Domestic

swimming pools

Introduction 216
Pool shells 216
Filtration 218
Heating 219
Treatment 220

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Domestic swimming pools
Introduction
Pools have been installed in this country
for many years and although there are
some dating back to the nineteenth
century it has only been in the last fifty
years that they have become really
popular. There are now many companies
that have been designing and installing
swimming pools for a substantial number
of years and it is a large industry with two
to three thousand pools being put in the
ground each year.
These range from the large leisure centre
pool incorporating swimming areas and
recreational areas to the smaller club and
school pools and down to the domestic
pool in the family home. The primary aim
being to provide clear, warm, water that is
pollutant free and safe to swim in and
enjoy.
The installation of a swimming pool is not
a particularly difficult operation but like
most specialities if you don’t know what
you are doing things can go horribly
wrong. It requires a great deal of
specialist knowledge in the fields of
construction, in some cases civil
engineering, filtration, chemical
treatment, and environmental control.
The Swimming Pool and Allied Trades
Association (SPATA) publishes
Standards as a guide to best practice in
the whole field of ‘Swimming Pools’. The
Institute of Swimming Pool Engineers
provides a home learning course for
Technicians and organises four or five
seminars per year on various topics. The
Pool Water Treatment Advisory Group
(PWTAG) is a research body mainly
concerned with the pool water. The
Institute of Sport and Recreation
Managers (ISRM) deals with the day-to-
day operation of commercial pools and
also runs various course in that area. The
Institute of Leisure Amenity Managers
(ILAM) also concerns itself with the
running of commercial pools as well as
other matters.
Information is widely available from these
organisations. Additionally, the Water
Regulations give guidance and
recommendations for the connection of
main supplies to pools and the Electrical
Regulations (BSi 7671) cover swimming
pools in Special Locations Guidance Note
7.
The Health and Safety Commission has
produced a booklet called ‘Managing
Health and Safety in Swimming Pools’. In
that publication is the now accepted
demarcation definition between the
private and public sectors. It states that
all pools are commercial except certain
medical and therapeutic pools, when
used for the designed purpose, and pools
in a private dwelling for the use of the
homeowner, the immediate family, and
invited guests.
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There are basically four areas, which are to
be discussed
1. The pool shell construction and
finishes
2. Filtration
3. Heating
4. Treatment.
Naturally enough it is not possible to cover
everything in a short paper such as this.
Pool shells
There are basically five types of pool shell;
those erected above ground; the concrete,
the liner, the fiberglass modular, and the
stainless steel.
The above ground pool is designed, as its
name implies, to sit on a flat surface above
the ground. The word flat is included here,
although it might sound superfluous, as
water will always be in the horizontal plane
regardless of the container in which it is
put. In the above ground pool this could
prove disastrous if the base is not flat, as
the whole structure could topple over and
collapse. There are two types of above
ground shell. The first is a framework,
which is erected on the ground comprising
uprights and sheets of constant depth
material fitted between them. The basic
shape for this pool is round but with the
addition of support ‘buttress’ frames the
two halves of the circle can be elongated
with the insertion of straight pieces. The
walls are of a constant depth and the floor
flat or with a shallow indentation to give a
slightly deeper deep end. The floor is
covered with soft sand placed directly on
the flat cleared soil and a liner is the means
of retaining the water. This is somewhat in
the style of the liner pool described later.
The second type is a heavy-duty liner bag,
which is tailored to a circular shape with
the material forming the walls as well. A
flotation collar is placed around the top of
the walls and when water is introduced the
collar floats upward and the pool fills. The
result is a flexible wall bowing outwards.
This means that the basic and only shape
is circular although there is a range, which
with air-inflated sides achieve a rectangular
shape.
Both these designs have been extensively
tested to show they can withstand the
pressure of water pushing outwards.
Videos show a demolition ball being
dropped into a pool and the sides staying
upright and another showed an elephant
getting in and out of the full vinyl type. They
are not designed to be installed in the
ground.
As has been noted these pools have
limitations in shape and depth and sit on
the ground, consequently they are in
great demand in the DIY market and are
very much cheaper than the in-ground
shells. This is not intended to demean this
type of pool, as with extensive and
imaginative planning they can be very
attractive.
