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 文化革命造反小传──曹承义
────────★────────
红色文化研究写作组 著

曹承义，武汉市武昌人，1955年毕业于武汉市武昌钢铁工业学校，1964年调动至
第一冶金建设公司施工处任技术员，在无产阶级文化大革命中成为造反派。1967年 3
月底，在反击“二月逆流”中的斗争中，曹承义广泛团结一冶的干部、工人，促成了
大联合的统一造反组织“新一冶革命代表大会”（简称“新一冶”）的成立。在批林
批孔运动中，曹承义高举造反大旗，为革命群众平反，促成基层党委造反的风潮。在
反击右倾反案风运动中，曹承义身先士卒，带领队伍张贴革命标语。在武汉地区的无
产阶级文化大革命中，曹承义始终参与其中，率领人数众多的产业工人造反团斗争在
一线。

1937年 12月 13日，曹承义出身在武昌的一个穷苦家庭。曹承义的父亲从

小务农放牛，在曹承义出生时干起了卖生活用品的生意，到 1948年时已有不小
的规模，“五反”运动期间被定为“半守法半违法户”，至 1956年，参加公私
合营的集体，靠工资养活全家人。
1955年，曹承义毕业于武昌钢铁工业学校，在校期间加入新民主主义青年
团，毕业后先后分配在鞍山钢铁建设公司机装公司、酒泉钢铁公司机装公司、洛
阳冶金建设公司等企业工作，1964年，曹承义调动至第一冶金建设公司担任技
术员，因深入基层、积极工作，仅一年多时间就升任了施工处团支部书记、一冶
机关团总支委员。

1966年，轰轰烈烈的无产阶级文化大革命被发动起来。这是场史无前例的运动，
许多人的人生轨迹无疑也就此改变。
同以往的各种社会改造运动一样，各地的文革运动最开始由各级党委领导，
其矛头指向的不是“混进党里、政府里、军队里和文化领域的各界里的资产阶级
代表人物”1，而是所谓的“地、富、反、坏、右”五类人，各级党委派出的工作
组颠倒黑白，压制革命群众，实行白色恐怖。
1
见五·一六通知。
 运动初期的武汉市，省、市委制造了许多转移运动方向的事件：王任重主持
批判“武大三家树”2、湖北大学“六二〇”事件 3、武汉重型机床厂“三家村”
事件 4等，搞得人人自危。

6月 11日，一冶第一子弟中学教工团支部书记管典芬老师与学生辜正年召
集了一部分学生开会，揭发校领导打压学生，阻挠写大字报的问题，决定排代表
前往省委反映文化革命的开展情况。该事件被一冶党委定性为“反革命事件”，
翌日，经省委同意，一冶党委派出工作组进驻学校，由于是单位的红人，曹承义
也被派去镇压学生运动。
曹承义回忆：
我当时虽然是工作组的成员，是积极分子，但我对工作组的做法是不满的。
工作组好像并没有搜集到什么实质性的反革命言行，就轻易地把教师、学生打成
了反革命。我在翻看这些人的档案材料时，没法找出我认为有问题的言行，我也
没有向工作领导汇报出他们认为有价值的材料，无法充当工作组的干将。5
6月中旬，武钢工人黄连生写了揭发同车间工人庞玉来曾被资本家收养的大
字报，庞玉来不满黄连生的做法，与其发生争吵，并打伤了前来劝架的女工蔡先
梅。中共湖北省委将这样一件普通的民事纠纷定为是破坏革命的现行反革命行为。
事发十五天后，武汉市青山区人民法院在武钢四中运动场举行对庞玉来的宣判大
会，宣布判处庞玉来死刑，立即执行。
这时湖北省委已经开始播下工人起来造反的种子，只是谁也没有意识到，此
时以“保卫文化大革命运动的胜利进行”的面目出现的、以王任重为首的中共湖
北省委，他们形左实右的实质是把文革运动的方向，引向镇压无辜的人民，当局

