PARTICULATE SOLIDS IN BULK

• Masses of solid particles, especially when they are dry and

not sticky, have many properties of a fluid.
• They exert pressure on sides of walls of container.
• They flow through opening or inclined plane / channel.
• Depending upon the flow property particulate solids are
divided into two classes, cohesive (wet clay, reluctant to
flow through opening) and non-cohesive (grains, dry sand,
plastic chips etc readily flow out of bin or silo).
• They differ from liquid and gasses in several ways because
of particles interlocked at high pressure.
• Before the mass of tightly packed particles can flow, it must
increased in volume to permit interlocking grains to move
past one another.
 Voidage

Voidage is the fraction of the total volume which is made up of

the free space between the particles and is filled with fluid.
• One of the most important characteristics of any
particulate mass.
• Voidage is the fraction of the total volume which is made
up of the free space between the particles and is filled with
fluid.
• Voidage corresponds to density of packing of the particles.
• In general, isometric particles, will pack more densely than
long thin particles or plates.
• The more rapidly material is poured on to a surface or into
a vessel, the more densely will it pack.
• If it is then subjected to vibration, further consolidation
may occur.
• The packing density or voidage is important in that it
determines the bulk density of the material.
• It affects the tendency for agglomeration of the particles.
• It critically influences the resistance offers to the fluid
flowing through it as for example in filtration.
Agglomeration

Agglomeration arises from interaction

between particles, as a result of
which they adhere to one another to
form clusters.
• The main mechanisms giving rise to agglomeration are:
– Mechanical interlocking: This can occur particularly if the particles are long
and thin in shape, in which case large masses may become completely
interlocked.
– Surface attraction: Surface forces, including van der Waals’ forces, may give
rise to substantial bonds between particles, particularly where particles are
very fine (<10 μm), with the result that their surface per unit volume is high. In
general, freshly formed surface, such as that resulting from particle fracture,
gives rise to high surface forces.
– Plastic welding: When irregular particles are in contact, the forces between
the particles will be applied on extremely small surfaces and the very high
pressures developed may give rise to plastic welding.
– Electrostatic attraction: Particles may become charged as they are fed into
equipment and significant electrostatic charges may be built up, particularly
on fine solids.
– Effect of moisture: Moisture may have two effects. Firstly, it will tend to
collect near the points of contact between particles and give rise to surface
tension effects. Secondly, it may dissolve a little of the solid, which then acts
as a bonding agent on subsequent evaporation.
– Temperature fluctuations: give rise to changes in particle structure and to
greater cohesiveness.
 Pressure in particulate solids
• The exerted pressure is not same in all directions. In
general the pressure applied in one direction creates some
pressure in other directions.
• The minimum pressure in solid masses is in the direction
normal to that of applied pressure.
• In homogenous masses the ratio of normal pressure to
applied pressure is constant “K” which is the characteristic
of material which depends on:
– shape and interlocking tendency of particles,
– stickiness of grain surfaces,
– and degree of packing.
• It is nearly independent of particle size until the grain
become very small and material is no longer free-flowing.
 Angle of repose

When the granular solid are piled up on a flat surface, the sides
of the pile are at a definite reproducible angle with the
horizontal. This angle is called angle of repose of that material.
• If solid is poured from a nozzle on to a plane surface, it will form an
approximately conical heap and the angle between the sloping side
of the cone and the horizontal is the angle of repose. When this is
determined in this manner it is sometimes referred to as the
dynamic angle of repose or the poured angle.
• The angle of repose may also be measured using a plane sheet to
which is stuck a layer of particles from the powder. Loose powder is
then poured on to the sheet which is then tilted until the powder
slides. The angle of slide is known as the static angle of repose or
the drained angle.
• Angles of repose vary from about 20 with free-flowing solids, to
about 60 with solids with poor flow characteristics.
• Powders with low angles of repose tend to pack rapidly to give a
high packing density.
• An angle which is similar to the static angle of repose is the angle of
slide which is measured in the same manner as the drained angle
except that the surface is smooth and is not coated with a layer of
particles.
• A measure of the frictional forces within the particulate mass
is the angle of friction.

• The angle of friction is important in its effect on design of bin

and hoppers.
• If the pressure at the base of a column of solids is measured as a function
of depth, it is found to increase approximately linearly with height up to a
certain critical point beyond which it remains constant.

• For heights greater than Lc the mass of additional solids is supported by

frictional forces at the walls of the hopper.
 Storage of Solids

Coarse solid like gravel, sand

and coal are stored outside
in large pile unprotected
from weather.
Solids that are two valuable
and soluble on expose to
outdoor piles are stored in
bins, hoppers or silos.
• When hundred and thousands of tons of solids are involved
then storing out door in a pile is the most economical
method.
• Valuable solids are stored in bins, hoppers or silos.
• These are cylindrical or rectangular vessel of concrete or
metal.
– Silo is tall relatively small in diameter.
– Bin is not very tall but fairly wide.
– Hopper is small vessel with sloping bottom.
• Silos and bins are used storage for some period of time
while hoppers are used for temporary storage before
feeding solid to the process.
• All these container are loaded from top by some kind of
elevator; discharging is from the bottom.
• The major problem in solid storage vessel design is to
provide satisfactory discharge.
Flow of solids in hoppers
• Discharge from the hopper takes place through an aperture at the bottom
of the cone, and difficulties are commonly experienced in obtaining a
regular, or sometimes, any flow.
• Commonly experienced types of behavior are shown in Figure 1.15.
• Bridging of particles may take place and sometimes stable arches (b) may
form inside the hopper. These can usually be broken down by vibrators
attached to the walls.
• A further problem which is commonly encountered is that of “piping” or
“rat-holing” c , in which the central core of material is discharged leaving
a stagnant surrounding mass of solids. As a result some solids may be
retained for long periods in the hopper and may deteriorate.
• Ideally, “mass flow” a is required in which the solids are in plug flow and
move downwards in masse in the hopper. The residence time of all
particles in the hopper will then be the same.
• In general, tall thin hoppers give better flow characteristics than short
wide ones and the use of long conical sections at the base is
advantageous.
• The nature of the surface of the hopper is important and smooth surfaces
give improved discharge characteristics.