First it is important to note that every in-
ground pool must be designed to suit the
ground in which it is to be installed, the
type of soil, the water table and the
general surrounds. It is obvious to say but
clay, chalk and sandy loam exhibit very
different properties and it is vital that the
contractor be aware of the conditions
prevailing on the site before the pool is
designed. Therefore, if the ground
conditions are unknown it is wise to have
a trial hole dug and if necessary, a soil
analysis which should be passed to the
structural engineer. It is also important to
establish the use to which the pool is to
be put and what is required of it. The
bathing load will determine in part the size
and vice versa and the type of swimming
or leisure may also play a part.
Concrete shell can be designed to one of
two different standards either BS 8007
which is for ‘Water retaining structures’ or
BS 8110 for ‘Structures for retaining
Aqueous Liquids’. The former is used
when absolute water tightness is required
and demands that the concrete shell will
hold water before the internal rendering is
applied, in cases when it is to be installed
over or immediately adjacent to habitable
accommodation and in the commercial
sector. The latter relies on the internal
rendering to retain the water. Indeed,
SPATA Standards state that an
acceptable water loss from any type of
pool shell, excluding splash, evaporation
and backwashing is 12mm in a seven-day
period. This magnitude of loss is virtually
and practically impossible to detect.
However, it is not unusual for new shells
to be tested for water tightness where no
water loss is accepted. This will depend
on the specification.
A structural engineer should design
concrete pool shells and according to
SPATA Standards the calculations should
be made available to the client if required.
This shell is described as a monolithic
structure in that it is an entity in its own
right and should in theory be able to hold
the volume of water whether in or out of
the ground. In commercial and some
domestic installations, a void or
undercroft is designed around the pool to
house air heating ductwork and water
pipes and in this case the strength of the
pool shell is of paramount importance .
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide
The method of constructing shells can
also vary. In commercial installations one
method is a poured floor and shuttered
walls with both thickness and reinforcing
according to the design. This is also
suitable for smaller pools, but the cost of
the shuttering can be a high. Cavity block
wall containing reinforced concrete tied to
a poured floor is a method widely used in
the domestic market and for smaller
commercial pools. In this case the two
block walls act as shuttering for the
poured concrete in between once again
both thickness and reinforcing according
to the design. The blockwork is quicker
and cheaper to construct but due to the
block size is limited to gentle curves and
therefore shape.
Sprayed concrete, either Shotcrete or
Gunite depending on the aggregate size
is applied by spraying it under pressure
onto the pre-assembled reinforcement
frame. The constituents of the concrete
mixing at the nozzle of the spray gun.
This method of application results in a
much lighter shell but one with a greater
degree of flexibility in shape.
Stainless steel pools are structurally
designed to retain the weight of the water
in the same manner as the concrete pool.
Some products have supporting frames
and others have reinforcing built into
them. They are considerably lighter than
the concrete type of shell and are usually
restricted to the deck level type of pool as
the surround channel adds to the
strength. In some cases, stainless steel
can be the finish and in others vinyl.
Angular shapes are favoured rather than
free form.
Liner pools have a shell that is radically
different. To start with the water tightness
is achieved by a vinyl container (the
liner). The structure is non-reinforced,
and the floor of the pool is porous. The
porosity of the floor is to allow ground
water to permeate through it should the
ground water pressure become greater
than the weight of the water in the pool at
which time the flexibility of the liner allows
movement to prevent collapse.
The liner is supported by a structure,
which is not meant to have any great
strength in relation to the ground and
water but is there to give shape to the
pool and to keep the liner in place. For
this reason, this liner system is not
generally used for large commercial
installations however there are some
products which are similar and due to
their more robust design have structural
strength.
The supporting structure can be
constructed of a variety of materials.
Years ago, one would see liner walls
made of wood or even steel as
developments progressed galvanised
metal and basic fibreglass were used but
today there are many composite ‘plastic’
wall panels of high quality available.
These are held in the vertical plane by
braces usually known as ‘A’ frames. These
frames are set in concrete for strength and
support. Generally speaking, this type of
liner construction gives a constant panel
depth of approximately 1 metre. The floor
profile can then be graded from the bottom
of the wall into either a hopper or wedge
shape.
Blockwork can also be used for liner pool
walls; depending on the depth of the wall
either hollow agricultural type or ordinary
blocks can be used. However, this type of
wall has to have sand and cement
rendering to provide a smooth finish, which
will not puncture the liner material.