2
王任重，时任中共湖北省委第一书记、中南局第一书记。1966年 6月 3日，武汉大学党委书记庄果在
王任重的支持下向全校师生作了《高举毛泽东思想伟大红旗，把社会主义文化革命进行到底，向珞珈山反
党反社会主义黑线开火》的报告，其在报告中称“我们学校也有一个‘三家村’黑店。李达、朱劭天、何
定华是它的三个大老板，牛永年是‘三家村’黑店的总管。他们向党向社会主义发动了猖狂进攻，把武大
的领导权篡夺过去了。”7月 17日，王任重召开省委常委会，通过了《关于开除混入党内的地主分子李达
党籍的决定》。8月 24日，李达含冤去世。
3
196
6年 6月 20日上午，湖大政治系师生在行政大楼前张贴大字报，要求工作组允许群众闹革命，下午，
发现大字报被水冲掉，学生们提出改组文化革命小组等要求，17名师生代表来到省委反映情况，被定性为
“反革命分子”“右派分子”，政治系团总支书记、教师张维荣被关押，11名学生被打成“右派分子”，
14名政治系教工被打成“反革命分子”，提出批评意见的师生都成了被工作组批判的对象。
4
武汉重型机床厂厂文学创作组成员朱鸿霞等人贴出直指厂党委宣传部的大字报，6月 25日，武重党委
派出工作组，将李向阳、朱鸿霞、刘传福打为“三家村”，朱鸿霞等人的大字报被批判为“一篇反毛泽东
思想的大毒草”。
5
曹承义《悲欣交集话文革》。
对一个小工人大动干戈，是想转移文化革命的斗争大方向。……正是中共湖北省
委在文革初期“五十多天”引发的这一声惊雷，惊醒了我们这些本来满足于搞好
本职工作、对政治完全无知的小人物，我就这样关心起了文革运动。

8月 18日，毛泽东第一次接见红卫兵，肯定了造反派学生的造反行为，北
京及全国各城市的学生开始自发串连，8月中旬，以北京的大学生为主的外地学
生来到武汉各校串连，提出“炮轰省委”的口号，8月底，湖大校园内充满了关
于湖北文革的针锋相对的大字报。与此前省委领导下毫无生气的运动不同，此时
的湖大成为武汉三镇文革运动的中心，被各式口号吸引的市民们在下班后涌入校
园观看大字报、参与大辩论。

1966年 10月，造反派学生与产业工人串连，新华工 6学生向青山区工人分

发传单，宣传文化大革命。11月初，曹承义与龚国祺成立独立于工人总部 7的“毛
泽东思想武钢一冶工人总部”。12月中旬，九一三战斗兵团成立，曹承义为勤
务组成员之一，战斗兵团主要由武钢、一冶两个企业的员工组成，是青山地区第
一个跨系统的造反派组织 8。
1967年元旦，武汉地区造反派斗争王任重大会在汉口新华路体育场召开，
数万人参会，曹承义在大会主席台参与大会组织活动，勤务组成员桂大庆任大会
秘书组组长。

1967年 1月 22日，人民日报社论《无产阶级革命派大联合，夺走资本主义道路
当权派的权！》发表，明确发出了自下而上夺权的号召：
……阶级敌人空前强烈的抵抗是必然的。一小撮党内走资本主义道路的当权
派，极少数坚持资产阶级反动路线的顽固分子，正在和社会上的一切牛鬼蛇神，
勾结起来，拼凑起反革命的联合，来对抗革命的大联合……革命的战友们，让我
们在以毛主席为代表的无产阶级革命路线的指引下，动员起来，实现大联合，向
党内一小撮走资本主义道路的当权派和坚持资产阶级反动路线的顽固分子，展开
6
新华工，本为 1966年 10月 26日成立的造反派红卫兵组织“毛泽东思想红卫兵武汉地区革命造反司令
部”（简称二司，主要负责人为丁家显、杨道远等）华中工学院（现华中科技大学）的造反派，19 6
7年 1
月 21日华中工学院的各造反派组织联合成立“毛泽东思想红卫兵红色造反司令部（新华工）”在武汉文革
中，造反派红卫兵均称“毛泽东思想红卫兵”，与官办的大专院校红卫兵相区别。
7
工人总部，全称为“毛泽东思想武汉地区工人总部”，武汉地区最大的工人造反组织，1966年 1 1月 10
日成立，简称工总或工人总部，1967年后称“钢工总”。主要负责人为胡厚民、朱鸿霞、夏帮银等。
8
参见《武汉地区文革纪实》第九章第四节，中国文化传播出版社。
全国全面的夺权斗争，胜利完成毛主席交给我们的伟大历史任务。无产阶级革命
派大联合，夺走资本主义道路当权派的权！

