Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Thirteenth Edition
Global Edition

Chapter 4

Skin and Body

Membranes

Edited by ISD- Anatomy & Physiology

Faculty in October 2022

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 Objectives
1. List general functions of cutaneous, mucous,
serous, and synovial membranes and their
locations in the body.
2. Compare the structure (tissue makeup) of the
major membrane types.
3. List important functions of the integumentary
system.
4. When provided with a model or diagram of the
skin, recognize the following skin structures:
epidermis, dermis (papillary and reticular layers),
hair, hair follicle, sebaceous gland, and sweat
gland (eccrine and apocrine).
 Objectives

5. Name the layers of the epidermis and

describe the characteristics of each.

6. Name the factors that determine skin color

and describe the function of melanin.

7. Describe the distribution and function of the

epidermal appendages: sebaceous glands,
sweat glands, hair and nails.
 Body Membranes

• Functions of body membranes

– Cover body surfaces
– Line body cavities
– Form protective sheets around organs

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Classified according to tissue types
• Two major categories
1. Epithelial membranes
▪ Cutaneous membranes
▪ Mucous membranes
▪ Serous membranes

2. Connective tissue membranes

▪ Synovial membranes

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 Epithelial Membranes
• Epithelial membranes are simple organs
• Also called covering and lining membranes

• These membranes contain both:

– Epithelial tissue layer
– Connective tissue layer

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1. Cutaneous Membrane (Skin)
– Dry membrane
– Outermost protective
boundary

– Consists of two layers

▪ Epidermis is composed
of keratinized stratified
Figure 4.1a Classes of
squamous epithelium Epithelial Membranes

▪ Dermis is mostly dense

irregular (fibrous)
connective tissue
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2. Mucous Membranes (Mucosae)
– Moist membranes
– Some mucosae secrete protective, lubricating
mucus
– Line all body cavities that open to the exterior
body surface (example?)
– Adapted for absorption or secretion

– Consists of two layers:

▪ Epithelium type depends on site
▪ Loose (Areolar) connective tissue (lamina
propria)
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3. Serous Membranes (Serosae)

– Line compartments (?) in the ventral body

cavity that are closed to the exterior of the body
– Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with
a visceral and parietal layer

– Consists of two layers

▪ Simple squamous epithelium
▪ Areolar connective tissue

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• Specific serous membranes

1. Peritoneum: cover organs in the abdominal

cavity. Visceral and parietal peritoneal
membranes.

2. Pleurae: surround the lungs. Visceral and

parietal pleural membranes.

3. Pericardia: surround the heart. Visceral and

parietal pericardial membranes.

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Figure 4.1c Classes of Epithelial
Membranes

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Figure 4.1d Classes of Epithelial
Membranes

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Connective Tissue Membranes
Synovial membranes
– Loose areolar connective tissue only (no
epithelial tissue)
– Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints
– Secrete a lubricating fluid (synovial fluid) to
cushion organs moving against each other
during muscle activity

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Synovial Joints

Joint capsule

Synovial membrane

Joint cavity

Articular cartilage

Ligament

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 Integumentary System
• Integumentary system consists of the:
– Skin (cutaneous membrane)
– Skin appendages
▪ Sweat glands
▪ Oil glands
▪ Hair
▪ Nails

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 Functions of the Integumentary System

1. Insulates and cushion deeper body organs

2. Protects the entire body from:
– Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts)
– Chemical damage (acids and bases)
– Thermal damage (heat or cold)
– Ultraviolet (U V) radiation (sunlight)
– Microbes (bacteria)
– Water loss

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3. Regulates heat loss as controlled by the nervous
system
4. Acts as a mini-excretory system; sweat aids in
the loss of urea, salts and water
5. Synthesizes vitamin D
6. Secretions create a protective acid mantle thus
inhibit microbes, such as bacteria.

Table 4.1 Functions of the

Integumentary System –Self study

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 Structure of the Skin
• Two kinds of tissue compose the skin
– Epidermis
– Dermis

• Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis)

– Anchors the skin to underlying organs
– Not technically part of the integumentary system
– Composed mostly of adipose tissue
– Serves as a shock absorber and insulates
deeper tissues
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Figure 4.3 Skin Structure

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 Epidermis
• Outer layer
• Composed of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium
• Most cells are keratinocytes which produce a
fibrous protein called keratin
• Keratinization makes the epidermis tough
• Avascular
• Composed of five layers (strata)

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• Summary of strata (layers) of the epidermis from
deepest to most superficial:

1) Stratum basale (stratum germinativum)

– Deepest layer of epidermis
– Lies next to dermis
– Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the two
together
– Cells undergoing mitosis
– Daughter cells are pushed upward to become
the more superficial layers

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2) Stratum spinosum
– Cells become increasingly flatter and more
keratinized
3) Stratum granulosum: cells are flattened, and
organelles are deteriorating.
4) Stratum lucidum
– Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata
– Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of
hands and soles of feet
5) Stratum corneum
– Outermost layer of epidermis
– Dead cells are filled with keratin (protective
protein prevents water loss from skin)
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Figure 4.4 The Main Structural Features of the Epidermis

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 Melanin

– Melanin is a pigment produced by

melanocytes
– Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale
of the epidermis
– Color is yellow to brown to black.
– It protects DNA of skin cells from UV
radiations (sunlight) that might cause DNA
mutations → skin cancer.

