Instructional scaffolding

Instructional scaffolding is the support given to a student by a teacher throughout the learning
process. This support is specifically tailored to each student; this instructional approach allows
students to experience student-centered learning, which tends to facilitate more efficient
learning than teacher-centered learning This learning process promotes a deeper level of
learning than many other common teaching strategies.
Instructional scaffolding provides sufficient support to
promote learning when concepts and skills are being first introduced to students. These
supports may include resource, compelling task, templates and guides, and/or guidance on the
development of cognitive and social skills. Instructional scaffolding could be employed
through modeling a task, giving advice, and/or providing coaching.
These supports are gradually removed as students develop autonomous learning strategies, thus
promoting their own cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning skills and knowledge.
Teachers help the students master a task or a concept by providing support. The support can
take many forms such as outlines, recommended documents, storyboards, or key questions.

Essential features
There are three essential features of scaffolding that facilitate learning.

1. The first feature is the interaction between the learner and the expert. This interaction
should be collaborative for it to be effective.
2. The second is that learning should take place in the learner's zone of proximal development.
To do that the expert needs to be aware of the learner's current level of knowledge and then
work to a certain extent beyond that level.
3. The third feature of scaffolding is that the scaffold, the support and guidance provided by
the expert, is gradually removed as the learner becomes more proficient.
The support and guidance provided to the learner are compared to the scaffolds in building
construction where the scaffolds provide both "adjustable and temporal support to the building
under construction. The support and guidance provided to learners facilitate internalization of

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the knowledge needed to complete the task. This support is weaned gradually until the learner
is independent.

Effective scaffolding
For scaffolding to be effective teachers need to pay attention to the following:

1. The selection of the learning task: The task should ensure that learners use the developing
skills that need to be mastered. The task should also be engaging and interesting to keep
learners involved. This task should be neither too difficult nor too easy for the learner.
2. The anticipation of errors: After choosing the task, the teacher needs to anticipate errors
the learners are likely to commit when working on the task. Anticipation of errors enables
the scaffolder to properly guide the learners away from ineffective directions.
3. The application of scaffolds during the learning task: Scaffolds could be organized in
"simple skill acquisition or they may be dynamic and generative.
4. The consideration of emotional issues: Scaffolding is not limited to a cognitive skill and
can also support emotional responses (affect). For example, during a task
the scaffolder (expert) might need to manage and control for frustration and loss of interest
that could be experienced by the learner. Encouragement is also an important scaffolding
component.

Theory of scaffolding
Scaffolding theory was first introduced in the late 1950s by Jerome Bruner,
a cognitive psychologist. He used the term to describe young children's oral language
acquisition. Helped by their parents when they first start learning to speak, young children are
provided with informal instructional formats within which their learning is facilitated.
Scaffolding is inspired by Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development concept (ZDP) of an
expert assisting a novice, or an apprentice. Scaffolding is changing the level of support to suit
the cognitive potential of the child. Over the course of a teaching session, one can adjust the
amount of guidance to fit the child's potential level of performance. More support is offered
when a child is having difficulty with a particular task and, over time, less support is provided
as the child makes gains on the task. Ideally, scaffolding works to maintain the child's potential
level of development in the zone of proximal development (ZPD).
An essential element to the ZPD and scaffolding is the acquisition of language. According to
Vygotsky, language (and in particular, speech) is fundamental to children's cognitive growth
because language provides purpose and intention so that behaviors can be better
understood. Through the use of speech, children are able to communicate to and learn from
others through dialogue, which is an important tool in the ZPD. In a dialogue, a child's
unsystematic, disorganized, and spontaneous concepts are met with the more systematic,
logical, and rational concepts of the skilled helper. Empirical research suggests that the benefits
of scaffolding are not only useful during a task but can extend beyond the immediate situation
to influence future cognitive development.
For instance, a recent study recorded verbal scaffolding between mothers and their 3- and 4-
year-old children as they played together. Then, when the children were six years old, they
underwent several measures of executive function, such as working memory and goal-directed
play. The study found that the children's working memory and language skills at six years of
age were related to the amount of verbal scaffolding provided by mothers at age three. In
particular, scaffolding was most effective when mothers provided explicit conceptual links
during play. Therefore, the results of this study not only suggest that verbal scaffolding aids

