower levels in the organizational hierarchy.”
Newstrom and Davis defined, “Downward communication in an organization is the flow
of information from higher to lower levels of authority.”
According to Ricky W. Griffin, “Downward communication occurs when information
flows down the hierarchy form superiors to subordinates.”
L. E. Boone, Kurtz and Block said, “A message that flows form a supervisor to a
supervisee is known as downward communication.”
Bartol and Martin opined, “When vertical communication flows form a higher level to
one or more lower levels in the organization, it is known as downward communication.”
According to Himstreet and Baty, “Downward communication is that form superior to
subordinate-from boss to employee and from policy makers to operating personnel.”
The flow of downward communication is shown below:
In conclusion, we can say downward communication occurs when messages flow form upper
level of lower levels by following the organizational hierarchy. The objective of downward
communication is to carry organizational objectives, plans, policies and procedures form higher
level to lower levels of the organization.
Both written and oral methods are used in transmitting messages of downward communication.
Actually, section of media depends on the nature, urgency and importance of the message to be
communicated. The followings are the frequently used media or methods of downward
communication.
1. Oral Media or Method: Downward communication is mainly done by means of oral
media or method. Usually, the supervisors give instructions to their subordinates through
face-to-face and telephonic conversation. Beside this, managers also exchange relevant
information to their subordinates through meetings, conferences, lectures etc.
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2. Written Media or Method: Organization of any size and nature sends important
information to its employees in written forms through letters, circulars, manuals,
bulletins, posters annual reports etc. generally, letters and memos communicate important
organizational directives; circulars, manuals and bulletins communicate policies and
procedures and annual report communicates organizational activities and performance at
the end of the year.
3. Other Media or Method: In addition to oral and written media or method, audio, visual
and audio-visual media are also used in downward communication. Radio, television,
poster, signal, symbol, graphs etc. some of the commonly used instruments that convey
messages to the subordinates.
It is a system of communication where communication takes place form upper level to downward
or form the superior to subordinate level. The following objectives are available in downward
communication.
1. Supply information: Work style, method, responsibility, duties etc. are supplied to
subordinates by this communication system.
2. Assigning work: Through downward communication, superior assigns different works to
their subordinate.
3. Explaining policies and plan: The objective of an organization is to inform institution’s
plan, policy, program etc. to lower level by this communication system.
4. Responsibility and duty: Inter departmental duties and responsibilities are distributed by
this communication system.
5. Directing subordinates: Downward communication is directive in nature. To give
directions to the subordinates, top executives use this communication method.
6. Evaluation of performance: Top executives evaluate the performance of their
subordinate through this communication method. After evaluation of workers work, the
analyzed result is informed to others for incentive.
7. Explain the change environment: Any change or organization’s plan, policy, method
and program are informed to all employees with the help of this communication system.
8. Coordination and cooperation: To coordinate and cooperate of the subordinates of their
works downward communication is needed. For achievement of expected result,
downward communication is the best method.
9. Delegate authority: In large organization, it is very much essential to delegate some
authority to their subordinates. Without downward communication delegation of
authority is impossible.
10. Establish discipline: Top level hierarchy of the organization try to maintain
organizational discipline through downward communication to their subordinates by
issuing job related rules and regulation.
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In the following, we are quoting some definitions of vertical communication;
L. C. Bovee and his associates opined, “Vertical communication is a flow of information up and
down the organizations hierarchy.”
According to Stoner and Freeman, “Vertical communication consists of communication up and
down the organization’s chain of command.”
Ricky and W. Griffin defined, “Vertical communication is communication that flows both up and
down the organization, along formal reporting lines.”
The following diagram represents the vertical patterns of communication:
In conclusion, we can say that vertical communication occurs when information flows either form
superior to subordinates or form subordinates to supervisor within an organization structure.
Types or Varieties of vertical communication
When information flows from superiors to subordinates or from subordinates to superiors,
method Vertical communication. In accordance with its nature, vertical communication is
especially classified inside the following 2 types:
Downward communication and
Upward communication
These two types of communication are explained below:
1. Downward communication: Downward communication occurs information flows much
better than subordinates. Superiors send information, orders, instructions, decisions etc.
for their subordinates through downward communication. Downward communication
could possibly be of written or oral. Written forms of downward communication are
manuals, handbook, notices, electronic news displays etc. whereas, face-to-face
conversation, telephonic conversation, speeches, meetings etc. include the oral media of
downward communication.
2. Upward communication: Upward communication occurs when information flows from
subordinates to superiors in the organization hierarchy. The aim of upward
communication is usually to provide information for the managers from subordinates.
Generally, subordinates convey their fallings, attitudes, opinions, suggestions, complaints
etc. making use of their superiors through this communication. Upward communication is
initiated with the lower to the next stage the organization and reaches the content up
management hierarchy.
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SPOKEN COMMUNICATION
TELEPHONE SKILLS
With more and more business being done over the telephone and the increasing use of 24 hour
professional call centres to handle customer enquiries, knowing how to to have both face to face
and effective phone communication skills is vitally important. To help you get your message
across clearly, politely and efficiently recruitment experts Kelly Services highlight some common
problems and provides some techniques to put them right. This fact sheet brings you essential
know-how on the different ways you can polish up your communication.
Customer clout
We live in an era where the customer is king. Gone are the days when customers were thought of
as an interruption or that answering their queries was doing them a favour. Nowadays good
customer service provides an organisation with its competitive edge and customers expect to be
dealt with professionally and competently. Whether you are involved with customers on the
telephone or deal with them direct, the following common sense guidelines will help you to make
the right impression and give your customers what they are looking for.
Image wreckers
If you answer the telephone or if you greet visitors you need to beware of ruining professional
images with comments that often give the wrong impression such as:
They are still at lunch (they're taking a long break)
They are not in yet (they're late)
They have left already (they've slipped off early)
She's at the dentist (this is too personal)
He's just popped out (and does so all the time)
I don't know where he is (internal communication is bad)
They are tied up (they are too busy to talk to you)
It is far easier and much more professional to say...
"She's not available at the moment - may I get her to call you back etc."
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Service standards
Think about what is meant by good service. It involves many different qualities and will depend
on the circumstances involved but whatever business you are in, there are a number of basic good
practices which should be taken on board.
Be courteous
Identify yourself and listen without interrupting
Respond as necessary
Stop talking if interrupted
Give prompt service with the minimum of delay
Don't keep the caller hanging on the line without going back to them
Learn to listen
Improving your listening skills can make a huge difference to having effective phone
communication skills - people need to know that you fully understand their case.
Don't interrupt unnecessarily
Don't switch off half way through
Don't hurry people
Try putting yourself in the caller's place
Information
When you are recording or giving information remember that it must be precise and detailed.
Be clear and accurate
Make sure that any information you give is correct
Avoid jargon
Talk with confidence
Get the facts and record the information
Confirm your caller understands the information you have supplied
Answer questions if you can or offer to find out the information
Message taking
It is vital to collect all the relevant information when you are taking messages for other people.
The following checklist will help you to make sure you haven't forgotten anything.
Who the call is for
The date and time of the call
Name of caller and company
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Their telephone/fax number
Reason for the call / is the call urgent?
A convenient time to return the call
Your name
Details of anything you have agreed with the caller
When you are handling difficult situations it is important to keep calm and not let your emotions
get the better of you. In many ways a complaint is an opportunity - the chance to show you can
put things right. A customer whose complaint is successfully resolved will have a strong sense of
loyalty.
Try and establish some rapport with the caller
Use their name and recognise their importance
Let the person explain and listen carefully
Get all the facts and take notes
Direct the conversation away from emotion
Avoid defensive reactions
Try and develop a solution giving a time frame and your actions
Make a commitment to follow up
Get agreement to your solution
Thank the person for calling
Be positive
If you are in the front line of communication then it is vital that you have a positive attitude
because it is clearly reflected in both your voice and in the way you behave with others. Not only
will a positive approach make you feel good it will also get a positive response from others.
A well known business guru was recently asked what the three most important factors were for a
business to be successful. His reply was 'Communication, Communication and Communication.
The telephone is effective when used efficiently, sparingly, and within the framework of a plan.
This list includes some tested guidelines for making the phone a tool that works best for you!
Most of us talk on the phone too long. Have the purpose of your call clearly in mind before
dialing. If helpful, write down a "statement of purpose", together with 3 main points you want to
make on a scratch pad prior to dialing. Then "go for it"!
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6. Listen carefully.
Pay attention to the first words spoken by the person called. You can learn a lot in the first few
seconds by listening carefully. Did you catch the person eating, arguing, gardening or partying?
Decide whether to proceed with the call or to call back, depending upon what you hear in the
background of the call. It's better to arrange to call back another time than to interrupt - and you'll
probably get a better audience!
8. Avoid confrontation.
If you have bad news, or a difficult issue to discuss with someone, don't do it by phone unless it's
the only way.
INTERVIEWS
What is interview? |
Meaning of interview: The word interview comes from Latin and middle French words meaning
to “see between” or “see each other”. Generally, interview means a private meeting between
people when questions are asked and answered. The person who answers the questions of an
interview is called in interviewer. The person who asks the questions of our interview is called an
interviewer. It suggests a meeting between two persons for the purpose of getting a view of each
other or for knowing each other. When we normally think of an interview, we think a setting in
which an employer tries to size up an applicant for a job.
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According to Gary Dessler, “An interview is a procedure designed to obtain information
from a person’s oral response to oral inquiries.”
According to Thill and Bovee, “An interview is any planed conversation with a specific
purpose involving two or more people”.
According to Dr. S. M. Amunuzzaman, “Interview is a very systematic method by which
a person enters deeply into the life of even a stranger and can bring out needed
information and data for the research purpose.”
So, an interview is formal meetings between two people (the interviewer and the interviewee)
where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information, qualities, attitudes, wishes
etc. Form the interviewee.
Types of interviews: There are many types of interviews that an organization can arrange. It
depends on the objectives of taking the interview. Some important types of interviews are stated
below:
1. Personal interviews: Personal interviews include:
o Selection of the employees
o Promotion of the employees
o Retirement and resignation of the employees
Of course, this type of interview is designed to obtain information through discussion and
observation about how well the interviewer will perform on the job.
2. Evaluation interviews: The interviews which take place annually to review the progress
of the interviewee are called the evaluation interviews. Naturally, it is occurring between
superiors and subordinates. The main objective of this interview is to find out the
strengths and weaknesses of the employees.
3. Persuasive interviews: This type of interview is designed to sell someone a product or
an idea. When a sales representative talk with a target buyer, persuasion takes the form of
convincing the target that the product or idea meets a need.
4. Structured interviews: Structured interviews tend to follow formal procedures; the
interviewer follows a predetermined agenda or questions.
5. Unstructured interviews: When the interview does not follow the formal rules or
procedures. It is called an unstructured interview. The discussion will probably be free
flowing and may shift rapidly form on subject to another depending on the interests of the
interviewee and the interviewer.
6. Counseling interviews: This may be held to find out what has been troubling the
workers and why someone has not been working.
7. Disciplinary interviews: Disciplinary interviews are occurring when an employee has
been accused of breaching the organization’s rules and procedures.
8. Stress interviews: It is designed to place the interviewee in a stress situation in order to
observe the interviewees reaction.
9. Public interviews: These include political parties’ radio-television and newspaper.
10. Informal or conversational interview: In the conversational interview, no
predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable a possible to
the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes with
the flow”.
11. General interview guide approach: The guide approach is intended to ensure that the
same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee this provides more
focus than the conversational approach but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.
12. Standardized or open-ended interview: Here the same open-ended questions are asked
to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews faster interviews that can be
more easily analyzed and compared.
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13. Closed or fixed-response interview: It is an interview where all interviewers ask the
same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives.
This formal is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.
It is difficult to list the questions that might be actually asked at an interview. However, we give
below a sample of possible questions that are asked during the employment interview:
1. What is your name?
2. Please brief us your academic background shortly?
3. What is your future plan?
4. How do you spend your spare time?
5. In what type of positions are you most interested?
6. Why do you think you would like to work for our company?
7. What jobs have you held? How were they obtained and why did you have?
8. What courses did you like best? Why?
9. Why did you choose this particular field of work?
10. What do you know about our organization?
11. What qualification do you have that make you feel that you will be successful?
12. What salary do you expect to receive for this job?
13. Do you prefer any specific geographic location?
14. How much money do you hope to earn at age 25, 35?
15. How did you rank in your graduating class?
16. What do you think determines a person’s progress in a good company?
17. What personal characteristics are necessary for success in your chosen field?
18. Why do you think you would like this particular job?
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19. Are you looking for a permanent and temporary job?