在如此大环境之下，武汉的造反派也酝酿着夺权，曹承义回忆：
张维荣布置 1月 26日夺湖北省的党政大权，当天下午各造反派群众组织到
洪山礼堂参加夺权大会。会上斗争了张体学，还给他戴了高帽，挂了黑牌。根据
张维荣的布置，我带领一冶野战兵团，组织了 20多辆大汽车参加了声势浩大的
夺权大会。但我根本不了解武汉几个大的造反派组织之间对此次夺权有巨大的分
歧，有的造反组织未参加夺权大会，导致一•二六夺权流产。
一·
二六夺权可以说是造反派们仓促做出的决定，丁家显认为：“与上海一
月革命夺权的大好形势比较，我们湖北武汉地区的联合夺权斗争有两大先天不足：
一是武汉数十支革命造反派队伍‘大联合’的基础尚未具备，对一些重大问题的
看法还需要统一认识；二是真正站到毛主席革命路线上的革命领导干部队伍还没
有形成，甚至可以说是缺位。”夺权是你死我活的斗争，容不得半点马虎，此时
的造反派显然是不懂得夺权的重要性。造反派们在运动之前都是再平凡不过的普
通人，夺权时许多人只有不到半年的造反经历，在需要团结一致共同斗争时各组
织的领导者们头脑中仍旧存在着妨碍革命的思想、观念，以至于武汉造反派大联
合的破产。
2月 8日，工总、二司、九一三等 12个组织在长江日报上发表《关于武汉
地区当前局势的声明》，本就有分歧的造反派公开决裂，介入文革支左的武汉军
区利用《二八声明》镇压造反派，3月 17日，工总被宣布为反革命组织，被军
队取缔后朱鸿霞、胡厚民等工总头头遭到逮捕。在这场“二月逆流”中，保守派
以“抓革命，促生产”的名义要求各造反派回到本单位，许多造反组织被解散，
3月底，在反击“二月逆流”的斗争中，一冶势力最大的组织野战兵团联合九一
三、红学员、红卫军、一冶红旗等组织成立了统一的大联合造反组织“新一冶革
命代表大会”，曹承义成为了一号头头。到了五月中旬，大多数一线工人和半数
以上的技术人员都参加了造反派，新一冶的成员已达一万人以上，接近全体职工
人数的一半。
6月，武汉两条路线的斗争进入到了空前激烈的阶段，4日，
《中国人民解放
军武汉部队公告》发表，给要求工总平反的造反派扣上“破坏文革”“破坏三结
合”的帽子，军队支持的半武装保守组织“百万雄师”对造反派大肆镇压。6月
5日、8日、17日、23日、24日，百万雄师进行了多起屠杀事件。
 曹承义回忆：
六一七这一天，在武汉军区支左指挥部、8201部队的支持下，百万雄师出
动了十多辆汽车，他们头戴柳条安全帽，手拿长矛，身穿统一的蓝色全套工作服，
完全军事化地整齐站立在汽车上，他们武装攻击民众乐园、南洋大楼、中南旅社、
工艺大楼等造反派的宣传站，强攻下老会宾酒楼旁的江汉区财贸大楼，登上屋顶，
赶走当地居民，发动巷战，见人就打，连同情造反派的老百姓也不放过。
6月 24日，还是这伙官方豢养的暴徒，在武汉三镇武昌的武汉水运工程学
院、铁道部第四设计院，汉阳的汉阳轧钢厂，汉口的工造总司 9同时大开杀戒，
他们调集重兵同时围困攻打这四处造反派的据点，仅在工造总司一地就杀死 28
人，其中包括 15岁的女学生、广播员朱庆芳，重伤无数。在汉阳轧钢厂杀死 5
人，杀伤无数。在武汉水运工程学院杀死 1人，杀伤无数。

