Renewable Energy, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp.

4 0 9 4 1 7 , 1997

~ ) Pergamon P I I : S 0 9 6 0 - 1 4 8 1 (97)00067-0
© 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
096(~1481/97 $17.00 + 0.00

TECHNICAL NOTE

Solar sorption refrigerator

R. E. CRITOPH, Z. T A M A I N O T - T E L T O
Department of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K.

and

E. M U N Y E B V U
Mechanical Engineering, University of Zimbabwe, MP 167 Mount Pleasant,
Harare, Zimbabwe

(Received 15 July 1997; accepted 10 September 1997)

Abstract--The performance of a solar sorption refrigerator is studied experimentally
for three configurations of its collector cover : with single glazing, with double glazing
and with single glazing plus transparent insulation. The collector consists of fifteen
stainless steel tubes having a selective surface (with good thermal absorption
coefficient) and contains granular activated carbon adsorbent with ammonia refriger-
ant. The collector surface area is approximately 1.43 m 2 and contains about 17 kg of
carbon. The collector operates with good efficiency (36 to 47% depending on con-
ditions) when in the single glazing configuration. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

1. INTRODUCTION
There is an abundance of untapped solar energy. Environmental concerns have been the main drive
towards the switch from present energy sources to solar. Success has been made to some extent in
direct heating and the generation of electricity. The need to eliminate chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
refrigerants and make refrigeration available to remote and developing areas has led to research into
solar refrigeration. The research aims to provide more reliable and sustainable refrigeration and air
conditioning systems at affordable manufacturing and maintenance costs. The University of Warwick,
Department of Engineering has had a major interest in adsorption refrigeration systems for many
years. One of the areas of research is the application of ammonia/carbon solar refrigerator systems
to vaccine cooling. Sorption refrigeration is based on the principle of successive adsorption and
desorption. The solid adsorbent can adsorb typically up to 30% by weight of refrigerant vapour.
When the adsorbent is heated to a high temperature by solar energy, gaseous adsorbate (refrigerant)
is desorbed. The desorbed refrigerant is condensed in a water or air cooled condenser. In the second
stage of the cycle the adsorbent is cooled back to ambient temperature, re-adsorbing the refrigerant.
The cooling load is met by the boiling refrigerant. The principle is documented in Turner [1], Critoph
[2, 3] and Munyebvu [4].
The most expensive single component of all solar units is the collector. It is paramount that designs
focus on improving the collector performance per unit cost. The improvement will bring the systems
to within affordable prices in developing countries. The research seeks to evaluate the best of three
available configurations : single glazing, double glazing and single glazing with transparent insulation
material (TIM).
409
410 Technical Note
2. THE REFRIGERATOR
The solar sorption refrigerator has four main components (Fig. 1) : the collector, the condenser,
the receiver and the evaporator. In the experiments reported here, these were used in conjunction
with a solar simulator.
The collector has fifteen 44 m m o.d. stainless steel tubes, each approximately 2 m long. Its total
surface area is about 1.43 m 2 and is covered in a selective surface film (Maxorb TM) which has a high
thermal absorbtion coefficient (~ = 0.93). The bed contains about 17 kg of Sutcliffe Speakman Ltd
208C active carbon. The tubes are manifold together using Swagelok TM tube fittings, which make it
easy to replace the adsorbate if need be. The stainless steel tubing is approximately 33 kg in weight.
The condenser, receiver and evaporator are remote from the collector and are joined by a flexible
steel hose. The condenser is a 4 m long stainless steel tube 12.5 m m in diameter coiled above the
receiver in a 100 1 water tank. The receiver is a 3 1 horizontal cylinder 100 m m in diameter. The mass
of the a m m o n i a liquid collected in the receiver is measured by using a calibrated capacitance probe
with a signal conditioning unit. The evaporator is a 10 mm diameter stainless steel coil immersed in
about 0.4 1 of water. The evaporator coil runs round a cold box that has an effective capacity of
about 15 1. The receiver and evaporator are well insulated.
The bed is insulated with a 100 m m magnesium silicate block, which is faced with polyester random
glass fibre sheets on the side. There are 50 m m longitudinal slots which may be opened to assist
cooling during the adsorption phase.
A panel of 48 incandescent lamps, each of 100 W, give a maximum radiation of 969 W / m : at the
collector with a 240 V supply. Whilst the radiation spectrum is not that of the sun, the arrangement
simulates solar energy to heat the refrigerator adsorbent bed. The bulbs are arranged in 4 rows and
the light intensity is controlled through the use of a manually operated variable transformer. The
radiation was varied in hourly steps, starting from zero at 6.00 a.m. rising to a maximum of 960
W / m 2 at midday and falling to zero at 6.00 p.m.
In order to collect the necessary data to assess the performance of the system a total of 12