20. Do you prefer working with others or by yourself?
21. What kind of boss do you prefer?
22. Can you take instructions without felling upset?
23. How did previous employers treat you?
24. Do you like routine work?
25. What is your major strength and weakness?
26. Do you have an analytical mind?
27. How long do you expect to work?
28. What size city do you prefer?
29. Will you fight to get ahead?
30. Moreover the employer asks the questions about word work experience, education and
training, leadership, initiative, persistence, motivation and communication skills etc.
APPRAISAL
Employees need to know how well they’re communicating and dealing with others so that they
can effectively carry out their responsibilities and meet their short-term and long-term objectives.
Ironically, some managers have difficulty communicating assessments in these two areas,
especially when it comes to written comments. The managers are concerned that their feedback
on communication won’t be communicated clearly, and they worry that providing feedback on
interpersonal relations will actually strain the working relationships instead of improving them.
When written comments focus on vague and general trends and themes, these outcomes are the
most likely.
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Hits the perfect level of detail
Writes to the point, rather than around it
Is a gifted writer
Has raised the writing in her department to a new level
Sets the standard for excellent business writing
Proofreads carefully
Carefully crafts all his writing
Is always well organized with her written work
Selects the appropriate writing style for different readers and situations
Holds the interest of others in his writing
Is a clear and articulate communicator
Has an outstanding vocabulary, but never overdoes it
Generates a great deal of interest whenever she speaks
Communicates easily with everyone
Is an excellent writing coach
Effectively reads subtle cues and body language
Is smooth without being slick
Fully competent: Meets expectations
Is confident and comfortable with writing projects
Is at ease and effective in front of a group
Prepares thoroughly before making presentations
Communicates easily with employees at all levels
Is not inclined to talk for the sake of talking
Is a good listener
Uses words effectively and economically
Is clear and informative when speaking or writing
Avoids excessive use of jargon
Writes with very few grammatical errors
Marginal: Occasionally fails to meet expectations
Uses a writing style that can be difficult to understand
Hasn’t shown interest in becoming a better writer
Procrastinates on projects that involve writing
Sends e-mail messages that are unclear
Writes too much on every project
Has writing that lacks adequate detail and specificity
Doesn’t listen carefully enough, and communication suffers as a result
Speaks without organizing his thoughts
Provides too much detail
Doesn’t provide enough detail
Uses e-mail style for formal written business communications
Needs to listen more and talk less
Unsatisfactory: Consistently fails to meet expectations
Writes with numerous grammatical errors and typos
Takes a long time to get to the point
Ignores punctuation
Is a grammatical nightmare
Tends to ramble
Tends to mumble
Uses inappropriate terms and expressions
Is insensitive to others in her comments
Is unaware of messages that his body language is sending
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Produces work that always needs significant editing
Often uses the wrong words
Rushes when writing, and it shows
Doesn’t pay attention to the cues and body language of others
Doesn’t listen
REWARD
Reward has a key role to play in employee engagement, but many employees
underestimate the full value of their reward package. Employers could therefore be losing
out on the full benefit of the investment in their employees.
In many cases, a communication exercise could ensure that employees are fully briefed
on what pay and benefits are available to them, and what those benefits are worth.
Below, we have highlighted a number of issues that you should think about when putting
together a reward communications plan.
1. Set aside a budget
This is often overlooked, but is likely to represent only a small proportion of the overall
spend on pay and benefits. For only a small investment, employers may be able to make a
big difference to how employees perceive the value of their pay and benefits.
2. Identify your audience
Employees will be the key audience for pay and benefits communications, but employers
should also bear in mind anyone who may have a role in delivering the communication,
such as line managers and HR.
It may also be beneficial for the employer to segment its audience, in order to tailor the
communication to suit different groups. There are several ways of doing this, for example
by level of interest in the subject, or by attitudes and behaviours.
3. Choose your communication media
There are numerous different ways to communicate with employees, but employers
should consider what they are trying to achieve when choosing the most appropriate
method – posters are good for generating general awareness, for example, but leaflets are
better for passing on more detailed information. Organisations will also need to decide
how creative they want their communication campaign to look – and maybe draft in help
from a consultancy with this.
4. Plan your communications
The communication plan will need to fit in with other key pay and benefits milestones
throughout the year, such as the annual pay review, flexible benefits enrolment window
and the bonus date. Employers should put these dates into a calendar, along with the
messages they want to communicate and how they will go about it.
COUNSELLING
The Concise Oxford Dictionary (9th Edition) gives at least two definitions of counselling, which
appear to be conflicting, adding to potential confusion:
“give advice to (a person) on social or personal problems, especially professionally.”
and
“the process of assisting and guiding clients, especially by a trained person on a
professional basis, to resolve especially personal, social, or psychological problems and
difficulties.”
Counselling is:
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The process that occurs when a client and counsellor set aside time in order to explore
difficulties which may include the stressful or emotional feelings of the client.
The act of helping the client to see things more clearly, possibly from a different view-
point. This can enable the client to focus on feelings, experiences or behaviour, with a
goal to facilitating positive change.
A relationship of trust. Confidentiality is paramount to successful
counselling. Professional counsellors will usually explain their policy on confidentiality,
they may, however, be required by law to disclose information if they believe that there is
a risk to life.
Counselling is Not:
Giving advice.
Judgemental.
Attempting to sort out the problems of the client.
Expecting or encouraging a client to behave in a way in which the counsellor may have
behaved when confronted with a similar problem in their own life.
Getting emotionally involved with the client.
Looking at a client's problems from your own perspective, based on your own value
system.
Counselling Skills
Communication skills are obviously of utmost importance to counsellors, we have lots
of further pages covering these skills including: active listening, clarification, reflection
and effective questioning skills.
The counsellor will attempt to build a certain amount of rapport with their client, but not
to an extent that would allow them to become emotionally involved.
Counsellors need to be empathetic, seeing things from the client’s point of view, rather
than sympathetic (feeling sorry for their clients). Empathy can help the counsellor to ask
appropriate questions and lead the client to positive conclusions.
Basic communication skills
Since counselling is a conversation or dialogue between the counsellor and client, the counsellor
needs certain communication skills in order to facilitate change.
The counsellor needs the following basic communication skills to do effective counselling:
1. Attending
Attending refers to the ways in which counsellors can be “with” their clients, both
physically and psychologically. Effective attending tells clients that you are with them
and that they can share their world with you. Effective attending also puts you in a
position to listen carefully to what your clients are saying. The acronym SOLER can be
used to help you to show your inner attitudes and values of respect and genuineness
towards a client (Egan.)
S: Squarely face your client. Adopt a bodily posture that indicates involvement with your
client. (A more angled position may be preferable for some clients - as long as you pay
attention to the client.) A desk between you and your client may, for instance, create a
psychological barrier between you.
O: Open posture. Ask yourself to what degree your posture communicates openness and
availability to the client. Crossed legs and crossed arms may be interpreted as diminished
involvement with the client or even unavailability or remoteness, while an open posture
can be a sign that you are open to the client and to what he or she has to say.
L: Lean toward the client (when appropriate) to show your involvement and interest. To
lean back from your client may convey the opposite message.
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E: Eye contact with a client conveys the message that you are interested in what the client
has to say. If you catch yourself looking away frequently, ask yourself why you are
reluctant to get involved with this person or why you feel so uncomfortable in his or her
presence. Be aware of the fact that direct eye contact is not regarded as acceptable in all
cultures.
R: Try to be relaxed or natural with the client. Don't fidget nervously or engage in
distracting facial expressions. The client may begin to wonder what it is in himself or
herself that makes you so nervous! Being relaxed means that you are comfortable with
using your body as a vehicle of personal contact and expression and for putting the client
at ease.
Effective attending puts counsellors in a position to listen carefully to what their clients
are saying or not saying.
2. Listening
Listening refers to the ability of counsellors to capture and understand the messages clients
communicate as they tell their stories, whether those messages are transmitted verbally or
nonverbally.
Active listening involves the following four skills:
Listening to and understanding the client's verbal messages. When a client tells you his or
her story, it usually comprises a mixture of experiences (what happened to him or her),
behaviours (what the client did or failed to do), and affect (the feelings or emotions
associated with the experiences and behaviour). The counsellor has to listen to the mix of
experiences, behaviour and feelings the client uses to describe his or her problem
situation. Also “hear” what the client is not saying.
Listening to and interpreting the client's nonverbal messages. Counsellors should learn
how to listen to and read nonverbal messages such as bodily behaviour (posture, body
movement and gestures), facial expressions (smiles, frowns, raised eyebrows, twisted
lips), voice�related behaviour (tone, pitch, voice level, intensity, inflection, spacing of
words, emphases, pauses, silences and fluency), observable physiological responses
(quickened breathing, a temporary rash, blushing, paleness, pupil dilation), general
appearance (grooming and dress), and physical appearance (fitness, height, weight,
complexion). Counsellors need to learn how to “read” these messages without distorting
or over�interpreting them.
Listening to and understanding the client in context. The counsellor should listen to the
whole person in the context of his or her social settings.
Listening with empathy. Empathic listening involves attending, observing and listening
(“being with”) in such a way that the counsellor develops an understanding of the client
and his or her world. The counsellor should put his or her own concerns aside to be fully
“with” their clients.
Active listening is unfortunately not an easy skill to acquire. Counsellors should be aware of the
following hindrances to effective listening (Egan, 1998):
Inadequate listening: It is easy to be distracted from what other people are saying if one
allows oneself to get lost in one's own thoughts or if one begins to think what one intends
to say in reply. Counsellors are also often distracted because they have problems of their
own, feel ill, or because they become distracted by social and cultural differences
between themselves and their clients. All these factors make it difficult to listen to and
understand their clients.
Evaluative listening: Most people listen evaluatively to others. This means that they are
judging and labelling what the other person is saying as either right/wrong, good/bad,
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acceptable/unacceptable, relevant/irrelevant etc. They then tend to respond evaluatively
as well.
Filtered listening: We tend to listen to ourselves, other people and the world around us
through biased (often prejudiced) filters. Filtered listening distorts our understanding of
our clients.
Labels as filters: Diagnostic labels can prevent you from really listening to your client. If
you see a client as “that women with Aids”, your ability to listen empathetically to her
problems will be severely distorted and diminished.
Fact�centred rather than person�centred listening: Asking only informational or factual
questions won't solve the client's problems. Listen to the client's whole context and focus
on themes and core messages.
Rehearsing: If you mentally rehearse your answers, you are also not listening attentively.
Counsellors who listen carefully to the themes and core messages in a client's story
always know how to respond. The response may not be a fluent, eloquent or “practised”
one, but it will at least be sincere and appropriate.
Sympathetic listening: Although sympathy has it's place in human transactions, the “use”
of sympathy is limited in the helping relationship because it can distort the counsellor's
listening to the client's story. To sympathise with someone is to become that person's
“accomplice”. Sympathy conveys pity and even complicity, and pity for the client can
diminish the extent to which you can help the client.
3. Basic empathy
Basic empathy involves listening to clients, understanding them and their concerns as
best as we can, and communicating this understanding to them in such a way that they
might understand themselves more fully and act on their understanding (Egan, 1998).
To listen with empathy means that the counsellor must temporarily forget about his or her
own frame of reference and try to see the client's world and the way the client sees him or
herself as though he or she were seeing it through the eyes of the client.
Empathy is thus the ability to recognise and acknowledge the feelings of another person
without experiencing those same emotions. It is an attempt to understand the world of the
client by temporarily “stepping into his or her shoes”.
This understanding of the client's world must then be shared with the client in either a
verbal or non-verbal way.
Some of the stumbling blocks to effective empathy are the following:
Avoid distracting questions. Counsellors often ask questions to get more information
from the client in order to pursue their own agendas. They do this at the expense of the
client, i.e. they ignore the feelings that the client expressed about his or her experiences.
Avoid using clichés. Clichés are hollow, and they communicate the message to the client
that his or her problems are not serious. Avoid saying: “I know how you feel” because
you don't.
Empathy is not interpreting. The counsellor should respond to the client's feelings and
should not distort the content of what the client is telling the counsellor.
Although giving advice has its place in counselling, it should be used sparingly to honour
the value of self�responsibility.
To merely repeat what the client has said is not empathy but parroting. Counsellors who
“parrot” what the client said, do not understand the client, are not “with” the client, and
show no respect for the client. Empathy should always add something to the
conversation.
Empathy is not the same as sympathy. To sympathise with a client is to show pity,
condolence and compassion - all well�intentioned traits but not very helpful in
counselling.
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Avoid confrontation and arguments with the client.
