Question 1a : Identify the method used and outline two characteristics of the method.

EXPERIMENTS

True experiments
• An independent variable is manipulated and a dependent variable is measured,
allowing for causality to be determined.
• There is an attempt to control extraneous variables, increasing internal variability.
• Participants are randomly allocated to conditions.
• The data is statistically analyzed and a p-value is calculated.
• All other variables which might affect the dependent variable are held constant
(controlled) meaning any change in the DV can be said to have been caused by the IV
and this means that the findings of experimental studies can be said to have strong
internal validity.

Natural experiment
• An independent variable is naturally occurring – that is, it is not manipulated by the
researcher - and a dependent variable is measured. Causality cannot be determined.
• It is not possible to control for extraneous variables; marching designs are used to
determine the influence of some participant's variables.
• Participants are randomly allocated to conditions.
• The data is statistically analyzed and a p-value is calculated.
• As changes in the independent variable are naturally occurring, the findings of
natural experiments may lack internal validity, as changes in the DV may have arisen
due to extraneous factors, i.e. other societal changes that accompanied the
introduction of Western TV were potentially responsible for changes in the DV.

Quasi-experiments
• Although an independent variable may be manipulated and a dependent variable is
measured, causality cannot be determined.
• Share some but not all of the characteristics of a laboratory experiment; the defining
feature is that it is not possible to randomly allocate participants to the experimental
(treatment) and/or control groups, as these groupings are outside of the control of
the experimenter.
• There is an attempt to control extraneous variables, increasing internal validity.
• Participants are not randomly allocated to conditions. They are assessed based on a
participant variable.
• The fact that participants cannot be randomly allocated in a quasi-experiment
means that the findings can be said to lack internal validity as there may be
uncontrolled variables that led participants to be in one group and not the other,
which are responsible for any changes in the DV.
• The data is statistically analyzed and a p-value is calculated.
• The researcher does not manipulate an independent variable.
Field experiments
• Field experiments seek causal relationships between a deliberately manipulated
independent variable and a measured or dependent variable yet they do not take
place under controlled conditions; instead, they are conducted in real-world
environments where participants can be found going about their daily business, e.g.
at a cinema or shopping center.
• Participants in field experiments are often unaware that they are being observed as
part of an experiment, meaning that their behavior is more natural, while this
increases the ecological validity of the findings, the inability to control extraneous
variables due to the natural setting decreases internal validity

OBSERVATIONS

Naturalistic observation
• The researcher collects data in the participants’ natural environment without
manipulating any variables.
• The observation may be carried out either overtly, where the participants are aware
they are being observed, or covertly.
• Researchers may use an observation checklist (quantitative), often more than one
researcher observes to establish inter-rater reliability.
• Researchers may take field notes (qualitative); these are more difficult to analyze;
usually a content analysis is used to interpret the data.

Naturalistic observation: covert

• The observer collects data from participants in their natural environments without
any deliberate manipulation of the setting; while tallying can be used to collect
quantitative data, the researcher may record qualitative ‘field notes’, describing
behaviors of interest while diagrams and sketches may also be used.
• In a covert observation, participants are unaware of the observer and according to
the BPS this is ethical if the study takes place in a public setting; data collected will
be more credible as behavior will be less inhibited and unaffected by demand
characteristics or evaluation apprehension for example.

Naturalistic observation: non-participant

• The observer collects data from participants in their natural environments without
any deliberate manipulation of the setting; while tallying can be used to collect
quantitative data, the researcher may record qualitative ‘field notes’, describing
behaviors of interest while diagrams and sketches may also be used.
• In a non-participant observation, the researcher remains separate from the activities
of the group and does not interact with participants whilst conducting the
observation; this lack of involvement means that the researcher is free to focus
entirely on the data collection, arguably leading to a more accurate record of events.
Naturalistic observation: participant
• The observer collects data from participants in their natural environments without
any deliberate manipulation of the setting; while tallying can be used to collect
quantitative data, the researcher may record qualitative ‘field notes’, describing
behaviors of interest while diagrams and sketches may also be used.
• In a participant observation the researcher becomes actively involved within the
community or group that he or she is studying; this facilitates a unique perspective
that would not have been otherwise possible and though this can lead to subjectivity,
the credibility of the data may also be enhanced.

CASE STUDY
Case study
• A case study is based on method triangulation to increase the credibility of the study.
Comprise data that has been gathered using a variety of techniques including
interviews, observation, and the use of standardized tests for example.
• Usually are longitudinal.
• May study an individual, group, or organization based on a specific trait or behavior
unusual in some way.
• Data may be a combination of qualitative and quantitative; case history primary data
including secondary data from school reports or hospital records for example.