Condenser

Solar Simulator

Receiver
©
Collector

Evaporator
(Cold Box)
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the solar sorption refrigerator.
 Technical Note 411
thermocouples (type K), pressure and voltage transducers are connected to a data acquisition unit.
The unit uses a combination of the "DATAShuttle" hardware DS-16-8 TC and a "WorkBench" PC
software. The speed of data acquisition used is 1 scan per min and per channel.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Tests have been carried out for the following collector configurations (Fig. 2): single glazing,
double glazing and single glazing with transparent insulation material (TIM). The TIM is a 100 mm
polycarbonate honeycomb, manufactured by Arel. The collector is tilted at a constant 45 '~ to the
horizontal and the incident radiation is perpendicular to the tubes.
A preliminary test was carried out to determine the normal transmissivity (z) of the collector cover
(single glazing, double glazing or TIM). The method consists of measuring the incident solar radiation
using a Kipp and Zonen solarimeter both with and without the glazing material between the source
and solarimeter. The heat loss coefficient UL of the configurations in the steady state was measured
[5] by electrically heating the inside of the collector and measuring the average of nine temperatures
on the collector plate. The coeffÉcient was assumed to be the electrical power input divided by the
product of the mean temperature difference and the glazing area.
The normal transmissivity (z) of the collector cover and the heat loss coefficient of the collector
are given in Table 1 : the maximum transmissivity (~ = 0.77) is obtained with the single glazing while
the minimum (z = 0.48) is obtained with the single glazing and transparent insulation material (TIM).
The transmissivity of the collector cover with a double glazing is z = 0.60. The heat loss coefficient
UL varies between 4.94 W/m 2 K with single glazing and 1.57 W/m 2 K with TIM.
The theoretical collector efficiency 0/) is the ratio of the useful heat (incident heat to absorber

a) Singleglazing b) Doubleglazing c) SingleglazingwithTIM

Fig. 2. Different configurations of collector (G: Glass--TIM : Transparency insulation material--T:
Tube).

Table 1. Transmissivity of collector cover z and heat loss coefficient of collector UL

Heat loss coefficient UL

Collector configuration Transmissivity r (W/m 2 K)*

Single glazing 0.77 4.94

Double glazing 0.60 2.47
Single glazing with TIM 0.48 1.57

* At ambient temperature (20°C) and from Pun [5].

412 Technical Note
minus total heat lost) to the solar radiation incident on the collector. The simplified expression for
the efficiency is :
AT
q = ~T- UL~ (1)

The first term of the expression (ctz) represents the proportion of heat to absorber and second
[UL(AT/G)] represents the proportion of heat lost. UL is the heat loss coefficient (Table 2) while AT
and G are the difference between the mean absorber temperature and the ambient temperature and
the incident solar radiation flux, respectively. The variation of the collector efficiency t/function A T/G
is shown in Fig. 3. At sunrise AT/G ,~ 0.05 K m 2 W -~ corresponding to 10°C and 200 W m -2 and at
midday AT/G ,,~ 0.08 K m 2 W -~ corresponding to 80°C and 1000 W m -~. It appears that the single
glazing with TIM and double glazing configurations have approximately the same range of efficiency,
from 35% at midday to 45% at sunrise. The single glazing has the advantage that with an ambient

Table 2. Main parameters function of collector configuration (desorption phase)

Single Double Single glazing with

Parameters glazing glazing TIM

Desorbing cycle (h) 7 7 6

Tm. . . . . . (°C) 83 85 82
Tsurfa . . . . . (°C) 143.4 140 116.7
Ammonia mass collected (g) 968 1109 723
Condensing temperature (°C) 46 32 40

lO0

_ Single glazing
90 ..................................................................................................

TIM
80 ...................................................................................................

~._ Doubleiglazing
70-',* ........................................................................ ?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

o~" 60 ............ !:~ ........ , ............. .............. :. . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . ~...................

o> ' - - - , i " %

50 ............ ". . . ~.. . . . . . . .. . . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . . . . . . .
~_~ ~--Z "- :
u.I 40 ............ ! ........ i ........ ~'::'::5. . . . .".<. ."...~. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30 ............ : ............ i ............. ......... " -::- .......... i ............ i . . . . . .