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children's cognitive development, but that the quality of the scaffolding is also important for
learning and development.
A construct that is critical for scaffolding instruction is Vygotsky's concept of the zone of
proximal development (ZPD). The zone of proximal development is the field between what a
learner can do on their own (expert stage) and the most that can be achieved with the support
of a knowledgeable peer or instructor (pedagogical stage). Vygotsky was convinced that a child
could be taught any subject efficiently using scaffolding practices by implementing the
scaffolds through the zone of proximal development. Students are escorted and monitored
through learning activities that function as interactive conduits to get them to the next stage.
Thus, the learner obtains or raises new understandings by building on their prior knowledge
through the support delivered by more capable individuals (Raymond, 2000). Several peer-
reviewed studies have shown that when there is a deficiency in guided learning experiences and
social interaction, learning and development are obstructed (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking,
2000). Moreover, several things influence the ZPD of students, ranging from the collaboration
of peers to technology available in the classroom (Ebadi, Khatib, and Shabani, 2010)

Levels and types in the educational setting

According to Saye and Brush, here are two
levels of scaffolding: soft and hard (2002).
An example of soft scaffolding in the
classroom would be when a teacher
circulates the room and converses with his
or her students (Simon and Klein, 2007).
The teacher may question their approach to
a difficult problem and provide
constructive feedback to the students.
According to Van Lier, this type of
scaffolding can also be referred to as
contingent scaffolding. The type and
amount of support needed is dependent on the needs of the students during the time of
instruction (Van Lier, 1996). Unfortunately, applying scaffolding correctly and consistently can
be difficult when the classroom is large, and students have various needs (Gallagher, 1997).
Scaffolding can be applied to most of the students, but the teacher is left with the responsibility
to identify the need for additional scaffolding.
In contrast with contingent or soft scaffolding, embedded or hard scaffolding is planned to help
students with a learning task that is known in advance to be difficult (Saye and Brush, 2002).
For example, when students are discovering the formula for the Pythagorean Theorem in math
class, the teacher may identify hints or cues to help the student reach an even higher level of
thinking. In both situations, the idea of "expert scaffolding" is being implemented (Holton and
Clarke, 2006): the teacher in the classroom is considered the expert and is responsible for
providing scaffolding for the students.
Reciprocal scaffolding, a method first coined by Holton and Thomas, is a method that involves
a group of two or more collaboratively working together. In this situation, the group can learn
from each other's experiences and knowledge. The scaffolding is shared by each member and
changes constantly as the group works on a task (Holton and Clarke, 2006). According to
Vygotsky, students develop higher-level thinking skills when scaffolding occurs with an adult
expert or with a peer of higher capabilities (Stone, 1998). Conversely, Piaget believes that

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students discard their ideas when paired with an adult or student of more expertise (Piaget,
1928). Instead, students should be paired with others who have different perspectives. Conflicts
would then take place between students allowing them to think constructively at a higher level.
Technical scaffolding is a newer approach in which computers replace the teachers as the
experts or guides, and students can be guided with web links, online tutorials, or help pages
(Yelland and Masters, 2007). Educational software can help students follow a clear structure
and allows students to plan properly (Lai and Law, 2006).
Directive and supportive scaffolding
Silliman and Wilkinson (1994) distinguish two types of scaffolding: 'supportive scaffolding'
that characterises the IRF (Initiation-Response-Follow-up) pattern; and 'directive scaffolding'
that refers to IRE (Initiation-Response-Evaluation). Saxena (2010) develops these two notions
theoretically by incorporating Bhaktin's (1981) and vanLier's (1996) works. Within the IRE
pattern, teachers provide 'directive scaffolding' on the assumption that their job is to transmit
knowledge and then assess its appropriation by the learners. The question-answer-evaluation
sequence creates a predetermined standard for acceptable participation and induces passive
learning. In this type of interaction, the teacher holds the right to evaluate and asks 'known-
information' questions which emphasize the reproduction of information. The nature and role
of the triadic dialogue have been oversimplified and the potential for the roles of teachers and
students in them has been undermined (Nassaji and Wells, 2000).
If, in managing the talk, teachers apply 'constructive power' (Saxena, 2009) and exploit students'
responses as occasions for joint exploration, rather than simply evaluating them, then the
classroom talk becomes dialogic (Nystrand, 1997). The pedagogic orientation of this talk
becomes 'participation orientation', in contrast to 'display/assessment orientation' of IRE (van
Lier, 1996).[25] In this kind of pattern of interaction, the third part of the triadic dialogue offers
'follow-up' and teachers' scaffolding becomes 'supportive'. Rather than producing 'authoritative
discourse' Bakhtin's (1981), teachers construct 'internally persuasive discourse' that allows
'equality' and 'symmetry' (van Lier, 1996:175), wherein the issues of power, control,
institutional managerial positioning, etc. are diffused or suspended. The discourse opens up the
roles for students as the 'primary knower' and the 'sequence initiator' (Nassaji and Wells, 2000),
which allows them to be the negotiator and co-constructor of meaning. The suspension of
asymmetry in the talk represents a shift in the teacher's ideological stance and, therefore,
demonstrates that supportive scaffolding is more than simply a model of instruction (Saxena,
2010: 167).
Application in the classroom
Instructional scaffolding can be thought of as the strategies that a teacher uses to help learners
bridge a cognitive gap or progress in their learning to a level, they were previously unable to
accomplish. These strategies evolve as the teachers evaluate the learner’s initial level of ability
and then through continued feedback throughout the progression of the task. In classrooms,
scaffolding may include modelling behaviours, coaching, and prompting, thinking out loud,
dialogue with questions and answers, planned and spontaneous discussions, as well as other
interactive planning or structural assistance to help the learner bridge a cognitive gap. This can
also include peer mentoring from more experienced students. These peers can be referred to as
MKOs. "MKO" stands for More Knowledgeable Other. The "MKO" is a person who has a
higher understanding of an idea or concept and can bridge this cognitive gap. This includes
teachers, parents, and as stated before, peers. MKOs are central part of the process of learning
in the ZPD, or Zone of Proximal Development. An MKO may help a student using scaffolding,
with the goal being that the student can eventually lead themselves to the answer on their own,