武汉地区工人总部赴沪战团、武汉钢二司红水院赴沪战团等编《2月─6月
武汉地区两条路线斗争大事记》中记载：
六月
6月 1日，工总、九．一三、工造总司、二司、三新、三司革联等在汉口新
华路体育场召开盛大集会，庆祝毛主席决定广播聂元梓大字报一周年，会上还有
新北大公社，清华井冈山等赴汉战士发言，聂元梓等同志也来电祝贺，会后进行
了游行，显示了造反派团结就是力量，誓为毛主席革命路线彻底胜利而战的决心。
6月 2日，二千多百匪围攻长办联司，90多人被打伤。
6月 4日，陈再道之流以武汉部队名义发表了一个对抗中央，顽固坚持反动
路线的《六·
四通告》，继续不许为工人总部平反，并为百匪等保皇组织向革命造
反派大搞反攻倒算，屠杀革命造反派大开绿灯。同日下午，400多百匪围攻我造
反派联合指挥部驻市委联络站，我战士受伤 8人、联络站被砸。
6月 6日汉阳区委。几千全副武装的百匪围攻工总、二司、三司革联等驻汉
阳的联络站。百匪冲入大楼后毒打造反派战士并施放毒气，几十人受伤，十几人
重伤。百匪攻占了区委大楼，汉阳一片白色恐怖。
6月 7日，解放军空字 659部队三十余名穿便衣战士清晨乘军车往郊区参加
支夏劳动．行至汉阳桥头，被百匪误认为九．一三，遭伏击，对解放军战士拳打
脚踢，当场数名战士血流满面。同日，机械学院二司战士游行庆祝中央《六．六
通令》时，六卡车百匪把队伍切断，毒打机院同学，伤 20多人。