20 " " " : "" : "" :

10 ..................................................... :............................. ~-.< ....... i .....

0.02 0.04 0,06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14

~.T/G (K.m2/W)

Fig. 3. Collector efficiency.

 Technical N o t e 413

1°°°/ ! i
o01 ..................
Normal ..................... : ...................
~°°I .............. ~ i ~ ........ '......... '~

00oI .......... ~ ....... :::~! ................... ~................... ~..................

400 1 ...... ~ ....... i............... " ~ ................... i ................... ii...................

~oo~ F .............................. ~ ............... ~................... ~...................

100~ .............. "5 ................

0
o 5 10 15 20 25
Time (h)
Fig. 4. Solar radiation vs time.

temperature of 20°C and a surface temperature of up to 120°C (which correspond to A T/G ~ 0.08 K
m 2 W ~) the efficiency is higher (36%) than that of the other configurations.
The heat radiation simulates an ideal solar cycle in the tropical regions (Fig. 4). The sun rises at
6.00 a.m. with no radiation, reaches its maximum radiation (960 W / m 2) at 12 noon and sets at 6.00 p.m.
During the night ( f r o m 6.00 p.m. to 6.00 a.m.) there is no solar radiation. During the experimental test
with single glazing T I M , the maximum solar radiation is reduced to 775 W / m 2 in order to avoid
melting the material (its maximum working temperature is about 130°C).
In practice, the temperature is not uniform through the bed. This is why the mean carbon tempera-
ture is chosen to illustrate the bed temperature. The mean carbon temperature is calculated from the
modified Dubinin equation :

(x0 -= 0.2901, k = 3.1853 and n = 1.0957 are from Turner [1])

where :
T is carbon temperature (K) ;
Tsat is a m m o n i a saturation temperature (K) ;
x is the concentration.
Hence :

The saturation temperature is calculated from the measured pressure and the a m m o n i a concentration
(x) is determined from the amount of a m m o n i a liquid collected in the receiver using a mass balance
414 Technical Note
on the system. Whatever the configuration of the collector is, the evaluation of the main parameters
(temperature, pressure and ammonia mass in the receiver) can be divided into two phases: the
desorption phase and the adsorption phase.
During the desorption phase, the temperature of the bed increases from its initial value (25-30°C)
to a maximum (Fig. 5). The bed pressure behaves similarly (Fig. 6). The ammonia desorbed from
the carbon is condensed and collected in the receiver (Fig. 7). The maximum bed temperature and
the amount of ammonia collected depend on the collector configuration and the starting conditions
(Table 2). Unfortunately, it is not always possible to ensure the same starting conditions, but the
results still illustrate the effects of the glazing used.
During the adsorption phase, which begins at the end of the desorption phase (at around midday),
the temperature and pressure of the bed drop until the ammonia liquid collected is evaporated at
approximately 0°C. The evaporation process then freezes the water in the receiver (at around 3.00
a.m.) as shown in Fig. 8.
The refrigerating load and the COP of the system are calculated from the amount of ammonia
collected in the receiver and the solar heat input during the desorption phase (Table 3). The solar
heat input varies between 13.8 MJ with TIM to 19.8 MJ with single and double glazing. With an
evaporating temperature of about 0"C, the refrigerating load varies between 0.9 MJ (with TIM) and
1.4 MJ (double glazing). The COP is still low and is around 0.06-0.07 regardless of the collector
cover configuration. The TIM cover configuration would be better if we did not have to limit the
solar heat input to avoid damage.

4. CONCLUSION
The present refrigerator achieves the main objective of making ice sufficient to keep the cold box
at an acceptably low temperature but is limited to small loads. Ice could be obtained within the first
cycle of operation.
The use of a TIM, though having some advantages, is limited by its maximum allowable tempera-
ture. Its use adds to the cost of the collector without due return in COP or collector efficiency. Its use
is not recommended until a low cost material capable of higher temperature operation is developed.

120

11o

lOO .................... i .................... : .................... -~ '_" Single .glazing ..............

90
I \'~. " i :

G" 8o ....................
v
!I"" " ~ : ",:'"" !~." ................. -.'" Double glazinig .............
• /i \: ~. ! i
/ • ~. - .