4. Probing or questioning
Probing involves statements and questions from the counsellor that enable clients to explore more
fully any relevant issue of their lives. Probes can take the form of statements, questions, requests,
single word or phrases and non-verbal prompts.
Probes or questions serve the following purposes:
to encourage non-assertive or reluctant clients to tell their stories
to help clients to remain focussed on relevant and important issues
to help clients to identify experiences, behaviours and feelings that give a fuller picture to
their story, in other words, to fill in missing pieces of the picture
to help clients to move forward in the helping process
to help clients understand themselves and their problem situations more fully
Keep the following in mind when you use probes or questions:
Use questions with caution.
Don't ask too many questions. They make clients feel “grilled”, and they often serve as
fillers when counsellors don't know what else to do.
Don't ask a question if you don't really want to know the answer!
If you ask two questions in a row, it is probably one question too much.
Although close-ended questions have there place, avoid asking too many close-ended
questions that begin with “does”, “did”, or “is”.
Ask open-ended questions - that is, questions that require more than a simple yes or no
answer. Start sentences with: “how”, “tell me about”, or “what”. Open-ended questions
are non-threatening and they encourage description.
5. Summarising
It is sometimes useful for the counsellor to summarise what was said in a session so as to provide
a focus to what was previously discussed, and so as to challenge the client to move forward.
Summaries are particularly helpful under the following circumstances:
At the beginning of a new session. A summary of this point can give direction to clients
who do not know where to start; it can prevent clients from merely repeating what they
have already said, and it can pressure a client to move forwards.
When a session seems to be going nowhere. In such circumstances, a summary may help
to focus the client.
When a client gets stuck. In such a situation, a summary may help to move the client
forward so that he or she can investigate other parts of his or her story.
Communication skills should be integrated in a natural way in the counselling process. Skilled
counsellors continually attend and listen, and use a mix of empathy and probes to help the client
to come to grips with their problems. Which communication skills will be used and how they will
be used depends on the client, the needs of the client and the problem situation.
GRIEVANCES
Grievance procedure is a formal communication between an employee and the management
designed for the settlement of a grievance.
The grievance procedures differ from organization to organization.
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REPRIMANDS
ORAL REPRIMAND
The Oral Reprimand is the least severe form of formal discipline. Prior to the Oral
Reprimand, the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations
Services team to discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action. A
Record of Oral Reprimand Form should be completed and the supervisor should have a
meeting in private with the employee. The supervisor should inform the employee that
this is an oral reprimand; should cite the specific standard of conduct being violated;
explain the necessary corrective action; and advise the employee of possible future action
if the problem is not corrected. The supervisor should have the employee sign the oral
reprimand form to acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a
copy to Employee Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
WRITTEN REPRIMAND
A written reprimand is a more severe form of discipline. Prior to the written reprimand
the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations Services team to
discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action. Employee Relations
will assist the supervisor in preparing and writing the written reprimand. The supervisor
informs the employee in writing of the specific offense(s) warranting disciplinary action
and states in the written reprimand that further disciplinary action may occur if the
problem is not corrected. The supervisor should meet in private with the employee to
discuss the disciplinary action. The supervisor should inform the employee that this is a
written reprimand; should cite the specific standard(s) of conduct being violated; explain
the necessary corrective action; and advise the employee of possible future action if the
problem is not corrected. The supervisor should have the employee sign the written
reprimand to acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a copy
to Employee Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
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SUSPENSIONS
A suspension is a severe form of discipline usually following one or more written
reprimands or as a result of a very serious offense. Suspension is an action taken by the
University to temporarily relieve the employee of duties and place the employee on leave
without pay. Prior to the proposed suspension the supervisor should meet with a member
of the Employee Relations Services team to discuss the situation and determine the
appropriate course of action. Employees receive written notice of a suspension from the
President, Provost or Vice President to whom the employee reports. The notice shall
include the specific action taken, the specific offense for which the employee is being
suspended; the reason for the suspension; the dates of the suspension; the consequences if
the offense is repeated; and the right to file a grievance (grievance form). The supervisor
should have the employee sign the suspension to acknowledge receipt, not agreement
with the action, and should send a copy to Employee Relations for inclusion in the
employee's personnel file.
TERMINATIONS
Termination is the final and most severe form of discipline. Prior to the proposed
termination the supervisor should meet with a member of the Employee Relations
Services team to discuss the situation and determine the appropriate course of action.
Employees receive written notice of a termination from the President, Provost or Vice
President to whom the employee reports. The notice shall include the specific action
taken, the specific offense for which the employee is being terminated; the reason for the
termination; the effective date of the termination; and the right to file a grievance
(grievance form). The supervisor should have the employee sign the written reprimand to
acknowledge receipt, not agreement with the action, and should send a copy to Employee
Relations for inclusion in the employee's personnel file.
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MEETINGS
A meeting is a group communication in action around a defined agenda, at a set time, for
an established duration. Meetings can be effective, ineffective, or a complete waste of
time. If time is money and effectiveness and efficiency are your goals, then if you arrange
a meeting, lead a meeting, or participate in one, you want it to be worth your time.
Meetings can occur face-to-face, but increasingly business and industry are turning to
teleconferencing and videoconferencing options as the technology improves, the cost to
participate is reduced, and the cost of travel including time is considered. Regardless how
you come together as a team, group, or committee, you will need to define your purpose
in advance with an agenda.
Meaning of meeting: Generally meeting means an occasion when people come together to
discuss or decide something. Meeting member to get together and discuss about a problem or
issue or a special matter. It is also defined as a situation in which two or more people meet
together in order to take decision. It is an effective and important tool in the communication
process. Meeting enables face to face contact of a number of people at the same time. Many
meetings take place in business organization. Some definitions of people at the same time. Many
meetings take place in business organization.
So, meeting is a situation in which two or more people meet together for formal group discussion
about a specific problem, issues, predetermined topic.
Advantages of meetings:
In the business organizations meetings are used for a variety of purpose. There are some
advantages of meeting which are stated below:
1. Democratic process: Meeting is a democratic process of taking decision. None can
blame other for the decision because it is taken in presence of all the members.
2. Improve decision: Improve decision can be taken through meeting. Because every
matter is discussed pros and cons and nothing is left over unconsidered. Proverb says
”Two heads are better than one.”
3. Participative management: Participative management can be materialized through
meeting. Al the departmental heads and supervisors may sit together for taking decision.
4. Help in co-ordination: Meeting can help for co-coordinating the work as a whole
because all the parties or members are presented in the meeting.
5. Covey information to a large gathering: Meeting can convey information for all
departments. Besides the presented members exchange their views, idea, opinion and
feeling at a large gathering.
6. Others: Provide necessary information to a group of people, report on some incidents or
activities, create involvement and interest, formulate policies etc.
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Disadvantages of meetings:
There are some limitations and disadvantages of meeting. These limitations and disadvantages are
discussed below:
1. Time consuming: Meeting takes much time to take decision. We know that to hold a
meeting is very time consuming.
2. Costly: It is too much expensive. Because the company has to decorate the conference
room, pay the T.A. and D. A. to the members, pay for cards etc.
3. Formalities: There are many formalities to hold on a meeting. Agenda, minutes,
regulations are needed for a valid meeting.
4. Difficult to control: Sometimes it becomes very difficult for the speaker or chairman to
control over the meeting because proverb says, “Many men many minds.”
Several types of meetings take place in the business organizations. Especially the company
meetings can be shown by following diagram:
1. SHAREHOLDERS MEETING: When the meeting is held with the shareholders of the
company it is called shareholders meeting.
Statutory meeting: According to company laws, after getting the letter of commence, the
company arranges a meeting after one month of six months. This is the first general
meeting of the company and during the life of the company this type of meeting held
once. The company gives the circular before 21 days of the meeting. The decisions of the
meeting are called statutory decision.
Annual general meeting: After registration of the company, the company is bound to
invites the first general meeting with in eighteen months. Then the general meeting will
be held in every year. The differences of the two general meeting cannot be more than
fifteen months. The decisions of the meeting are called general decision.
Extra-ordinary general meeting: If necessary of the company this type of meeting can
be held on any time. The director or some shareholders can invite this meeting one tenth
of the shareholders may give the requisition to the Board of directors to arrange this type
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of meeting. After getting the requisition of the board of Directors fail to arrange a
meeting with in twenty one days, the shareholder can invite the meeting within three
months. The decision taken by the meeting is called special decision.
2. DIRECTORS MEETING: When the meeting is held among the directors of the company it is
called directors meeting. It is classified into two parts. They are:
Board meeting: According to article of association. The board of directors meeting is
called Board Meeting. If nothing about this type of meeting in the article of association,
then by Table- A rules of the company law this type of meeting can be held on.
According to rules of company law the company is bound to arrange the meeting once in
one month and at least four times within a year the Quorum: is filled up by 3/1 rd of the
directors present or at least two directors present. Each director is preserved one vote and
if any case the directors vote can be divided equally, then the president give the casting
vote and take the decision.
Committee meeting: According to article of association the Board of Directors
sometimes make special committee to complete in any special work among some
directors of the company. This committee member sometimes meets together for
coordinating the work properly. This type of seating is called committee meeting
3. SPECIAL MEETING: For any special situation, when the meeting is arranged by the
company, it is called special meeting. The types of the special meetings are as follows:
Class-meeting: The Company has different kinds of shares. When the meeting is
arranged by any one kind of shareholders it is called class meeting.
Creditors meeting: The directors or their appointed lower can invite this type of
meeting. Moreover this type of meeting may be arranged by the order of the court. If
necessary to reconstruct or to dissolve or to any amalgamate the company to preserve the
rights of the creditor this type of meeting is invited by their proper authoritative person.
The creditors who will be present in the meeting or the presence of three-fourth credit
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holders of the total credit can take the decision and the court will give the instruction on
the basis of this decision and the creditors are bounded to abide by the decision.
There must be some requisites in order to validate the meeting. The necessary pare-conditions of
a valid meeting are stated below:
1. Right convening authority: A valid meeting must be convened by the proper authority
otherwise it wills loss its validity. Company’s secretary is the proper authority to call a
formal meeting.
2. Proper notice: Duty signed notice must be submitted to members before meeting. The
place of meeting, time and date must be stated on the notice.
3. Proper publicity of agenda: Every member of the meeting should be properly informed
of the agenda.
4. Legal purposes: Every meeting must have a legal purpose. Any meeting should be
properly informed of the agenda.
5. Requisite quorum: For valid meeting requisite quorum is necessary. The meeting should
not be stared until the requisite members of member s are resent.
6. Presence of right persons: Only legal members can present in the meeting. If there is an
unauthorized person in the meeting, the meeting will lose its validity.
7. Proper presiding officer: The chairman of a valid meeting must be a proper person.
8. Conducting meeting according to the agenda: A valid meeting must be conducted
according to the agenda. No decision will get validity, if it is not related to the agenda.
In all types of meetings, you have the following responsibilities as a presiding officer.
Arranging the time and place
Preparing and serving an agenda.
Calling the meeting to order on time
Making clear the purpose of the meeting
Keeping the discussion on course
Controlling over enthusiastic members
Electing contributions from each member
Creating a good atmosphere
Summarizing the discussion form time to time
Working to end the meeting on schedule
Thanking to the members
Secretarial work relating to statutory meeting
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Preparing final notice of the meeting.
Serving the notice to the concerned members.
2. Functions at the meeting:
Determining the quorum of the meeting,
Stating or reading the agenda,
Supply of the necessary explanations,
Giving the explanations,
Writing the rough minutes
3. Functions after the meeting:
Preparing final minutes and resolutions,
Submitting the statutory report
What is notice? |
A notice is a written or an oral statement that contains the particulars of holding a meeting. When
a circular is served among the members of the meeting to attend the meeting, it is called a notice.
It is letter of invitation that carries the request to the members to attend a meeting. A notice
includes time, place, date and agenda of a meeting. The notice should be sent by the proper
authority in due time so that the members can attend the meeting in time.
So, notice is formal written or formal information, notification or warning about a fact or an
invitation to the concerned person for attending the meeting.
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2. Proper time: The notice must be served in proper time. It should be circulated according
to the rules and regulations of the company or the organization.
3. Time date and place: The time, date and place of the meeting must be stated in the
notice.
4. Unconditional: There must be no condition or complexity in the notice about attending
meeting. Always a notice is unconditional.
5. Agenda: Agenda means topics to be discussed in a meeting. A valid notice should
contain the agenda of the meeting.
6. Conciseness: The notice must be short in size. It should be clear, simple and easy.
7. Proper persons: Notice should be served to the proper persons who are entitled to attend
the meeting.