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without the help of anyone else. The MKO may use a gradual reduction of assistance to
facilitate this, as described earlier.

Scaffolding means: Ways in which the instructor scaffolds

Any combination of scaffolding means with scaffolding intention can be construed as a

scaffolding strategy, however, whether a teaching strategy qualifies as good scaffolding
generally depends upon its enactment in actual practice and more specifically upon whether the
strategy is applied contingently and whether it is also part of a process of fading and transfer of
responsibility.

Examples of scaffolding:

Instructors can use a variety of scaffolds to accommodate different levels of knowledge. The
context of learning (i.e. novice experience, complexity of the task) may require more than one
scaffold strategy in order for the student to master new content. The following table outlines a
few common scaffolding strategies:

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Instructional Example
Description of tool
scaffolds

Tools that present new information

or concepts to learners.

These tools organize information in a

way that helps learners understand
Advanced new and complex content. Examples
organizers of advanced organizers are:

• Venn diagrams
• Flow charts
• Outlines
• Rubrics

Instructors demonstrate desired behaviour, knowledge or task to students.

Instructors use modelling to:

• Demonstrate the task students are expected to complete on their

Modelling own (i.e. science experiment)
• Provide step-by-step instructions (i.e. illustrate steps to solving a
mathematical problem)
Encourage students to interact with a new problem or task (i.e. hands-on task
that allows students to interact with materials and develop a "need to know")
A worked example is a step-by-step
demonstration of a complex problem
or task.
These types of instructional
materials are commonly
implemented in mathematics and
science classes and include three key
Worked features: 1. Problem formation: A
examples principle or theory is introduced. 2.
Step-by-step example: A worked
example, that demonstrates how the
student can solve the problem, is
provided. 3. Solution to the
problem: One or more read-to-be
solved problems are given for the
student to practice the skill.

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 Graphical tools for organizing,
representing, and displaying the
relationships between knowledge
and concepts.

Concept Types of concept maps are:

Maps
• Spider map
• Hierarchal/chronological
map
• Systems map
• Variation: mind map
Ways in which instructors present and explain new content to learners.
How new information is presented to the learner is a critical component for
effective instruction. The use of materials such as visual images, graphic
Explanations
organizers, animated videos, audio files and other technological features can
make explanations more engaging, motivating and meaningful for student
learning.
A supplementary resource used to
support teaching and learning.
These tools can provide students
with the necessary information (i.e.
concept or theory, task instructions,
Handouts learning goals, learning objectives)
and practice (i.e. ready-to-be-solved
problems) they need to master new
content and skills. Handouts are
helpful tools for explanations and
worked examples.

A physical or verbal cue to aid recall

of prior or assumed knowledge.
There are different types of prompts,
such as:[97]

• Physical: body movements such

Prompts as pointing, nodding, finger or
foot tapping.
• Verbal: words, statements and
questions that help the learner
respond correctly.
• Positional: placing materials in a
specific location that prompts
positive student reaction.