9
工造总司，全称为“毛泽东思想武汉革命工人造反总司令部”，1966年 12月 18日成立，主要负责人
为吴焱金、彭祖龙等。
 6月 8日，武昌区委。六、七辆满载全副武装的百匪卡车围攻驻在区委大楼
的新华工、新华农联络站战士，区委大楼全部被砸毁，联络站 20多名同学全部
被打伤，5人重伤。在场数千群众奋起制止百匪行凶，也惨遭毒打。
同日上午，近百辆卡车满载上万全副武装百匪围攻驻在汉口民众乐园的工总、
九．一三、二司、新华工等联络站，多次冲击，打伤我造反派 200多人，死 6
人，重伤 14人。同日，1000多百匪围攻第二机床厂的造反派工人，打伤 40多
人，重伤 13人，被逼跳楼 4人，绑架 17人。
6月 9日，居仁门事件。凌晨 5点，几千百匪手持狼牙棒、带倒钩的长铁钩、
长矛等包围居仁门红锋中学 36人，企图砸掉二司的广播站，有的百匪还穿了石
棉衣，准备火攻并对红锋中学实行断水、断电、断粮。红锋中学二司小将毫无惧
色，坚守楼顶，向全市呼救，万一百匪火攻，准备集体跳楼。
6月 18日，汽车配件厂。凌晨，约一万多百匪和从东西湖市郊骗来的大批
农民围攻汽配厂联司二百多个上夜班的同志，使用匕首、大刀、长矛、高压水龙、
瓦斯等凶器。二百多联司战士除几名幸免外，全部受伤，重伤 50人，工人工程
师杨正超等十多位同志惨遭杀害。厂内 20台机床被砸，二月内难以恢复生产。
同日晚，新华农战士也在武昌被百匪围攻毒打。
6月 15日，循礼门事件。晚 10点，40辆满载百匪的卡车在江汉路横冲直撞，
狂叫“解散工总，镇压反革命”，街道两旁小孩高呼“解散黑乌龟(
即红武兵)
，
镇压反革命!
”百匪恼羞成怒，下车用长矛往人群中乱刺，受伤很多，当场被刺
死 2人。
6月 17日，人民文化园大血案。下午一点，几十辆卡车满载全副武装的百
匪围攻驻守在汉口人民文化园的工总、九．一三等战士，我 100多人惨遭杀害，
重伤 300多人。同日，在湖北××水利工地，武汉谭氏人物调动不明真相的农民
与工地上的老保，用长矛、锄头、扁担围杀工地上造反派，我 150人光荣牺牲，
1000多人负伤，使全国最大的水利水电工程在汛期瘫痪。
6月 19日，武汉革命造反派、全市广大群众和外地赴汉革命组织数万人，
在汉口民众乐园前冒雨集会，愤怒控诉陈再道之流唆使百匪大屠杀，追悼 6．17
死难烈士。群众高呼“用鲜血和生命捍卫党中央和毛主席!
捍卫毛主席的革命路
线!
”
6月下旬，原三司司令部驻汉口总指挥兼宣传部长袁军公开声明宣布退出三
司，加入三司革联。百匪内部也造反了，一部分同志杀出来，成立了“百万雄师
革联”，声明坚决支持二司、三新，坚决为工总翻案。
6月 23日，汉阳轧钢厂。上千个手持铁棍、长矛的百匪围攻汉轧工人总部
战士，百匪切断水、电，并用吊车把百匪吊至半空向楼内扔浓硫酸、燃烧弹、烟
幕弹。工总战士高唱国际歌和毛主席语录歌，英勇自卫，由于寡不敌众，死 8
人，重伤 100多人。铁道部第四设计院，百匪调了上万人从水上、陆上围攻四院
造反派，把数千名职工和家属困在大楼上，四院最后被攻下，造反派战士和家属
死伤不计其数。
6月 24日，水运工程学院。万余百匪和受蒙蔽的农民从水、陆两路围攻新
水运二司战士，实行“三光”政策，守卫大楼的水运二司、工总、九．一三战士
被逼全部跳楼，当场死伤数百人，被绑架 300人。同日凌晨三点，4000多百匪
头戴钢盔，手持长矛、钢叉，乘车几十辆卡车包围工人造反总司令部，百匪扔烟
幕弹和燃烧弹，大楼一片火海。晚 9点又调 2000农民围攻，进行血腥大屠杀。
守卫大楼的 200多任务造总司战士和革命小将被逼跳楼，40人光荣牺牲，其余
都重伤。
6月 26日，中央文革办事组、中央军委办公室联合来电，指出“百万雄师
一些人，对若干院校和工厂的围攻，应立即停止，杀害革命群众的凶手，应按照
中央‘六．六’通令严肃处理。”这是毛主席、林付主席对武汉革命造反派的巨
大关怀，给百匪当头一棒。同日，二司在武汉测绘学院操场召开誓师大会，决心
将抗暴斗争进行到底。
6月 27日，工总、二司等在武昌举行盛大游行，庆祝中央文革、中央军委 6．26
来电，决心粉碎陈再道之流的反革命暴乱，并对百匪中给蒙蔽的群众展开强大的
政治思想攻势，使他们早日回到毛主席革命路线上来。同日下午 5点，武汉工学
院二司宣传车在汉口水塔附近宣传中央 6．26来电，群众拍手欢迎，在水塔上的
100多百匪二次冲出刺伤二司战士，重伤 8人。
6月 28日，陈再道之流对中央 6．26来电阳奉阴违，两面三刀，发表了一
个所谓“武汉部队通告”，叫嚣革命造反派交出自卫武器，并继续庇护其御用工
具百匪，妄图进一步镇压革命造反派。
6月 30日，百匪在陈再道包庇下，对抗中央 6．26来电，竟包围新湖大，
并出动装甲车把新湖大围墙撞倒，见新湖大战士就毒打，有一个路过的红体兵(
造
反派)
因叫了一句“要文斗，不要武斗!
”就被百匪当场打死，惨不忍睹。