8. Enclosure: An explanatory statement should be sent with the notice.
Specimen of notice:
Notice of statutory meeting of a company
Eastern Jute Mails Ltd.
102, New York C/A
New York-1000
Date: March 20, 2013
Notice is hereby given that the statutory meeting of the company will be held on March 30, 2012
at 12 p.m. in the registered office of the company according to the section ……………. Of
company Act. 1994.
Mr. John
Secretary
On behalf of the board Of directors.
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Being authorized I am informing you that the second meeting of the Board of Directors will be
held at the head office of the company on March 20, 2013 at 10 a.m.
You are duly requested to attend the meeting.
Sincerely yours
John
Secretary
Agenda:
1. ……………………………
2…………………………….
3……………………………
AGENDA
Agenda means things to be done. It is usually sent along with the notice of the meeting. It is a list
of the topics to be discussed in a meeting.
Sometimes the agenda is prepared after the circulation of the notice in order to include the
member’s opinion. If the subject matter of the meeting is secret, the agenda may not be
circulated. Some definitions of agenda are as follows:
According to Rajendra pal and Korlahalli, “Agenda is document that outlines the
contents of a forth coming meeting.”
So, agenda is an items or issues prepared by the secretary and which are to be discussed or
transacted in a forth coming mitten.
Specimen of Agenda:
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What is minute? |
Minute is an official written statement of the motions and resolutions taken in a meeting.
It is brief but a complete record of all discussions held among the members of the
meeting. It is also defined as the official record of the proceeding of a meeting that
should be needed to approve by the participating members of the meeting.
An accurate written record of meetings is essential not only for all those who attended the
meeting but also for those who were unable to attend. Some definitions of minute are as
follows:
According to Rajendra Pal and Korlahalli, “Minutes are the official records of the
proceedings of meeting.”
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So, minutes are the brief and complete official written record of all discussion which is
held among the members of the meeting.
Types of minute:
Generally the minutes of a meeting can be divided into two groups. They are the follows:
1. Minutes of narration: These minutes will be a concise summary of all discussions which took
place, reports received, actions to be taken and decisions made. It includes:
Names of the participating members.
Name of the proposer and supporter.
Discussion summary. Resolutions.
2. Voting pattern etc.Minutes of resolution: Minutes of resolution means the written statement
of the decisions that have been taken and approved by the participating members of the meeting.
Only the main conclusions which are reached at the meeting are recorded in minutes of
resolution. These are usually used for minutes of AGMs and other statutory meeting.
Example: Purchase of photocopier- the company secretary submitted a report from the
administrative manager containing full details of the trial of the AEZ photocopier. It was
resolved that the AEZ photocopier be purchased at a cost of $250
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You want an efficient and effective meeting, but recognize that group communication by
definition can be chaotic and unpredictable. To stay on track, consider the following strategies:
Send out the last meeting’s minutes one week before the next meeting.
Send out the agenda for the current meeting at least one week in advance.
Send out reminders for the meeting the day before and the day of the meeting.
Schedule the meeting in Outlook or a similar program so everyone receives a reminder.
Start and end your meetings on time.
Make sure the participants know their role and requirements prior to the meeting.
Make sure all participants know one another before discussion starts.
Formal communication styles and reference to the agenda can help reinforce the time
frame and tasks.
Follow Robert’s Rules of Order when applicable, or at least be familiar with them.
Make sure notes taken at the meeting are legible and can be converted to minutes for
distribution later.
Keep the discussion on track, and if you are the chair, or leader of a meeting, don’t
hesitate to restate a point to interject and redirect the attention back to the next
agenda point.
If you are the chair, draw a clear distinction between on-topic discussions and those that
are more personal, individual, or off topic.
Communicate your respect and appreciation for everyone’s time and effort.
Clearly communicate the time, date, and location or means of contact for the next
meeting.
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Constitution: A set of rules and regulations which govern the organisation. These have
been accepted by members during the inaugural (very first) meeting. The
constitution is that which prescribes to the members how they must
behave and which decisions are legally binding.
The Quorum: A minimum of members, as prescribed by the constitution, must be
present during a meeting before a legally binding decision may be taken.
Voting on issues, therefore, presupposes that the prescribed minimum
number of members should be present (before any legally binding
decision may be made.)
The Chairperson: This person presides at the meeting. The chairperson’s duty is to
maintain order during the meeting and to control the procedure. The
chairperson's role is to run meetings in a way that encourages decisions.
The chairperson should allow fair and open discussion of matters and
stick to the agenda, so that decisions can be made. If there is no
committee, the owners corporation chairperson must be a lot owner.
The Secretary: The role of the Secretary is to support the Chair in ensuring the smooth
functioning of the Management Committee. In summary, the Secretary
is responsible for: Ensuring meetings are effectively organised and
minuted. Maintaining effective records and administration.
The Treasurer: The main duties of a treasurer are to oversee the financial
administration of the organisation, review procedures and financial
reporting, advise the board on financial strategy, and advise on
fundraising. A treasurer is in charge of the organisation’s financial
matters.
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Nemine controdicente:(Nem.con.): No one votes, against the motion but a few people
abstain from voting.
Abstain: To refuse to vote.
Proxy: The permission given to a person by another member (who cannot be
present at the meeting) to vote on his behalf.
Resolution: Agreement by a majority of the members at a meeting on a motion – this
agreement may be positive or negative (for or against the motion).
Unanimous; When all members vote in favour of a motion.
Motions each item to be discussed will have a proposal, normally called a motion
to which members will speak. A motion is a proposal put forward for
discussion and decision at a meeting. It can be in writing before the
meeting or may be a proposal during the discussion.
Changes motions may be changed before they are voted upon by amendment or
addendum. An amendment is a proposal to alter a motion which has
been submitted to a meeting e.g. by adding, inserting or deleting words
of the original motion.
Addendum: is the addition of words to a motion and is treated in the same way as an
amendment.
Closure: End of a meeting.
Guillotine ruling: This is a specific time restriction placed on a discussion of a proposal or
the time given to a speaker or on the actual duration of a meeting.
In camera: When the proceedings for a meeting take place behind closed doors. It is
of a sensitive, confidential nature.
Attendance Register: The actual record of numbers attending a meeting.
Point of order: The chairperson has to decide if a member’s contribution to the meeting
is in line with the constitution or relevant to the point on the agenda.
Verbatim: The exact words of a speaker.
Second: To second a proposal, means that another person agrees with the
original proposal, necessitating the meeting’s attention to the matter.
Precedent: When something that occurred in the past is used as a basis for future
actions.
Suspension: The prohibition of a member from taking part in the activities of an
organisation.
Honorarium: An honorarium is paid to any person for recognition of duties performed
during a year, e.g. the treasurer, for accounting duties.
Status quo: The current situation.
Ex officio: the authority which a person has as result of his or her position.
Adjournment: When a meeting is closed before all the topics on the agenda have been
discussed, the discussion, however, will resume after a break. This is not
an official closure.
Co-option being invited to join the deliberations of a meeting, but not allowed to
vote.
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TYPES OF MEETINGS
a) Public meeting - every member of the public is allowed (to discuss, e.g. political issues.)
b) Private meeting – Only the members of the organisation are allowed to attend the
meeting.
c) Management Meetings (command meetings) – are attended only by management;
general meetings are attended by members of staff on a regular basis (annually, weekly,
monthly) and on special occasions (special meetings).
d) Committee meetings are attended only by members serving on a specific committee.
Common Law: Common law refers to the unwritten laws which are applied by the courts
as just, It is common law that a quorum must be present before a decision
made during a meeting can be legally binding; it is also common law that
members must be notified of forthcoming meetings.
Constitution: The rules and regulations which govern the organisation and its meeting
procedures are known as the constitution.
1. NOTICE
A notice can be formal or informal.
MUTARE POLYTECHNIC
Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education
NOTICE OF A MEETING
C Gatsi
Chairwoman
Cell: 0772 950 037
10 June 2012
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Notice of a monthly meeting is given above. If you are requested to write the notice of an annual
meeting, then it is obvious that you’ll replace monthly with annual.
Below is the agenda of the monthly meeting. N.B points 1-7 on the agenda are standard for most
meetings for all organisations. Points 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 are specific “new Business” matters
pertaining to the specific organisation. Points 8 and 9 are standard.
AGENDA
1. Attendance Register.
2. Apologies.
3. Opening and Welcome.
4. Finalisation of the agenda.
5.Minutes of meeting held on 20 May 2012
6. Matters arising.
7.New business:
7.1 Symposium and Miss Poly
7.2 Main Graduation
7.3 MOTION; That the Symposium invitation letters to High Schools be
sent to the Regional offices of Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture
Offices.
PROPOSAL: Ms G Sithole
SECONDED: Ms T Mawoyo
8. Date of next meeting.
9. Closure.
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Term Definition
Good of the This is the time for people to offer any news that relates to the topic of the
Order meeting that was otherwise not shared or discussed.
Note time, date, place meeting adjourned and indicate when the next meeting is
Adjournment
scheduled.
BUSINESS LETTERS
The letter that contains business related issues and information is called business or commercial
letter. It refers to the letter in which business people or person exchange information with various
business firms, customers, suppliers, employees, banks, insurance, companies, government
agencies, business associations with aimed at selling or buying goods, obtaining information,
placing orders, making inquiry etc and other related issues. Some important definitions of
business letter are given below:
According to Hanson, “The letters which are exchanged among businessmen connected
with business affairs are called business or commercial letters.”
According to M. Omar Ali, “Any letter designed and directed to the exchange of
information connected with trade and trade related activities is known as a business
letter.”
According to W. J. Weston, “Business letter is the process of accomplishing a business
transaction in written form.”
So, Business letter refers to formal written letter where business related issues and information is
exchanged with the suppliers, customers, clients, banks, insurance companies, government
agencies or other external parts of the organization.
1. Well defined objectives: There is an old saying an aimless ship never able to reach the
destination. In case of business letter-a letter without specific objectives is meaningless. Thus
to be effective business leaders need to have well defined objectives.
2. Contact information: The header of the business letter includes the senders name, phone
number, address and email address, which may be left or right justified or centered at the top
of the page. This is followed by the date the letter was sent, which in turn is followed by the
“inside address.” The inside address contains the recipient’s name, job title and company
address.
3. Benefits: Discuss the benefits offer to the receiver or customer before the nuts-and-bolts
basic information. Benefits to the customer could be tangible, such as saving money and
having more choices in service packages or intangible but still more choices in service
packages, or intangible but still valuable, including gaining peace of mind.
4. Brief description: Any business letter must be short. The significance of a short letter is that
the person reading the letter must understand the significance of the letter in the minimum
possible lines. This is usually done in order to save time and energy of the receiver of the
letter.
5. Definite structure: The structure or main text of a business letter is typically divided into
three sections: the introduction, the body and the closing. Introductory paragraphs should be
brief and explain the letter’s intent. The body should elaborate on that intent and may include
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facts and statistics, descriptions and or explanations. The closing should thank the recipient
for his time and include a ”call to action,” which indicates the next step in the communication
process, such as a phone call or a scheduled meeting.
6. Positive approach: The writer has to be optimistic regarding the achievement of the goal.
Thus throughout the letter a positive tone must be present. Positive approach not only helps to
convince the reader but also express the confidence of the writer.
7. Courtesy: The tone of the letter is another very important aspect of the letter. The letter must
sound polite, courteous and firm. The letter should also sound convincing the must have a
polite tone.
8. Coherence: Factually the business letter must be relevant and the facts and thoughts should
be presented in a very systematic manner.
9. You-attitude: To ensure effective writing the writer should put himself or herself in the
reader’s place and then try to realize how the reader will respond to the letter. The ‘you
attitude’ emphasis on the readers rather than the writer. Example of you-attitude is as follows:
I or we attitude: I will give you a 10 % discount. You-attitude: You can get a 10 % discount.
10. Clearness: A business letter must be readable and clear. If the reader of a business letter fails
to understand the message, it will matter little to him. So the messages of the letter must be
clear in meaning.
11. Relevance: One of the important qualities of a business letter is relevance. The writer of a
business letter should avoid the irrelevant matter that can vex the reader’s mind. So,
unnecessary words should be avoided.
12. Simplicity: A good business letter should be simple and easy. The writer of a business letter
should use simple language in drafting a letter so that the reader can easily understand the
meaning and significance of the letter.
13. Free from error: A business letter should be free from all kinds of errors. So, the writer
should be aware of spelling, grammatical sense and letter style in drafting a business letter.
14. Appropriate timing: Appropriate timing is one of the important qualities of a good business
letter. All letters must be sent and replied at the most appropriate time.
15. Clear concept: If the writer does not have a clear concept about the subject matter then it
will be very difficult on his or her part to make the subject matter understandable to the
reader.