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 Dermis
– Made of connective tissue
– It underlies the epidermis
– Two regions: papillary and reticular

Papillary layer of dermis:

o Upper dermal region
o Contain projections called dermal papillae
▪ Made of areolar connective tissue
▪ Many projections contain capillary loops, and others
house pain and touch receptors
▪ On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase friction
and gripping ability
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Reticular layer of dermis
– Deepest skin layer
– Made of dense irregular
connective tissue
– It contains blood
vessels, sweat and oil
glands, and deep
pressure receptors

Figure 4.5 Light Micrograph of the Two Layers of the Dermis (100X)
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• Other dermal features:
– Cutaneous sensory receptors: heat, pain and
touch receptors
– Phagocytes
– Collagen and elastic fibers
– Blood vessels
– Nerve supply

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 Skin Color
• Three pigments contribute to skin color
1. Melanin: yellow, reddish brown, or black
pigments.

2. Carotene: orange-yellow pigment ( found in

some vegetables such as carrots and deep
yellow or green leafy vegetables).

3. Hemoglobin: red coloring from blood cells in

dermal capillaries.
▪ Oxygen content determines the extent of red
coloring Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
• Redness (erythema): due to embarrassment,
inflammation, hypertension, fever, or allergy

• Pallor: due to emotional stress (such as fear),

anemia, low blood pressure, impaired blood flow to
an area
• Jaundice (yellow): indicates a liver disorder

• Bruises and Hematomas -black and blue marks

on the skin appear due to collection of clotted blood
under the skin due to injury or bleeding disorders.

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 Appendages of the Skin

• Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands

– Sebaceous glands
– Sweat glands
• Hair and hair follicles
• Nails

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Figure 4.3 Skin Structure

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 Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
– Located all over the skin except for palms and
soles
– Produce sebum (oil)
▪ Makes skin soft and moist
▪ Prevents hair from becoming brittle
▪ Kills bacteria
– Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles;
others open directly onto skin surface
– Glands are activated at puberty with increased
androgens

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Figure 4.6a
Cutaneous
Glands

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 Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands
– Produce sweat
– Widely distributed
in skin

• Two types of
sudoriferous glands
1. Eccrine glands
2. Apocrine glands

Figure 4.6b Cutaneous Glands

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• Eccrine glands
– More numerous, located all over the body
– Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin’s surface
– Produce acidic sweat
▪ Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic waste
– Function in body temperature regulation
• Apocrine glands
– Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit and
genitals
– Begin to function at puberty
– Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and
proteins (milky or yellowish color)
– Play a minimal role in body temperature regulation
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 Hair
– Located body-wide except for palms, soles,
nipples, lips
– Produced by hair follicle
– Root is enclosed in the follicle
– Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or
skin
– Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
– Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
– Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in
stratum basale

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Figure 4.7a Structure of
a Hair Root and Follicle

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• Hair anatomy
– Central medulla
– Cortex surrounds
medulla
– Cuticle on outside of
cortex
▪ Most heavily
keratinized region of
the hair
– Melanin provides color

Figure 4.7b Structure of a

Hair Root and Follicle
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• Associated hair structures

– Hair follicle
▪ Composed of an inner epithelial root sheath
and an outer fibrous sheath
▪ Dermal region provides a blood supply to
the hair bulb (deepest part of the follicle)
▪ Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair
follicle to pull hairs upright when we are
cold or frightened

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Figure 4.7d Structure of a Hair Root and Follicle

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 Nails
– Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of
the epidermis
– Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed,
which is responsible for growth
– Nails are transparent and nearly colorless (Lack
of pigment).
– They look pink because of the rich blood supply
in the underlying dermis. The exception to this is
the region over the thickened nail matrix that
appears as a white crescent (lunula).
– Low Oxygen in blood makes the nail beds take
on a cyanotic (blue) color.
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 Nail Structure
– Free edge
– Nail body is the visible attached portion
– Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges
of the nail; the cuticle is the proximal edge
– Root of nail is embedded in skin.
– Lunula: white crescent region
– Nail bed: beneath nail body
– Growth of the nail occurs from nail matrix of
nail bed

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 Figure 4.8 Structure
of a Nail

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