在百万雄师六月份的攻势下，造反派节节败退，六二四后几乎所有工人造反
派组织的总部都撤入华工和水院这两个“解放区”，22日，武汉地区无产阶级
革命派总指挥部成立，其前身为“武汉市反击资本主义复辟逆流大联合总指挥部”
（称之为“大联指”，总指挥部成立后仍以“大联指”称呼），总指挥部设在湖
北大学，总指挥是张维荣（新湖大），副总指挥是夏邦银（工总）、李想玉（九一
三）、吴焱金（工造总司）、杨道远（二司）、曹承义（新一冶）。
水院的张建成回忆 10：
六月中旬，陆续有工总、九一三等组织的成员来我院，有熟人的找熟人解决
吃住问题，没有熟人的干脆找总部解决。
六月二十日左右，丁家显找我商量，工人总部的临时班子、九一三的领导班
子也要撤到红水院来，无处可去的造反派战友会有更多的人来水院，问我有什么
意见。我想，来了肯定会有许多麻烦，拒绝是不现实的，所以我建议总部开个会，
统一认识的，建议讨论两个问题，一是工总、九一三总部迁来水院及无处可去的
造反派战友来院的问题，二是红水院自身的备战问题。当时已经感到水院必有一
战。
总部开会，认识比较一致：武老谭镇压造反派，不是对哪一个组织，而是对
整个造反派队伍，是反对文革、反对毛主席的问题。所以从大局出发，必须无条
件地接纳工总、九一三，这样可以紧密“三钢”11间的联系，加强对抗暴斗争的
领导。他们来校后，由学校解决吃、住的问题。
因为是夏天，教室、走廊到处可以住。做饭问题，食堂说可以解决。关于备
战问题，由作战部部署，要早作准备。到七月上旬，住到红水院的工人造反派有
一万多人，这是水院历史上食堂吃饭人数最多的时期，但是很有秩序，分期分批
地吃。
我去过几次食堂，问工人同志有没有问题，每次的答复是没有问题，所以我
也未进一步了解。这么多人吃饭的钱、粮票是怎么解决的，以后也没有人来要我
签字报销，几次审查我也没有与我算过这笔账。后来听说，“七二 O”后，由总
部勤务员李德后起草了一个报告交水电部，钱和粮票是由水电部解决的。
顾建棠回忆了长办联司 12在抗暴斗争中的经历：
从 6月 10日起，陆续有被打垮的造反派来长办避难，当时我印象较深的有
武汉低压锅炉厂、武汉肉联厂、汉阳造纸厂、武汉汽配厂、三五〇六厂、汉阳轧
钢厂、中原机械厂、武汉皮革厂、城市建筑设计院、和记蛋厂、铁路医院、江岸
车辆厂、武钢等单位的造反派以及一些中学的教师和学生等。到 6月 25日，长
办大院内造反派（包括长办联司的）有两千多人。
从那时起，长办联司作了抗暴准备：新大楼小礼堂与二食堂架起空中桥梁，