16. Evaluation of the reader’s position: This is perhaps the most important thing that should be
taken into consideration to draft an effective letter. The attitude, cultural and religious
background, educational level, level of understanding etc. If the reader is likely to be different
from those of the writer. That is why to be successful the writer must try to get an idea about
the aforesaid aspects of the reader.
17. Accuracy or correctness: There is nothing painful than preparing a letter with wrong
information. It not only fail to achieve the goal but also detrimental for the goodwill of the
firm. Thus correctness of the message must be ensured.
18. Completeness: It means messages should be presented in such a way that helps the reader to
understand what the writer actually wanted to convey. Incomplete messages not only create
confusion but also can damage the mutual relationship.
19. Persuasion: To convince the reader or to motivate him or her to do some favor business
letters must be written in a persuasive tone.
20. Use of simple language: To be effective business letter should avoid the use of difficult
words and jargon’s. Simple and plain language should be used to clarify the message.
Business letters are often the common form of communication that people have in an
organisation. The basics of good business letter writing are easy to learn. The following guide
provides the phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. This basic of business
letters are important because certain formulas are recognized and handled accordingly.
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INQUIRY LETTER
Make an inquiry when you are requesting more information about a product or service. This type
of business letter tends to include specific information such as product type, as well as asking for
further details in the form of brochures, catalogues, telephone contact, etc. Making inquiries can
also help you keep up on your competition!
A letter that asks information about persons, products or services or other matters is an inquiry
letter. The questions to be included in a good inquiry letter should be carefully planned.
Following are the suggestions for making inquiries effective.
1. Trade Inquiry:-
A trade inquiry (or sales related inquiry) is written with the intention of making business deals
with the addressee. Such inquiry letters are written regarding products or services purchased or
being considered for purchase. The trade inquiries ask information about the supply of goods,
availability of goods, delivery time, leaflet or catalogue, quotations or price, method of transport,
insurance, samples and terms and discount, etc.
2. Status Inquiry:-
Status inquiry is written to know the financial position of some individual or firm usually
prospective buyer. Inquiries about the character, qualifications, experience and performance of
the applicant for job or membership may also be termed as status inquiries.
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3. General Inquiries:-
General inquiry is made to get information about rules and procedures used in other
organizations, government policies, market conditions etc. General inquiry may also seek
information for private or business research. For example a firm may receive injuries for various
data from students, teachers or executives of other organizations.
Anna Enterprise
(Wholesaler of Quality Fabrics)
20, TUCSON AZ 85705 USA
Mr. Michel
Manager
Mahan Boutiques and Fabrics,
Texas.
Sub: Inquiring the financial status of John House, Washington, New York.
I assure you that information provided by you will be treated confidentially. If you send answers
to the above questions with December 25, 2013 will be highly appreciated. We will be highly
glad to provide you any such help in future.
Sincerely,
(Mr. Michel Jackson)
Manager, Credit Division
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Manager
Mr. Michel Trading Agency
302, TUCSON AZ 85705
USA.
Subject: Reply to financial status inquiry of John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington.
Dear Sir,
Thank you for your letter of November 28, 2013. We have regular and satisfactory business
relation for long time with John and company, 14/1, Taxes, Washington about whom you have
sought information. They are doing business in this line since long ago with utmost sincerity and
honesty. Their financial capability and business goodwill are highly appreciable. Their business
dealings and payment records with us during the last several years can be held in high esteem.
You can supply them goods worth 1300$ on credit in a single consignment without any
hesitation.
We feel proud to provide information about the firm and we think our confidence on this firm
will never be misplaced. Expecting your business success.
Thanking you.
Sincerely yours.
(Mr. Jonson)
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Acknowledging this notice from the inquirer. This means, acclaim with the notice
associated with request should be mentioned.
Name, address along with points with the corporation regarding which usually
information is actually provided.
Giving certain information as questioned through the inquirer. Data delivered should be
appropriate in addition to applicable whether it’s positive as well as negative.
The particular replier must not fit his or her own assumptions while using the
information.
Any affirmation producing this intention to never take any legal responsibility resulting
from long term orders while using the likely shopper.
Requiring this enquirer to keep up secrecy with the information delivered.
Offering warranty associated with providing additional help out with long term.
Producing ache if the information delivered is going from the possible shopper.
Making use of basic in addition to unambiguous words and phrases in addition to
paragraphs.
Wanting inquirer’s business success along with thank you.
Mentioning this name, location in addition to address with the information provider
SALES LETTERS
Sales Letters are used to introduce new products to new customers and past clients. It's important
to outline an important problem that needs to be solved and provide the solution in sales letters.
This example letter provides an outline, as well as important phrases to use when sending out a
wide variety of sales letters. It is a piece of direct mail which is designed to persuade the reader to
purchase a particular product or service.
It should:
Before writing a sales letter one must acquire and analyse appropriate lists of targeted customers.
Replying to an Inquiry
Replying to inquiries is one of the most important business letters that you write. Customers who
make inquiries are interested in specific information, and are excellent business prospects. Learn
how to thank the customers, provide as much information as possible, as well as make a call to
action for a positive outcome.
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When a new customer opens an account it is essential to inform them of account terms and
conditions. If you run a small business, it is common to provide these terms and conditions in the
form of a letter. This guide provides a clear example on which you can base your own business
letters providing account terms and conditions.
Letters of Acknowledgment
For legal purposes letters of acknowledgment are often requested. These letters are also referred
to as letters of receipt and tend to be rather formal and short. These two examples letters will
provide you with a template to use in your own work and can be easily adapted for a number of
purposes.
COLLECTION LETTER
Meaning of collection letter: Letters written for realizing payments from the debtors are known
as collection letters. The need for writing collection letters arises from credit sales. Selling on
credit is a traditional business policy that enhances volume of sales. Under the credit sales policy,
the sellers allow the customers a definite period for payment of dues. However, sometimes the
buyers make unexpected delay in paying their dues. Even, some custom stances, the sellers write
letters reminding and requesting the customers to pay the due bills. Instead of sending one letter
or repeated copies of the same letter, credit departments send a series of letters.
In the opinion of Kitty O. Locker, “Collection letters ask customers to pay for the goods
and services they have already received.”
Quibble and others defined, “Collection letters are used by an organization to entice its
charge customers to pay an outstanding charge-account balance.”
Collection letters are written in a series. When collection letters are written in a series
beginning with a simple reminder and end with a warning letter indication legal action
the dues promptly by retaining the customers with the company.
Collection letters possess some distinct features that differentiate them from other business
letters. Some of the features of collection letter are as follows:
1. Parties involved: Buyer who buys on credit and seller are involved in collection letter.
Seller writes this letter to the buyer for payment of dues.
2. Series of letter: Collection letters are written in a series. The series includes remainder
letter, inquiry letter, appeal and urgency letter and warning letter.
3. Objective: The prime objective of writing collection letter is to realize the dues from the
customers.
4. Governing principle: The governing principle of the letter is to collect the dues by
retaining the customers with the company.
5. Referring the previous letter: When dunning letters are written in a series, every
subsequent letter mentions the reference of immediate earlier letter.
6. Threat for legal action: The last letter of collection letter series warns the customer that
the matter has been handed over to the lawyers for taking necessary legal action.
7. Sent through registered post: The seller sends collection letter especially, the lat letter
of the series though registered with acknowledgement to avoid unnecessary delay, or
missing of the letter or denial from the part of the customer.
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8. Language: The letter is written by using friendly, persuasive but straightforward
language.
You have been a valued customer for many years, and you have always been
conscientious about paying your bills within the 30-day payment period. This is just a
reminder that your payment of {amount} for invoice # {0000} has not been received by
our office. If you forgot to mail us your payment, please send it today. If you have
already mailed your check, please disregard this notice.
As always, if you have any questions or problems feel free to contact us at {phone
number} or {email address}.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
We know that life can sometimes be difficult and staying on top of invoices is not always
easy. That’s why we wanted to send you a friendly reminder regarding invoice # {000} in
the amount of {$.00} that is currently past due. If you experienced an issue with your
order, please do let us know. If you have any questions regarding this invoice, please call
us at {phone} or contact us via {email}.
We value your business and are here to help you. If your payment has already been
submitted, we thank you and please disregard this notice.
Sincerely,
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{Your Name}
{Your Title}
We hope that everything is going well for you and that you are enjoying the products that
we provided.
However, it has been two months now since we have received a payment and we are
wondering if there is some sort of problem we can help you with. Have you already put a
check in the mail to us in the amount of {$.00} for invoice # {0000}?
If not, please give this matter your attention today, since we want to be able to extend you
credit the next time you shop with us.
Of course, if there is some sort of problem, know that you can contact us at {phone
number} or {email} so we can help.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
We show your account has a past due balance of {$.00} Previous attempts to collect the
balance have failed.
Please call me immediately at {phone} to resolve the balance on your account and to
avoid having invoice # {000} referred to a collection agency. Your prompt attention is
required to resolve this issue.
Sincerely,
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{Your Name}
{Your Title}
Your account is now seriously past due. We have sent you numerous payment requests
and still have not received your past due payment in the amount of {$.00}.
Please remit {$00} from invoice # {000} within three days or your account will be
closed, any outstanding orders will be cancelled, and this matter will be referred to a
collection agency.
Please call me within the next three business days at {phone} so that we may discuss how
to resolve this quickly.
Sincerely,
{Your Name}
{Your Title}
QUOTATION LETTER
A letter of quotation is any letter written in reference to the price of a service or
product. This could range from a customer or client requesting or accepting a
quote, to the supplier or service provider sending the quote amount. Either of
these letters could be headed as a letter of quotation.
For example you would write a letter of quotation to a ventilation company
explaining your situation and requesting a quote to complete the job.
Because money is likely to be exchanged it is important for both parties to be
clear about the service or product in question and the terms of the agreement.
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25/02/2016
Dear Sirs,
You have previously supplied us cables and we should be glad if you would now quote
for the items named below, manufactured by Saru Cables. The cables we require are
listed in your Catalogue no. 24 and 38.
Catalogue No. Dimensions
No. 28.............3/2
No. 36.............3/41
No. 27.............7/20
No. 40...........1/40
Prices quoted should include packing and delivery at the above address.
While replying please state (i) discount, (ii) mode of payment, (iii) date of delivery
Yours faithfully,
K. Madan
(Manager)
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POPULAR CABLES
C-17/7, Sadar Market,
Delhi.
28/02/2016
Dear Sirs,
With reference to your inquiry of 19th Oct. 1996 for further supply of our cables, we are
pleased to quote at follows:
We can deliver from our stock and will allow you a discount of 100% but only on items
in quantities of 200 or more. In addition, there shall be a cash discount of 5% on total cost
if payment were made within 45 days from the date of invoice.
We hope you will find these terms satisfactory and look forward to your order.
Yours faithfully
Satrajit Jana
(Manager)
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ORDER LETTER
Is a document that confirms the details of a purchase of goods or services from one party
to another. It usually includes more information about what you are ordering, like
quantity, model number, or color, the payment terms, and the matter in which the
products are to be shipped. When the recipient receives this letter, they will process the
order and send the merchandise.
Placing an Order
As a business person, you will often place an order - especially if you have a large supply chain
for your product. This example business letter provides an outline to make sure your order
placement is clear so that you receive exactly what you order.
An order letter needs to be correct, complete and definite so that the reader may fill it exactly.
Incompleteness or errors may mean further correspondence, shipping delays, complicated billing,
repacking and reshipping and loss of business.
Replying of Orders:
Ordinarily order letters need to reply. But replies should be written under following circumstance.
The letter that is written by a potential buyer to the seller requesting him to deliver goods is
known as order letter. By writing inquiry letters, buyers can collect necessary information about
the price, quality of goods and terms of sale. If the buyer finds the quoted price, quality of goods
and terms of sales satisfactory, he places an order to supply goods in his address. The seller
delivers the good according to the buyer’s order.
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In modern time, sellers supply printed orders forms to the customers and customers place orders
by filling up those printed order blanks. In this case, the printed order sheet or blank is considered
as the order letter.
Starting to Write
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We would like to purchase twenty two (22) individual stand mixers (Model #43423), all in the
color red.
We would like you to charge this purchase to the preexisting account that we have with you,
business account #543234.
We hope to receive this order no later than Friday, November 11th, 2009. Attached to this letter
please find our preferred shipping method and receiving address.
Please confirm that you received this order by calling us at 232-231-4563 anytime during
business hours, Monday to Friday.
Hello Victor,
Thank you for your recent purchase from Furniture World. The team are currently working on
getting your item dispatched, and it should be with you within 5 working days.