However, the use of hollow blocks that can
be reinforced can give greater wall and
therefore water depths and this leads to
gentle constant slope floors. The sand
used on the walls and floor should be
sharp sand as this gives a greater
longevity. It is also good practice, with
block walls without reinforcement, to have
a ring beam of concrete at the top of the
wall, which is reinforced and runs the
length of the perimeter, to give added
strength.
Again, because of the construction of the
walls, liner pool have limitations in shape.
Fibreglass pools were usually small one-
piece shells or if larger were in two pieces.
The fibreglass was not particularly thick
and the general principle on installation
was to bed them soundly and then back fill
between the shell and the dig with a lean
mix of concrete, which would give some
strength to the structure. Additionally, most,
but not all, of these pools were of constant
depth.
In the last few years there has been a
resurgence of this type of pool but with
better construction techniques used. The
shells are made of good marine fibreglass,
with timber incorporated to provide
structural support, and are designed to
hold water in or out of the ground. They are
now usually factory fitted with flow control
fittings and pipework to ease plant
installation. They also come in quite a
range of sizes. This in itself is one of the
problems with this type of shell. The larger
they are the heavier and more difficult they
are to transport and to get into the site.
They are moved with the use of low loader
lorries, large cranes and even helicopters.
Once the excavation is completed the pool
is lowered onto the drainage bed on the
floor of the hole, levelled and the backfilling
carried out. Consequently, despite the
logistical difficulties the shell should be
installed very quickly.
Domestic swimming pools
There is, once again, a size and shape
limitation.
All the above comments apply to the
freeboard pool whether commercial or
domestic. The deck level pool with the
water overflowing into a perimeter
channel is usually built of reinforced
concrete rather than a traditional liner.
Once again there are products that are
the exception to this, but they are few in
number. It would be technically possible
to have a prefabricated fibreglass pool in
this type but the practicality of it would be
in doubt.
One common factor in relation to the
proper installation of all pool shells is the
question of ground water. If the ground
water pressure builds up the shell of the
pool will be at risk unless the pressure is
relieved. Battleships were made of steel,
weighed thousands of tons and floated. If
the pressure is greater than the water and
the weight of the concrete or fibreglass
shell it could lift or float the shell. In
concrete pools not only should a
hydrostatic relief valve be fitted in the
lowest point but also the drainage under
and around the structure should be such
that the water can easily gravitate to the
deepest point and if necessary, operate
the relief valve. Liner pools with their
porous base do not have hydrostatic relief
valves because that water would
permeate through the liner floor. Again,
the surround drainage should be
designed to take water away from the
structure as the liner will lift off the base
and float and a floating liner is not
conducive to swimming. This, in extreme
cases, could mean the installation of a
pumping chamber and float operated
pump to take away the ground water. The
fibreglass shell should be protected in the
same way as the concrete pool. It is
therefore important to assess the ground
water situation, and consider the winter
months, before the installation is started
so that all necessary precautions can be
included in the specification.
Although a discussion on the relative
merits of the many pool finishes is not
included here, the internal finish of the
pool does have a bearing on the selection
of pool shell construction method. The
appearance and feel of the finished pool
are important to the users, especially in
the domestic market.
The different methods of construction
described earlier indicate that there is an
obvious cost difference between concrete
pools and liner pools. Whether there is an
appreciable difference between liner
pools and fibreglass pools will depend on
the problems on site related to access
and general transportation. The actual
costs will also depend on a number of
factors, which vary from design to design
and from project to project, consequently
it is very difficult to be precise.
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Domestic swimming pools
R1500mm
R1000mm
Skimmer lid to be set level
Pipes to pump room by with surround material
easiest and shortest
route
914mm
First two risers to be 200mm.
Remaining three to be equal
in relation to slope
Figure 1 Schematic domestic swimming pool layout of family pool with large step area for small toddlers
One must bear in mind that the surround
work, filtration, heating etc are going to
be the same regardless of the shell
construction and that there will be some
variation in the cost of internal finish.
Internal finishes
The liner and fiberglass pool have their
finish as an integral part of the system. It
is only the concrete structure that is tiled
either with ceramic or vitreous glass
mosaics. The large commercial pool is
nearly always tiled with large ceramic
tiles.
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Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide
UWL on centre line of wall
Centre deck box on light?
R4000mm
Vacuum point above light
Return water inlet
R3500mm
6000mm
R3000mm
10000mm
Rear of shell
1500mm
Filtration
In a swimming pool the filtration system is
there to remove, as far as possible the
suspended inorganic matter from the
water. This is done in all pools by a
pump(s) sucking the water from the pool
tank, blowing it through a filter medium
and thereafter back into the pool tank.