10
张建成《岁月留痕──武汉水利电力学院文革亲历记》文革篇第四章。
11
三钢，工总、九一三、二司这三个造反组织的简称，武汉造反派公开决裂后这三派在组织名称前加一
“钢”字（即“钢工总”、“钢九一三”、“钢二司”），是为钢派，与新派（新华工、新湖大、新华农）
合称“三钢三新”。
12
长办联司，1966年 12月 26日成立的联合组织“毛泽东思想革命阵线长江流域规划办公室联合司令
部”的简称，顾建棠为一号勤务员。
大门用铁板加固，木棍、长矛、柳条帽也准备一些，还有可投掷的砖石等。为应
对断水断电，准备了柴油发电机，游泳池蓄满了清水。同时要财务处与四维路银
行沟通，提取了大量现金，要行政处多储存粮票。
百万雄师在攻打兄弟单位造反派的同时，对长办联司发动了政治攻势。架在
市委大院的高音喇叭不断向长办宣传：新华工、新湖大投降了！汽配联司归顺了！
汉阳造纸厂、汉阳轧钢厂和工造总司的牛鬼蛇神都扫光了！奉劝长办联司不要顽
抗，你们反对解放军绝没有好场，陈司令员是打不倒的！
这个政治攻势不是不起作用，有的人偷偷溜走了，有的人流泪了，有的人问
我怎么办，大多数人还是十分坚定而又很镇静，特别是以郭志伟同志为代表的老
红军、老八路，若无其事，带头巡视防务。形势要求我们拿出应急方案，群众也
希望有个好办法。有一部分比较性急的长江工大学生，强烈要求我启封民兵武器，
必要时武装突围。
25日下午大约三点多，我主持召开了勤务组扩大会议，并请老干部郭志伟、
罗红元、赵立苍、缪盛桂、丘碧谨、高永华、汪贵、徐秀庭、王志珍、张振奇等
参加。我在会上提出了部分群众要求动用民兵武器的问题，会上意见并不一致，
有的赞成，有的反对，有的不表态。我表明了我的态度：一、发枪，只发步枪，
发枪不发弹，发给原先的武装民兵和施工总队苏勇、李仕清带来的转业兵，统一
由郑兆业、阎清武和苏勇负责，绝对不能给情绪火暴的人，发枪的目的只在于让
那些强烈要求发枪的人平静下来。二、向周总理发电报请示，听总理的。结果大
家都同意我的意见。
下午四点左右，我起草了电报：
周总理：
武汉危急，长办危急。百万雄师包围了长办，他们即将血洗，大院内有两千
多人。在万般无奈下，我们准备动用武装民兵连的武器突围。可否？请指示。
长办联司

6月 25日半夜十二点，北京赵枣安来电话，向我传达了周总理指示：“总
理指示， 那个东西不能动。 ” 这是被迫撤离长办大院前我与赵枣安最后一次
通话。13

6月 26日，经中央文革碰头会商定，中央文革办事组、军委文革办公室向
武汉军区发出电报指示：
最近武汉市发生的大规模武斗，是极不正常的，希望武汉军区立即采取有效
13
顾建棠《生逢其时──文化大革命亲历记》第七章第 38节。
措施制止武斗。百万雄师一些人对若干院校和工厂的围攻应立即停止。杀害革命
群众的凶手应该按中央《六•六通令》处理。不久以后，中央将请武汉军区和各
革命群众组织的代表来京汇报。