Order Details
Order Number: 86675564
Mellow White Leather Sofa
Price Inc Delivery: $754
Payment Method: Credit Card
Delivery Address:
8561 Honey Pioneer Autoroute, Burnt House, Wisconsin, 53091-3064
Note: Because this is a large item you will need somebody to sign for the delivery upon arrival
and to grant the drivers access to the property in order to position it somewhere convenient.
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If you should have any problems or queries about this order please contact customer support on
(534) 872-9133, or via email at support@furnitureworld.us
CLAIM LETTER
What is claim letter? | Type of claims
When affected buyer writes a letter to the seller raising complaints and demanding compensation,
it is known as clam letter. Generally, a losing buyer writes claim letters to the seller. However,
sometimes the buyer writes the letter to the transportation authority if any damage is caused by
their negligence. Again, seller or transportation authority may also write claim letter to the buyer
claiming their demand.
Quible and Others defined, “A claim letter is a message designed to inform its recipient
about the writer’s dissatisfaction with a product or service.”
According to Himstreet and Baty, “A claim letter is a request for adjustment. When
writes ask for something to which they think they are entitled refund, replacement,
exchange, payment for damages and so on the letter is called a claim letter.”
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that when customer writes a letter expressing his
dissatisfaction with the purchased product and claims compensation, it is called claim letter.
Although a phone call or personal visit may solve the problem, a written claim letter is better as it
is a document of customer dissatisfaction. As the volume of operations of a business increases,
the frequency of claims letters may also increase. The manner in which an organization deals with
the claims of customer affects its reputation.
Although claim letters are written for possible compensation or adjustment but the mode of
claims asked for are not always same. Depending on the nature of damage or loss, the buyer can
claim one or more of the followings:
Partial or full refund of purchase price of the product or service.
Future delivery of the products with correct items.
Replacement of defective products.
Repair of the damaged products.
Reduction in the price.
Credit the amount to purchase account.
Cancellation of order or portion of order.
Rescheduling the payment installments.
Correction of error in bill.
Making a Claim
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Unfortunately, from time to time it is necessary to make a claim against unsatisfactory work. This
example business letter provides a strong example of a claim letter and includes important
phrases to express your dissatisfaction and future expectations when making a claim.
A dissatisfied party may either discontinue business contact or may complain through a claim
letter. The former option can never be recommended. Complaint is basically unpleasant,
therefore, should be based on the following points:
Adjusting a Claim
ven the best business may make a mistake from time to time. In this case, you may be called upon
to adjust a claim. This type of business letter provides an example to send to unsatisfied
customers making sure that you address their specific concerns, as well as retain them as future
customers.
Manager
Michel enterprise
(Wholesaler of quality fabrics)
20, Kualampur, Malaysia
Dear Manager,
On November 07, 2013 we purchased 2000 meters suit cloths. The quality of your shipment does not match
with our order specification. Since the use of low quality cloth will damage our business goodwill, we have
returned your shipment along with a request for cash refund of 12000$.
We believe that your company has deep concern for its customers. We are also convinced with the earlier
dealing of your company.
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Refunding the money within the next 10 days will be highly appreciated. We are looking for future
business.
Sincerely,
(Mr. Jonson)
Purchase Manager
SAMPLE 2: The Bangladesh Commerce College, Road No 7, Uttara, Dhaka has purchased some
books from Jamuna Publishing Pvt. Ltd. Bangla Bazar, Dhaka. The publisher has sent older
edition of the books. Write a claim letter for replacing the books with the new edition.
Manager
Jamuna Publishing Pvt. Ltd.
Bangla Bazar, Dhaka
Dear Sir,
In response to our November 10, 2013 order letter, you have sent the ordered books. You delivery
has reached to us on November 20, 2013. We have got all the books. But you have sent the older
edition of some books.
Books of older edition are being returned. We are requesting for replacing the books with 2013
edition.
Sincerely
(Mr. Jonson)
Principal
Specimen of claim letter
Suggestions for improving the effectiveness of claim letter | Characteristics of good claim
letter
A claim letter possesses the general qualities of a good commercial letter like completeness,
conciseness, use of easy and simple language etc. however, a good claim letter is one that has the
following characteristics:
1. Fair claim: An effective claim letter contains a realistic, fair and honest claim or request.
If the buyer makes any unfair claim, it proves his dishonesty. As a result business
relationship between buyer and seller may end.
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2. Showing confidence upon the seller: The buyer should be confidant that seller will
accept his claim. Such confidence will motivate the seller to settle the claim with due
consideration.
3. Free form anger: An effective claim letter never shows anger to the recipient. Anger or
antagonism reduces the chance of getting compensation.
4. Inclusion of facts courteously: A good claim letter states all relevant facts logically.
Courteously and impersonally. It includes neither exaggerated nor irrelevant facts.
5. Definite request: An effective claim letter makes a definite request. Such request may
be of the followings:
o Replacement of the product or service.
o Partial or full refund of the purchase price of the product or service
o Replacement of shipments
o Cancellation of an order or part of the order
o Correction of an error in bill
6. Free from guess and opinion: It is unwise to guess or to give opinion holding any
specific person responsible for the damage. The letter should be written impersonally and
the charge of detecting the responsible persons should be given to the seller.
COMPLAINT LETTER
What is complaint letter? | Cause of drafting complaint letter
Meaning of complaint letter: In a simple way, the letter written by the customers to
convey their complaints to the seller of goods or to the transport authority is termed as
complaint letter. In the process of supplying ordered goods to the customers, different
persons and parties are involved. Therefore, there is every possibility of inadvertent
mistakes being committed by someone. This may create inconvenience to the customers
and even cause them financial loss. Therefore customers write letter to inform their
inconveniences to the seller or to the transport authority.
In business, occurrence of mistakes is common and natural even though the parties are
causations and careful. Some of the customary mistakes are supplying low quality
products, charging high prices, low quality packaging, damage of products due to poor
packaging etc. so complaint letter is drafted by the buyer mentioning the mistakes
occurred or claiming for the damage to the seller or to the transportation authority.
After placing orders, customers expect that sellers will deliver the products accordingly. If the
seller fails to do so, customers write complaint letter. Such letter is usually written for the
following reasons or causes:
Merchandise not received.
Part of the merchandise not received
The merchandise received was not received
Delivery of defective products
Goods received in a damaged condition
Quantity of good is not what was ordered
Goods delivered to wring address
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Delivery of goods is delayed
Impoliteness of office staff of the seller
Delivery of mix-up products
Clerical or book keeping errors
Mistakes in the bill
Charging high price
Price included for goods returned
Reminders for payment of bill already paid
Poor quality of packaging
Faulty insurance coverage
Missing of products during transportation
Carelessness of transportation authority
Ignoring the provisions regarding brokerage, commission and discount
A complaint letter should be written in a polite and considerate way by incorporating the
following factors or elements:
1. Specific cause of complaint: In a complaint letter, the customer should mention the
specific cause of complaint. This will help the seller to understand his fault and to take
necessary step for adjustment.
2. Nature of loss: Complaint letter must specify the nature and extent of damage caused in
terms of money, loss of sales, loss of service or goodwill.
3. Amount of loss: If any financial loss has to fault to the seller or transport authority,
actual amount of loss should be mentioned with supportive documents.
4. Possible remedy: A complaint letter should clearly indicate the probable remedies for
setting the complaint.
5. Avoiding assumptions: In the letter, the buyer should include only the actual event.
There should not be any assumption on the part of the buyer.
6. Courteous language: Language of complaint letter should be simple, easy, courteous
and friendly. However, its tone should be straightforward.
7. Documentary proof: Sufficient documents should be enclosed as proof of complaint.
Without necessary documents, the letter may have no value to the recipient.
8. Controlling anger: Though anger is a natural reaction of the affected buyer, it is not wise
to express anger. Rather, the buyer should make the complaint in a respectful and
considerate way.
9. Art of presentation: Complaint should be made artfully. That is the buyer should raise
the complaint in a way that does not hurt the seller. Artful presentation requires raising
the complaints passively rather than directly.
10. Mentioning preventive measures for future: For preventing the mistakes in future, the
buyer can suggest the seller some alternative course of actions.
SAMPLE 1: M/s. Anna Food Products Ltd. has placed an order on December 05, 2013 to Mr.
Michel Flour Mills Ltd. For 2000 bags of flour to be sent within December 15, 2013. Mr. Michel
Flour Mills has accepted the order but the delivery of shipment was delayed for 3 (three) days, for
the a complaint letter to the Manager, Mr. Michel Flour Mills Ltd. 10, Washington, New York,
for the delay.
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Manager
Michel Flour Mills Ltd.
10, Washington, New York
Dear Manager,
We have placed an order on December 05, 2013 for 2000 bags of flour to be sent within
December 15, 2013. You have sent an order acknowledgement letter and promised to deliver the
shipment within the stipulate time. But it is unfortunate that the actual delivery was delayed for
03 (Three) days.
Due to your delay in sending the shipment, we could not maintain promise with our customers.
Recurrence of this problem will force us to business elsewhere.
We expect that you will take the matter seriously and will take necessary step to prevent its
recurrence. We are looking for future business.
Thanking you,
(Mr. Jonson)
Manager
Sample of complaint letter
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Manager
Michel furniture Ltd.
Kualampur, Malaysia.
Dear Manager,
We have purchased 100 nos. of office desks on February 10, 2013 and the shipment reached to us
on February 22, 2013. After inspection of the shipment, we have found 20 (Twenty) defective
desks. Sale of the defective desks will have a negative impact on our reputation. Therefore, we
have kept those desks in the storeroom.
We believe that it was an inadvertent mistake and you will take necessary step to stop its
recurrence.
Thanking you,
(Mr. Mr. Jonson)
Manager
Specimen of complaint letter
ADJUSTMENT LETTER
Adjustment letter is a reply letter to the buyer’s complaint or claim. In other words, when
seller or transportation authority writes letter in response to the complaint or claim letter
of the buyer, it is known as adjustment letter. This letter informs the customer either
acceptance or rejection of their complaints and claims. Acceptance of the claims may
take different forms such as simply regretting for the mistakes, or making correction to
the mistakes through payment of compensation. Reply to complaint letter plays a vital
role in enhancing the goodwill of a company and maintaining relationships with the
customers.
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According to Murphy and Hilderbrandt, “An adjustment letter is the reply to a
compliant or claim letter”.
Finally, we can say that an adjustment letter gives answer to the customer’s claim letter.
Though this letter, the seller notifies the customer whether his claim is granted or
rejected. Since this letter settles the claims of the customers, it is also termed as letter of
claim settlement. This letter helps to build and maintain goodwill with the customers.
An adjustment letter is a reply to a complaint (claim letter). It is better to make
adjustment than to risk losing a customer. Complaints should not be discouraged, because
(1) they provide a means of discovering and correcting poor service, and (2) They
provide an opportunity to win back goodwill.
Analysis of Complaint:
In dealing with a complaint all related facts should be investigated to determine (a) whether the
complaint is justified and (b) whether, and how, adjustment is to be effected.
Justification of Complaint:
Experience proves that most of the complaints are justified. They are usually a result of fault on
the part of the seller or third party (transporter, etc.). A complaint is considered unfair when buyer
is at fault and the request is for undue advantage.
Grant of Adjustment:
A justified complain needs proper adjustment, e.g., refunding money, replacing merchandise,
performing additional service, admitting fault and assuring care in future, and taking rightful
action against third party responsible for the damage. Proper explanation is necessary if buyer is
at fault or complaint is based on misunderstanding.
Adjustment Principles:
1. Answer promptly to avoid further complaint. When immediate adjustment is not possible, an
acknowledgement letter assures that the complaint is being conserved.
2. Give the customer the benefit of doubt by assuming that the customer is right, unless the facts
prove him/her wrong.
3. Accept blame gracefully when it is justified: to beg pardon or be unnecessarily humble is
considered poor acceptance that may result in loss of goodwill.
4. Be diplomatic, especially when the addressee is at fault or complaint is based on
misunderstanding. A diplomatic writer can say anything without insulting the reader.
1. Conciliatory Statement:
Expression of regret even if the customer is at fault or appreciation for having been
informed is an effective start of an adjustment letter.
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2. Explanation of Facts:
Explaining the facts relating to complaint, clarifying the position in case of
misunderstanding or indicating the customer’s fault (if any) should be the next step.
3. Statement of Adjustment:
Grant of the adjustment (if any), suggesting a substitute for requested adjustment (when it
cannot be granted) or a mere acceptance of fault with assurance of taking care in future,
should be stated as the third step.