CORRELATION STUDY
Correlational study
• There is no manipulation of an independent variable; instead sets of data are
compared to determine the level of correlation.
• Often pre-existing data ser are used, but they may also be collected through surveys
or standardized data tests.
• The data is quantitative and may be statistically analysed for significance.

Question 1b : Describe the sampling method used in the study.

Technique plus the exact sample taken indicated in the study. E.g. 30 US military.
Question 1c : Suggest one alternative or additional research method giving one reason
for your choice.

INTERVIEWS
Questionnaire/survey
• Surveys are often seen as written interviews, as they are not face-to-face, the
interviewer effect may be avoided.
• They allow participants to be anonymous. Surveys may be coded to avoid
participants being identified.
• Questions may be misinterpreted by the participants; however, researchers may be
available to answer questions about individuals questions.
• Data may be quantitative or qualitative; qualitative data must be interpreted through
content analysis.
Focus group
• A focus group is a group interview that makes use of a purposive sample and usually
consists of 8-12 participants.
• The researchers act as the facilitator of the group, keeping the discussion focused on
the interview agenda.
• The data is qualitative and must be interpreted through content analysis.
• Focus groups help to prompt responses from participants vis a vis the responses of
other participants.
Semi-structure interview
• While there is a pre-determined set of questions in the interview schedule, the
interviewer may deviate from this, asking follow-up questions if the interviewee has
an unanticipated and relevant view.
• May include both open and closed questions.
• Face-to-face which may lead to interviewer effects and social desirability bias.
• Results in rich data that must be interpreted through content analysis.
Unstructured interview
• The interview does not have a set of questions but instead uses themes and topics to
avoid leading questions.
• The interview style is highly naturalistic, reflecting normal conversations.
• Face-to-face which may lead to interviewer effects and social desirability bias.
• Require more training and experience to collect credible data; keeping the interview
on track and achieving the research objectives is hard when there is no script.
• Result in rich data that must be interpreted through content analysis.

Question 2
Describe the ethical considerations that were applied in the study and explain if further ethical
considerations could be applied.
All ethical considerations stated in the text should be described for the first question. In
addition, other considerations that have not been mentioned should be addressed. It
would be best to think of the Magic 6: Consent, Anonymity, Right to withdraw,
Debriefing, Undue stress or harm, and Deception. It has a stupid acronym: CAR DUD!
Describe the ethical considerations in reporting the results and explain ethical considerations
that could be taken into account when applying the findings of the study.
Objectivity should be maintained. The researchers should remain value-free and
unbiased when conducting their investigations. Reflexivity as well as full disclosure
should be made in reporting findings. Who funded this research? What was the
motivations for the study? Anonymity needs to be preserved. Could the findings lead to
prejudicial treatment against a specific group? Are all characteristics of the sample
relevant? E.g. does gender need to be reported? Ethnicity or race? To what extent could
the reporting of the findings lead to potential social stigma or discrimination? When
research findings are publicized, people are likely to take them as fact and policies may be
based on them. The limitations of the studies must be explicitly communicated to all
constituents. The procedure and data should be shared with others to verify findings of
controversial nature. Researchers should be receptive to challenges to their study,
seeing this as a chance to increase the credibility of the findings. Findings must be stated
precisely and cautiously to avoid misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the research.
Any misrepresentation of the findings by policymakers or the media should be directly
addressed by the researchers. When applying findings – for example, a new treatment for
depression - psychologists should explain to the patient the limits of the research and
the potential cost and benefits of receiving the treatment. A researcher carries out a
study that finds that a genetic mutation may be the origin of same-sex attraction in males.
What are some of the ethical considerations for the researcher in the reporting and
application of the findings?

Sexuality is a socially sensitive issue. In the reporting of findings, the researcher should
consider:

- The concept of “mutation” should be explained so that same-sex attraction is not

seen as an illness or deviation.
- The researcher should explain the potential limitations of the study, explaining that the
research does not establish causality.
- The researchers should also explain his motivations and potential funding for this
study.

In the application of the findings, it will be important to:

- Media representation of the study be monitored and misrepresentation of the

findings should be addressed.
- The research could be used to address social stigma against LGTBQ+ individuals: the
researchers should be willing to work with the governmental agent to address social
policies.
- Implications of the research should be clearly outlined in the report to help explain the
potential applications of the findings.
Question 3
Discuss the possibility of generalizing the findings of the study.

Quantitative vs qualitative research

Quantitative research

Qualitative research
Discuss how a researcher could ensure that the results of the study are credible.

Quantitative research

Qualitative research

- Data triangulation
- Method triangulation

- Researcher triangulation
Discuss how the researcher in the study could avoid bias.