~ 70 ................ .t.. i >' ",," ........... i .................... ! ..............

1- ~ 60 -.. ~)r/~i \'x ! :

...... ~ ...... ;>...'~ ................... i ..............

50

40

30

2(
5 10 15 20
Time (h)

Fig. 5. Mean collector temperature.

 Technical Note 415
20

18 .................. :....... .I..-..:, ....... : .................... ~ 2 Single glazing ................

: i `'1 \ \

.:...i/. .... ' i

16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ ...................... ~ . :I"IM ........... ~ ................

14 ................. ~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~.= Double-glazir~ ...............

/! i i

~v12
.e ,'" i i
==
ta / z i i
==10
Q. '," . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i .................... ~:................
• i i

\\.,. ! i
... >... & ................... ; ................

.................. : .................... = .................... . .................... : ...............

5 10 15 20
Time (h)
F i g . 6. P r e s s u r e variation.

2500

2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... i .i
•.-I. - - - . . . .
/ v z - ~ ~ ' ~ ~ " ~ i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

/ I/. J:
/'. - "~ • ~ / . ~

1500 ....... ., ........ I....: ........................... ;-..'.:.." ....... ~-..=: .d. ~Tr:< .~ .......

/ ,! : i i
== /I I" : : :
t~

1000

-- TIM i

500 ................... )2.2 Double -glazir~] ......................................................

5 10 15 20
Time (h)

F i g . 7. M a s s of ammonia collected in receiver.

416 Technical Note
25 ! ! ! !

-/it. P i ', -_ S i n g l e glazing

20 .................... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . . . . . . . . . i.-.. T I M . . . . . . . . . . . i ................

j J\ /
t , ~ , / \ / ,. ~ !,, ,, ~ ~ ~ ,. t ~ tt" ~'l L'- Double glazir~
"" / ~ ~'. i
15 .................... i. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~)"v~.
....... :....................................
ov
: : "\ i
Q
i hi
,~1o
i.,. ::
E
i k : • :
5 ....................
:
: ....................
:
'. ...................
~ :!....... ~'~.
"-/~ : .........
i
~ ................
• . -/~ .\ :

-5
10 15 20
T i m e (h)

Fig. 8. Cold box temperature.

Table 3. Refrigerating load and COP

Single Double Single glazing with

Parameters glazing glazing TIM

Cycle time (h) 24 24 24

Condensing temperature (°C) 46 32 40
Evaporating temperature (°C) 0.9 0.7 0.9
A m m o n i a mass collected (g) 968 I109 723
Solar heat input (M J) 19.8 19.8 13.8
Refrigerating load (M J) 1.2 1.4 0.9
Solar C O P 0.061 0.071 0.065

The experimental results show that the single glazing configuration is the best of available options :
the collector efficiency is between 47% and 36% from sunrise to midday with a generating temperature
of about 100°C.

5. F U T U R E W O R K

A new prototype of a solar collector will be built with single glazing configuration. In order to
increase the high temperature performance, a C o m p o u n d Parabolic Concentrating (CPC) collector
will be used. The new bed will be tested with granular or monolithic carbon and aluminium fins to
increase the thermal conductivity of the bed, reduce the capital cost and improve COP.
 Technical Note 417
Acknowledgements--The authors wish to record sincere acknowledgements to Sutcliffe Speakman
Carbons Ltd for samples of carbon, to Dr Critoph's students for previous work on the systems and
to UNESCO for funding Mr Munyebvu's visit to Warwick.

REFERENCES
1. Turner, L., Improvement of activated charcoal ammonia adsorption heat pumping/refrigeration
cycles--investigation of porosity and heat/mass transfer characteristics. Ph.D. thesis, University
of Warwick, 1992.
2. Critoph, R. E., An ammonia carbon solar refrigeration for vaccine cooling. Proc. Worm Renewable
Energy Congress III, Reading, Part 1. Pergamon, 1994, pp. 502-508.
3. Critoph, R. E., Towards a one tonne per day solar ice maker. World Renewable Energy Con#tess.
World Renewable Energy Congress IV, Denver. Pergamon, 1996, pp. 626-631.
4. Munyebvu, E., Heat transfer in monolithic charcoals for use in adsorption refrigeration systems.
M.Sc. dissertation, University of Warwick, 1994.
5. Pun, S. K., Solar adsorption refrigerator, 3rd year project dissertation, University of Warwick,
1995.