4. Statement of Goodwill:
A last paragraph may be added (if appropriate) for rebuilding of goodwill and renewal of
business relations.
In drafting adjustment letter, the following points should be kept in mind so that in can convince
the affected buyer:
1. Acknowledging the claim letter: At the begging of the adjustment letter, seller should
acknowledge the claim letter of the customer and thank the customer for pointing out the mistakes.
2. Regretting for mistakes: Reply letter should regret for the mistakes and inconvenience of the
seller sincerely. If the seller is definitely at fault, he can apologize by saying,” I am sorry”, “We
apologize” etc.
3. Immediate reply: After receiving the complaint from the buyer, the seller should give its reply
immediately. Delay in reply may create further arrogance.
4. Granting immediate promise: If the customer demanded for something specific like a refund or
replacement, the seller should grant the promise immediately.
5. Assuring preventive measures: After receiving the claim from the customers, preventive
measures taken by seller should be indicated. Seller must also assure the customer that he will not
face any such inconvenience in future.
6. Offering further cooperation: In order to promote goodwill of the company and sustain
relationship with customers, the seller should offer further cooperation and assurance of
satisfaction.
7. Convincing customer: If the claim of the customer is unfair, unreasonable and unjust, the seller
should not react violently. Rather, he should convince the buyer to consider the matter from the
seller’s angle.
8. Courteous and friendly language: The language of adjustment letter must be courteous and
friendly. Such language will cool down the anger of the buyer.
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COVER LETTERS
Cover letters are extremely important when applying for a new position. Cover letters should
include a short introduction, highlight the most important information in your resume and elicit a
positive response from your prospective employer. These two examples of cover letters are part
of a larger section on the site providing all the information you will need on taking an interview
in English during your job search.
3. Conclusion / Next Steps - What you would like to happen in the future
Provide a call for future action. This can be a chance to talk in person, a follow-up letter or more.
It's important and expected to make it clear what you would like for the next step from the person
reading your business letter.
a) The start of any business letter begins by addressing the recipient of the letter.
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-Dear Dr, Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms Mbona: (use if you know who you are writing to, and have a
formal relationship with - VERY IMPORTANT use Ms for women unless asked to use Mrs or
Miss)
-Dear Jill : (use if the person is a close business contact or friend)
Note: If you are unsure how formal you should be, always choose a more formal form. Writing to
a specific person is always preferred if at all possible.
b) The Reference
Begin by referencing a specific conversation or other contact means. If this is the first letter in
a conversation, you can also provide the reason for writing.
-With reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 23 rd March/ or your phone
call today,
-Thank you for your letter of March 5 th.
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Mutare Polytechnic
P O Box 640
Mutare
Tel:
Fax:
Email: Emman @cheese.com
Garwe Restaurant
P.O Box 3240
Eastlea
Harare
Dear Ms Mvukwe:
With reference to our telephone conversation today, I am writing to confirm your order for: 120 x Cheddar
Deluxe Ref. No. 856
The order will be shipped within three days via UPS and should arrive at your store in about 10 days.
Yours sincerely,
Nyaradzai Mazaiwana
DELIVERY LETTER
Director Garwe Restaurant
The _______
(designation),
_______________
(company).
Dear Sir,
It is to inform you that I acknowledge the receiving of goods by your company. The slip
and invoice has been checked. All the goods are passed from the session of checking and
no defect have been found.
The number is items is proper and without any doubt. Under signatory is grateful for your
punctuality.
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Warm Regards,
Name:________
Signature:_______
Designation:_______
Date:_________
COLLECTION LETTER
Businesses would not run if everybody had money for everything that s/he desired to
have. It is only because of money being available with someone that there are people who
fulfill their dreams. A Creditor may be a person or an institution or a bank that offers the
facility of giving money as loan to be paid back with interest. A Debtor on the contrary is
a person or an organization that takes the money for its business or any other
requirement.
A creditor usually writes a Collection Letter to her/his debtor. This letter is written when
a payment is either due or overdue. It could also be just a simple reminder Collection
Letter for the debtor.
A Collection Letter should be written well before the payment due date so that it
gives enough time to the debtor to arrange for the funds
It should be short and brief
The letter should only talk about the current payment due or about any pending
payments only
Even though the creditor writes this letter, the tone of the letter should not be rude
or insulting or humiliating or threatening. The creditor must not forget that the
debtor has taken money under some compulsions
The language of the Collection Letter should be simple and easily understandable
It should clearly give the deadline by when the payment needs to be made
The letter must also have the date when the letter has been written to be able to
track it later
Since it is a Collection Letter and it has a loan reference attached to it, the
reference number should also be mentioned in the letter to track the payment
history of that particular loan
A Collection Letter is purely an official letter so it should always be typed
There should not be any grammatical or punctuation errors
Any repercussions for non payment should also be mentioned in the letter to
ensure transparency of communication
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________________ (Date)
This is with reference to the loan that you have taken from our institution vide docket number
_____________ dated ____________.
We would like to inform you that your first installment is due on _________ (date) as per the loan
agreement. This is a payment collection reminder for the same.
Please let us know how and by when will the payment be made to us. Alternatively we can also
send our representative to collect the payment from you at a time convenient to you.
Just to reiterate that if the payments are not received before the due dates, we will have to take
legal action.
Best regards,
Related Letters:
Collection letters are written in series. Each successive letter comes stronger in tone. However,
letters should be written in such a way so as to collect the dues promptly by maintaining
relationships with the customers. A thorough consideration of the following factors may help the
seller to achieve the goal of writing collection letters:
Expressing regret: In collection letter, the seller should regret that the account of the
customer is still unsettled.
Mentioning the dues: The amount of dues, due date of payment, terms of sales etc.
should be clearly included in the collection letter.
Persuading the customer: In writing an effective collection letter, an attempt is to be
taken to persuade the customer to pay the bill promptly.
Honour to the customer: The language of this letter should be courteous, polite and
gentle. It should be written in a motivating tone. No such word that can hurt the customer
should be used.
Considering the nature of customer: In writing collection or dunning letter, focus
should be given on the particulars of customers like their previous dealings, position in
credit rating, goodwill, business honesty, size of business, present circumstance of the
customers etc.
Mentioning the reference: If collection letter are written in a series, every subsequent
letter should mention the reference of the previous letter.
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Giving importance to the customer: In order to realize the dues, the seller needs to put
importance and value upon the customers. For doing so, the seller can use some
motivating words or phrases.
Indicating legal action: If the customers do not pay the dues after sending reminder and
appeal letters, the final letter of the series should be written by indicating that necessary
legal action would be taken against them.
Sending through post: The seller should send collection letters especially, the last letter
of the series through registered with acknowledgements. It helps to avoid unnecessary
delay or missing of the letter, or denial from the part of the customer.
Finally, we can conclude that the ultimate goal of a collection letter is to maintain goodwill
while getting overdue payment form the customers. Lack of concern about customer’s goodwill
cause them to do business elsewhere. Therefore, collection letter should always rely on the art of
persuasion.
MEMORANDUM
What is memo or memorandum?
Memorandum is popularly known as memo. The literal meaning of the word memorandum is a
note to assist the memory. Memos are the written internal communication means for exchanging
information relating to day-to-day functions within the organizations.
According to Lesikar and pettit, “Memorandum is a form of letters written inside the
business”.
According to Stewart and Clark, “Memos are used to communicate with other
employees, regardless of where the employees may be located in the same organization.”
According to S. Taylor, “Memo is a written communication form one person to another
(or a group of people) within the same organization.”
So, memorandum or memos are an internal short note or letter in which information exchanged
among superiors and subordinates or same potion of employees in the organizational structure.
Advantages of memo
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5. References: Memo is a written document. So, it can be used for future references.
6. Inform the decisions and actions: The main objective of memo is to inform the
decisions and actions. For this purpose, it should be written by the higher authority.
7. Request the decisions and actions: The objective of memo is to request the decisions
and actions. For this objective, it may be drafted by the sub-ordinate.
8. Provide information: Another important objective of the memo is to provide
information form one level to another within the business.
9. Remain someone of action: Memo is also written to remind someone of action, if
requires.
10. Others: Issuing orders and instructions, providing response, providing suggestions,
presenting informal report, solving problems.
Disadvantages of memo
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Here you will get Different structure or parts of a memo. There are usually three main parts to a
memo:
1. The heading
2. The subject and date
3. The message.
1. The Heading: The heading of a memorandum is usually printed. It contains the name of the
organization and ‘To’ and ‘From’ sections. Make sure you address the reader by this or her
correct name and job title. Be specific and concise in your subject line.
In section ‘To’, a courtesy title – Miss, Mrs., Mr., Dr. is often included. But in section ‘From’ the
write does not use a courtesy title. The heading segment follows this general format:
2. The subject and Date: The subject is a brief statement telling what the memo is about. The
subject line is not a complete sentence but rather a concise phrase which indicates some specific
information. The date of writing memo is also important to take action in time.
3. The message: Message is the main body of a memo. The message contains the following
matters:
(a) Introduction: The message represents the main idea in the first paragraph. it is called the
background of the information.
(b) Details: In the second paragraph you should write details about information to support the
introduction. It should be logical and separate into paragraph.
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(c) Response: It is called the action statement. In this paragraph you should state: action you want
to reader to take, Action you will take, Action that you are requested to take, Dead line etc.
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2. Straight chronological order: In straight chronological order, experience is listed with the
sequence of date. That is the most recent employment is placed in the last. An example of
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straight chronological order of experience is shown below:
3. Reverse chronological order: In this approach, list of experience is given in the reverse way
where the most recent employment appears in the first. An example of reverse chronological
order of experience is show below:
Contents of resume/ CV
Contents of resume: Contents and layout of resume or curriculum vitae vary widely. There is no
single best way to write resume. However, a factual and effective resume usually contains the
following contents:
1. Opening section: Opening section of a resume generally includes following two items:
o Identifying information: Identifying information includes name, contact address
(both present and permanent), e-mail address and telephone number of the applicant.
o Career objective: A modern resume includes a statement of immediate and long-
term career objective of applicant. This statement helps the employer to evaluate
what type of job the applicant likes. Career objective also helps the employer to
categorize the applicants.
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2. Education or academic qualification: This section of resume contains a list of degree
achieved along with name of the in situation granting the degree, year of obtaining the
degree, courses taken, position obtained etc.
3. Work experience: In this section, a list of employment and description of work experience
are incorporated by following a reveres chorological order. It mentions employer’s name and
location, duration of employment and position held.
4. Achievements and awards: This section includes school and community memberships,
offices held, honors, publications, language skills etc. of the applicant.
5. Personal data: Personal data include applicant’s age, religion, gender, nationality, marital
status, hobby, height, date of availability etc.
6. Reference: Most resumes mention references from which the employer can seek information
about the applicant. Generally, name of the former employers and teachers are mentioned as
reference.
Contents of resume
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REPORTS
-are fixed format documents. They are written as a result of instructions given to someone to
investigate and report on a problem.
A report is written for a clear purpose and to a particular audience. Specific information and
evidence are presented, analyzed and applied to a particular problem or issue. The information is
presented in a clearly structured format making use of sections and headings so that the
information is easy to locate and follow. When you are asked to write a report you will usually
be given a report brief which provides you with instructions and guidelines. The report brief may
outline the purpose, audience and problem or issue that your report must address, together with
any specific requirements for format or structure. This guide offers a general introduction to
report writing; be sure also to take account of specific instructions provided by your department.
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complex problem and suggesting appropriate remedy, the investigator usually submits a
report to the concerned manger.
Above discussion makes it clear that reports are the commonly used vehicles that help mangers in
planning, organizing, staffing and controlling. In a nutshell, report is indispensable for carrying
out the management functions. Report is the nerve of an organization that circulates information.
Characteristics of Report
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Time Consuming and Costly Activity: Report writing is a time consuming, lengthy and
costly activity as it involves collection of facts, drawing conclusion and making
recommendations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A REPORT
• Informative report (stresses about facts) –give the facts of a situation. The writer will
also stress the procedures
• Investigative Reports (gives results of an investigation and recommends action) – are
written because the writer has been instructed to investigate the problem, draw
conclusions from the facts and recommendations. The writer for example has been asked
to investigate the causes of the factory fire, draw conclusions and recommendations
• Feasibility Reports (examines whether something can be done or not and recommend
action) are related to investigation reports. They are written because someone has been
instructed to investigate whether something can or should be done or not.
• Evaluative reports – investigation and feasibility reports evaluate the facts.
• Technical reports – contains large amounts of technical information. Information often
set in tables, graphs e.tc
• Interim reports - Are written to inform managers of the progress of a project.
• Self-inaugurated reports
• Investigative reports
• Annual reports to shareholders and employees
• Work studies.