The filter medium can be a fine powder
called diatomaceous earth or a material
similar to cartridge paper, but these days
graded silica sand is mainly used. Sand
provides a particulate removal down to 10
microns and although the other two media
produce a finer filtration the operational
problems are such that they are rarely if
ever used.
Skimmer lid to be set level
with surround material
Access ladder
UWL on centre line
Double(safety) wall and 750mm
Deep outlet
from top of wall
Centre deck box on
light
Return water inlet
150mm
The water in the sand filter should pass
uniformly through the surface area and it
is the relation of the speed of the water
and the surface area that give the filtration
rate in m3/m2/per hour.
Low-rate filtration up to 10m3/m2/per hour
is rarely if ever used these days. Medium
rate from 11-30 m3/m2/per hour is widely
used in commercial pools and is
recommended by PWTAG and SPATA.
High rate from 31 - 50m3/m2/per hour is
the preferred rate for the domestic market
although it is true to say that this rate can
be used in the commercial pool providing
the design work is to a high standard.
Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide
Tile edge
Tile finish
Solid dense
Waterproof blocks
render
Concrete pour
pea shingle
300mm cove
back-fill
Concrete floor
Shingle drainage base
Reinforcing iron linked
from floor to wall
2700mm
Ducting
Filter
Pump
Air Handling Unit
Dimensions are as a guide only
Cad drawing not to scale
Copyright Peter Lang FISP
October 2001
Water circulation
In any pool, pollutants are going to enter
the system via the water with the
swimmers. In the outdoor pool the wind-
blown debris has also to be taken into
consideration. It is therefore essential that
the water, having been taken out of the
pool, is returned and distributed in a
manner to ensure maximum mixing and
avoiding area where very little movement
occurs. The filtration and heating of the
water takes place in the plant room and it
is there that the chemical treatment is
introduced into it.
Dead spots within the pool tank mean
that the pollution is neither treated nor
removed and it will therefore proliferate.
Base for
surrounds
Water is taken out of the pool by bottom
outlets usually placed at the deepest
point from the surface. It is returned into
the pool by inlets usually placed in the
wall but sometimes in the floor. The
positioning of these points will depend
on the shape and size of the pool tank.
The reason for taking water from the
surface is that the vast majority of
pollutants are found in the top 100mm of
the water. In the commercial pool it is
recommended that a ‘level-deck’ system
be used. In this type of pool, the water is
at the same level as the surrounds and
overflows the top of the pool wall into a
perimeter channel. To keep the water
level in the pool constant a ‘balance
tank’ is built onto the pool outside the
perimeter of the shell. The tank holds a
quantity of water, which is added to the
volume of the shell and is pumped
around the system. As the capacity of
the shell is less than the total water
available the pool overflows. The
overflow water gravitates back into the
‘balance tank’. This creates a surface
water outlet that is 100% of the
perimeter.
Although this method can be used on
2000mm
any concrete pool it does add to the cost
and consequently in the domestic pool
water is taken off the surface over a weir
set into the side of the pool wall. The
water does not overflow and so there is
a ‘freeboard’ between the top of the pool
and the water of approximately 150mm.
In this case, and when the number of
bathers is very small, only one or two
outlets may be used.
Turnover
The turnover is the length of time the
pump takes to move the total contents
of the pool tank through the filter.
However, as the pump is sucking from
the pool tank and immediately pumping
the water back into the same tank the
period over which it can be guaranteed
that every drop of water has passed
through the filter is much longer.
However, this theoretical figure is
always used in designing the filtration
system for any pool.
The turnover will vary from pool to pool
depending on its use. A commercial spa
with high temperature and high bather to
water ratio will have a turnover of 5-15
minutes, a conventional 25m pool from
2.5 - 3 hours and a domestic low use
pool up to 8 hours.
Domestic swimming pools
Heating
Pool water can be heated using any of the
fossil fuels and solar energy. There are
some heaters, specifically designed for
the pool industry where the pool water
flows directly through the heater and is
heated directly. It is also possible to utilise
a standard commercial or domestic boiler
and add to it a pool water calorifier,
primary pipe connection with thermostat
and motorised valve. Solar energy is low-
grade heat and can be obtained either
from a bank of panel collectors or by an
air to water heat pump.
Solar panels will provide heat into an
outdoor pool and are very rarely used on
indoor pools. On outdoor pools they
perform in proportion to the natural
ambient temperature and therefore the
heat input is erratic. They are best
installed as a back-up to a fossil fuel
heater. The installation can be expensive,
but the heat obtained in general terms is
free.
Heat pumps will provide heat as required
but the input is slow and cannot give
bursts of high-grade heat as can the fossil
fuel heater. They are mainly used on
outdoor pools in the domestic market and
although the installation is slightly more
expensive the running costs are lower.
The water temperature varies depending
on the activity in the pool. A spa where
bathers are static, and for therapeutic
reasons is going to be in the region of 38-
40°C. Similarly, children and non-
swimmers in a teaching pool are going to
require a slightly higher temperature than
the average of 28-30°C. Outdoor pools
also vary and tend to be slightly lower on
average in the region of 24-26°C.
Indoor pools
Once a pool has been enclosed the air in
the pool hall must be heated otherwise
condensation can occur. This will not only
damage the fabric of the building but can
also be a hazard when visibility is
reduced. Consequently, it is necessary to
heat the air as well, usually to 1°C above
that of the water and to maintain that
temperature in all parts of the pool hall.
This is done by moving the air by blowing
into the pool hall and sucking it out.
Relying on natural movement has been
proved not to be effective and the use of
radiators is to be avoided at all times.
With the air temperature above that of the
water the evaporation will be reduced but
water will still find its way into the
atmosphere. If the humidity rises the risk
of condensation will again be increased
and this must be eliminated.
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Domestic swimming pools Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

The air in the pool hall can be extracted
and fresh air drawn in from the outside.
This will also reduce the build up of odours
but is costly, as the new air will have to be
re-heated.
The incoming air can be heated by the
outgoing air by means of modern plate
heat exchangers but re-cycling the air and
reducing the air changing to a minimum
means that the heat losses are lower, and
the air handling unit can incorporate a de-
humidifier to remove the humidity. Humidity
is relative to the differential between the
pool hall air temperatures and the ambient
and the point at which condensation will
happen, the dew point, will vary. In an
average pool hall, the dew point could be
as high as 21 °C.
Hot air is distributed around the pool hall
either in underground or exposed ductwork
or, in smaller halls by single inlet and outlet
grilles. Either way consideration must be
given to the positioning of the return air
grilles so that short cycling is avoided.
The hot air must be contained within the
pool hall otherwise it will migrate. Of
particular concern in any pool hall is the
construction and generally speaking it is
wise to consider the inside of it as an
external construction. Voids are to be
avoided but if necessary, a vapour barrier
must be inserted. This can be in the
vertical as well as the horizontal plane.
There are vapour barrier materials widely
available however great care must be
taken when fixing them as ANY puncture
hole, a nail, screw or tack MUST be sealed
with a sealant.
Heater batteries fitted in the ductwork or in
the air-handling unit heat the air. The usual
method is by LPHW from a standard boiler
with stats controlling motorised valves. In
this case the pool water is heated in the
same manner via a calorifier.
The pH is in general terms the degree or
level of concentration of acid or alkalis
present in the water. Too alkaline and the
effectiveness of chlorine is reduced, scale
can be formed in small-bore waterways in
calorifiers etc and there can be bather
discomfort. To acidic and erosion and
corrosion can occur, and bathers will find
discomfort. The Total Alkalinity is the
quantitative analysis of the amount of
alkali in the water. This has an effect on
the movement of the pH and can also
encourage scaling as can the calcium
hardness. Total dissolved solids are, as
the name implies the dissolved matter in
the water, which can affect conductivity,
and at levels water clarity.
It is recommended that in the commercial
pool the water treatment is auto-mated so
that the level of disinfectant and pH is
measure electronically compared against
the recommended levels and the
appropriate chemicals pumped into the
water. In order to prevent the build up of
matter in the water it is also
recommended that water be replaced at a
rate of 30 litres per bather per day. This is
partially achieved by backwashing/
cleaning the filter medium.

Treatment
Pool water needs to be treated to remove
the organic mater, bacteria etc, which
enters the water on bathers and is
generally blown or taken into it. There are
several options, but chlorine is the most
widely used. However, ozone and ultra-
violet are also to be considered.
Not only should a ‘disinfectant’ be applied
but also water balance has to take into
account of the pH, the total alkalinity, the
calcium hardness, and the total dissolved
solids.

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