PROGRESS REPORTS
Progress reports are common and critical documents in science and engineering. The basic point
of a progress report is to summarize the status, progress, and likely future for a particular project.
In a progress report you are often expected to commit to an exact schedule for the project
completion, discuss the status of the materials being used and account for the money spent, and
summarize concretely both the current findings and the predicted results. The professionalism of
the progress report is often vital to the future of the project.
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Style for Progress Reports
The following stylistic advice can be applied to most progress reports you write:
Include a working title and the words “Progress Report” at the top of the page.
Use section headings in the report to simplify both the writing and reading process.
Open the report with a “Scope and Purpose” section, where you give a condensed version
of your future report’s introduction and objective.
Always include a section entitled, for example, “Progress,” which summarizes the work’s
pace and progress and explains any snafus, dilemmas, or setbacks.
Always include a section entitled, for example, “Remaining Work,” which honestly
assesses the work that must still be completed. Think right on the page in this section,
posing questions, speculating meaningfully, exploring your options.
Always include a section that projects the expected results. Commit to a schedule for
obtaining those results if possible.
If necessary, include a section in which you directly solicit advice from your teacher or
advisor. Be forthright and professional about the nature of the advice you need.
Keep your paragraphs short and focused—just a few paragraphs per section, typically.
Your tone can often be straightforward and familiar—therefore, as a rule, you can use “I”
and “you” freely—but do not lapse into informality.
Avoid being overly optimistic, pessimistic, apologetic, cocky, or self-deprecating.
RECOMMENDATION REPORT
OVERVIEW
A recommendation report proposes a solution to a problem or evaluates possible solutions and
recommends one. Before proposing or recommending a solution, the report needs to identify the
problem.
Think about the various problems you encounter everyday or read about in the paper.
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airbags, in addition to the two in front, to protect people against side impacts, which often do not
activate the two front airbags.
TIP
1. Establish credibility:
o Demonstrate knowledge of the problem
o Show expertise in your recommendation(s)
o Integrate research
2. Show an awareness of readers' needs in your decisions about organization
3. Show an awareness of readers' needs in your decisions about content. Specifically:
o in your decisions about tone and style
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oin your decisions about the amount of detail you provide in descriptions,
explanations, or analyses of the problem, solution, costs or effects.
o in your decisions about what points you will emphasize (through graphics,
placement in your text, use of supporting documentation, etc.)
4. Demonstrate your attention to format:
o Set up the recommendation report as a short memo report addressed to the person
whom you hope will act on your proposal. (Since this memo is not addressed to
your professor, attach a simple cover sheet to the top of your report. List your
professor's name, your name, and date just to be sure your paper ends up in the
right mailbox)
o Use headings, paragraphing, spacing, and typography well
o Include a graphic if relevant
5. Demonstrate your ability to document a source.
o Use parenthetical documentation in the text.
o Use accurate APA style to list only the references cited in the text of your report.
o Integrate at least three current sources (nothing older than two years).
6. Demonstrate attention to fine-tuning revisions..
o Improve SENTENCE STYLE
o Attend to WORD CHOICES
o Avoid WORDINESS
o Use ACTIVE VOICE when possible
o Avoid SUBJECT-VERB disagreements
o Attend to COMMA USE after introductory clauses
o Avoid SENTENCE FRAGMENTS
o Avoid RUN-ON (OR "FUSED") SENTENCES
o Use APOSTROPHES accurately
o Use PARALLEL STRUCTURE
o Avoid other errors in GRAMMAR AND PUNCTUATION)
o PROOFREAD carefully
Background
Identify how the situation came to light (based on the factual information
provided by the instigating manager); what actions have already been taken
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prior to the investigation commencing; what communications have taken place.
Provide brief details of the ‘subject’ of the investigation, their employment
history, current role and how long held etc.
Note if employee suspended and when, whether redeployed for duration of
investigation or if there are any specific changes in place to allow the
investigation to take place i.e. line management responsibility removed, budget
responsibility suspended, taken off usual duties but still within department etc.
Remit of Investigation
Define remit of investigation, i.e. what allegations/concerns were identified as in
need of investigation (provide concise bullet points list of all allegations, that
will be expanded upon in “Findings” section).
State policy under which the investigation was carried out (e.g. University
Disciplinary Policy, Research Misconduct etc).
Investigation Process
Explain how the investigation progressed, including reasons for decisions which were
made and the direction the investigation went including:
Findings
Provide a summary of the findings and observations:
Present the findings separately for each point/allegation/issue of concern in
turn, by confirming the facts established by the investigation, identifying the
sequence of events, cross-referencing any documentation and highlighting any
mitigating factors e.g. lack of procedural guidance, management action or
expected documentation and any other actions / behaviours which may have
compounded or aggravated the situation
Avoid using vast extracts from statements - only quote directly from the
statements where it is necessary. It is the investigator’s responsibility to analyse
all the statements and draw out all corroborative evidence. Interviewees are not
always articulate during interviews and the investigator should therefore use
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their own words to concisely convey the findings.
If the evidence is inconclusive or there is no evidence to substantiate an
allegation - say so. The instigating manager wants to know whether there is any
evidence to support the allegations - it is also the investigator’s responsibility to
explain how significant the evidence is - this should come across throughout the
report.
Note any specific actions that demonstrate a breach of policy or standards of
conduct/performance that did not meet those normally expected.
Refer back to the agreed remit of investigation, ensuring that you cover all the
points.
Conclusion
NOTE: When reviewing the evidence, investigators need to aim to demonstrate a
reasonable belief as to what happened, based on their assessment of the evidence
available. The standard of proof for internal investigations and any subsequent
disciplinary hearing or grievance meeting is based on the “balance of probabilities”,
i.e. that on the basis of the evidence it was more probable than not that the alleged
misconduct was committed. Investigators are not required to demonstrate beyond
reasonable doubt, unlike in criminal investigations, but do need to act reasonably on
behalf of the employer.
Appendices
Chronology of events; witness statements; investigatory interview notes; about
the Job documents; organisational structure; medical advice etc.
Appendix 1:
The following table gives the names of the people who provided statements for this
investigation.
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Name Post Reason Date Appendix
Supporting Documentation
ACCIDENT REPORT
Accident Report Form
All accidents are considered as incidents; however an accident report form focuses more on the
injury whereas the incident report form is intended to focus on the cause and prevention of further
occurrences.
The Accident Report Form is in 2 parts. The first part is completed by the employee who suffered
the accident, and the second part is completed by the supervisor.
An accident report is an important tool used to document the accident and assist in investigating
the cause. It also assists to develop procedures that may be put in place to prevent it from
happening again.
The supplied template calls on the employees, with the assistance of a manager, to fill in the first
page details including:
employee details,
injury details- including date, time and expected time off,
medical treatment required, and
events leading up to the injury- this is important to gain the employees perspective of
what actually happened.
The second section of the form is to be completed by the manager and requires the manager to
identify the following:
witness details,
how the accident happened, and
how a recurrence can be prevented.
It is important to show outcomes of the investigation, and to document what actions can or will be
taken to prevent another injury occurring in a similar scenario.
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The Manager should decide, or, if requested by employees, whether or not the accident should
also be documented as an incident needing further investigation. This may well be the case
depending on the cause of the accident and the possibility of it happening again due to job design,
system or procedural faults needing additional investigation and control.
Should your company decide to merge both the accident and incident form together into one
document then the suitability of this should be assessed at senior management level to ensure that
a detailed and documented approach to both matters is still achieved.
EMPLOYEE DETAILS
Address: _______________________________________________________________
INJURY DETAILS
Date of accident: ___________ Time: ________ Date Reported: __________ Time: _________
Time lost (to date): ___________________ Time lost (anticipated overall) __________________
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□ Contusion □ Other
Describe the events leading up to the injury and how the injury occurred (witness or
injured person’s statement).
Witness Details
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Explain
Date :_________________________
Employer/Supervisor comments:
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• Introduction
• Procedure for gathering
• Conclusions (insight and implications)
• Recommendations (the action to be taken)
• Findings (the Facts)
• Bibliography
• List of references
• Appendices
THE PURPOSE
• It is important to establish immediately the exact purpose of the report. Think of who is
to read it, what is it intended to achieve and how it will be used.
FORMAT OF A REPORT
1. COMPANY NAME
2. REPORT TITLE
3. TERMS OF REFERENCE.
• They form the opening of the report.
• They should include the following:
(a) By whom the report has been requested e.g.
At the request of a sales director or as directed by the board.
(d) Establishing the limits of the report, such as recognition of financial or economic
constraints, company policy, union, agreements or factors external to a department which
partially determine the working method.
4. PROCEDURES
This element concerns the method of investigation to be adopted. Methods which might be
mentioned include:
(a) Experiment
(b) Observation – observation of customer of staff behaviour
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(c) Survey
(d) Consultation
(e) Research
8. SIGNATURE.
Procedure
A representative selection of 15% of all employees was interviewed in the period between April
1st and April 15th concerning:
1. Overall satisfaction with our current benefits package
2. Problems encountered when dealing with the personnel department
3. Suggestions for the improvement of communication policies
4. Problems encountered when dealing with our HMO
Findings
1. Employees were generally satisfied with the current benefits package.
2. Some problems were encountered when requesting vacation due to what is perceived as
long approval waiting periods.
3. Older employees repeatedly had problems with HMO prescription drugs procedures.
4. Employees between the ages of 22 and 30 report few problems with HMO.
5. Most employees complain about the lack of dental insurance in our benefits package.
6. The most common suggestion for improvement was for the ability to process benefits
requests online.
Conclusions
1. Older employees, those over 50, are having serious problems with our HMO's ability to
provide prescription drugs.
2. Our benefits request system needs to be revised as most complaints concerning in-house
processing.
3. Improvements need to take place in personnel department response time.
4. Information technology improvements should be considered as employees become more
technologically savvy.
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Recommendations
1. Meet with HMO representatives to discuss the serious nature of complaints concerning
prescription drug benefits for older employees.
2. Give priority to vacation request response time as employees need faster approval in
order to be able to plan their vacations.
3. Take no special actions for the benefits package of younger employees.
4. Discuss the possibility of adding an online benefits requests system to our company
Intranet.
Important Points to Remember
A report is divided into four areas:
o Terms of Reference- This section gives background information on the reason
for the report. It usually includes the person requesting the report.
o Procedure- The procedure provides the exact steps taken and methods used for
the report.
o Findings- The findings point out discoveries made during the course of the
report investigation.
o Conclusions- The conclusions provide logical conclusions based on the findings.
o Recommendations- The recommendations state actions that the writer of the
report feels need to be taken based on the findings and conclusions.
Reports should be concise and factual. Opinions are given in the "conclusions" section.
However, these opinions should be based on facts presented in the "findings".
Use simple tenses (usually the present simple) to express facts.
Use the imperative form (Discuss the possibility ..., Give priority ..., etc.) in the
"recommendations" section as these apply to the company as a whole.
INTERVIEWS
It is a planned conversation between two partners during which questions are asked and
answered. A job interview is aimed specifically at trying to find the suitable interviewee for the
job.
Purpose
Types of Interviews
Structured Interviews are carefully planned in advance and questions asked are usually closed
ones where one word answers are required.
Unstructured Interviews
They offer more flexibility, more scope is allowed to the interviewee to answer questions, Open
ended questions are asked.
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Interviewee ‘s preparation
Gain as much knowledge as possible about the company.
Study the job specifications closely.
Prepare to sell yourself i.e. state what you can do for the company.
Think carefully about your career objectives.
Draw up a list of questions that colud be asked and plan how to answer them.
Drw up a list of questions that you would like to ask.
Interviewers Preparation
Prepare a job description.
Prepare a range of general and specific questions suitable for each candidate.
Prepare the room well.
prepare a checklist for the desired characteristics.
Prepare a score sheet so that each candidate can be rated on a set of characteristics.
Questions asked may cover the following:
Home background
Education and Training
Work history
Career Plans
Reasons for applying the job.
Leadership
Initiative
Flexibility
Independence
Ability to get on with others
Motivation
Communication skills
Examples of interview questions include;
Why have you applied for this job?
Why are you here/ Why did you pick the organisation?
What kind of a person are you?
Assuming you can do the job what distinguishes you from 10 other people who can do
the same job?
What have been your achievements so far?
What preparations did you make before coming for this interview?
When can you start?
Do you have any challenges?
What qualities will you bring into this organisation if offered a job?
For how long do you intend to stay with us?
Where do you see yourself in 5 years time?
What do you think of this organisation?
What is it that you least enjoy about your job?
What qualities do you think a Marketing Manager should possess?
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