到了七月，斗争愈演愈烈。
此时的武汉三镇似四十年前毛泽东
于扬子江畔写下的诗词一般：沉沉一线
穿南北。烟雨莽苍苍……局势风起云涌，
哪怕是黄鹤楼这样的古迹在人们眼中也
因紧张的时局而变得阴沉。而在一年前
的 7月 16日，毛泽东在长江畅游一时许，
“跟着毛主席在大风大浪中前进”成为
文革中响亮的口号。文化革命这一线划
分出的对立的两派，新的、旧的，革命
的、反革命的对立到了极点，停滞的旧
世界需要改变。
1967年 7月 13日下午，毛泽东召
集林、周和中央文革开会，提出要到武
汉游泳。毛泽东此行自然不是单纯的游
泳，而是为了解决武汉问题，希望能促
成革命大联合的实现。黄鹤知何去？剩
有游人处。把酒酹滔滔，心潮逐浪高！
跟着毛主席在大风大浪中前进
7月 14日，毛泽东到达武昌，下榻东湖宾馆，当日夜，谢富冶、王力等前
往湖大观看大字报，16日，毛泽东明确指示工人总部要平反，被捕的造反派头
头要释放，百万雄师可以继续保持组织名称。关于百万雄师，湖北的文革形势与
上海这样最先夺权的城市不同，保守组织有一定的人数，且被动员参加组织的老
工人多，有武汉军区的支持，造反派力量较小，在毛泽东的设想中，对于保守派，
不应单纯的打倒，而是要争取其中支持革命的（如三司革联 14就证明了“团结大
多数”的正确性），以求革命派的联合。
15、16日，武汉各群众组织为庆祝毛泽东游长江一周年，两派达成协议，
14
三司革联，全称为“三司革命造反联络站”，由“红三司”中支持“三钢三新”的学生于 1967年 4
月 18日成立。“红三司”，即“武汉地区红卫兵第三司令部”，由不同意二司一些观点、行为的学生组成，
自称“东方红红卫兵”，后因偏保守，公开支持百万雄师而在“七二〇”事件后自行解散。
百万雄师于 15日组织渡江，把 16日让给造反派。16日，造反派在军区提供的
救生船等保障的情况下横渡长江，成功渡江后在汉口游行，沿途广播站播放“向
革命小将学习”的口号，附近群众向聚集在一中的造反派学生送出绿豆汤、稀饭、
馒头、红糖、鸡蛋等食物。
18日，周恩来在会议上提了八点建议：
第一、武汉军区首长要主动承认支左的方向路线的错误，尤其错误的是工人
总部的解散。中央建议陈再道和钟汉华进行自我批评。出图片，是严重打击，压
制了群众，要彻底平反，释放被关押的造反派头头。
第二、肯定工人总部、二司、九·
一三、三新是真正的革命群众组织、左派，
大联合以他们为核心。
第三、凡是群众组织都不能取缔、解散，就是保守组织也不能解散，要教育
争取。你们解散工总可能受我指名的影响。
第四、百万雄师是保守组织，工总起来可能进行报复，这个工作中央帮助来
作。
第五、红三司是倾向保守派一边的群众组织。
第六、军区要做农民的工作，不要进城来参加武斗。
第七、军区要承担责任以外，要做部队教育工作，教育下属单位支持造反派。
长期的影响，不做这工作是不行的。
第八、所有群众组织要进行整风，好好学习，改变对解放军的看法，行为要
澄清。
当日晚，毛泽东接见陈再道、钟汉华，指示要把军队、百万雄师的工作做好，
会议结束后，周恩来于晚十一时飞回北京。
20日凌晨，陈、钟释放了朱鸿霞、胡厚民等人，同时，在 8201部队的领头
下对王力讲话不满的百万雄师冲击东湖宾馆，王力被架上军车带到军区大院。20
日上午，保守派组织全市武装游行，攻打造反派据点。
曹承义回忆：
他们首先冲击了九一三总团办公地点武钢业余大学和青山区委办公楼，追杀
造反派群众。这两座造反派根据地大多数人这时已经撤走，百万雄师抢走了广播
器材，砸毁了办公用品。接著，他们又冲击了离此一公里远的新一冶司令部办公
楼，将办公用品和广播器材洗劫一空，将住在大楼的一冶三公司四工地湖南籍工
人用长矛杀死在宿舍内。新一冶司令部办公楼一楼是一冶三公司的职工宿舍，被
杀死的人并不是造反派，而是一位坚守生产岗位的工人。第二天，新一冶头头于
湛东带人拼死回到大楼，将几个氧气瓶绑在大楼顶层的平台上，将大楼的门窗全
部焊上钢筋，恢复了广播站，誓死保卫新一冶，誓与大楼共存亡。

事件发生后，周恩来决定重返武汉，于 20日下午到达东湖宾馆后立即安排
毛泽东转移。21日上午，刘丰在 29师找到了王力，22日，周恩来在机场召集叶
明、孔庆德、李作鹏、刘丰开会，并决定派 15军进驻水院、武测、华工、湖大、
武大和武钢等地，保护革命群众，下午，周恩来、王力、谢富治等人分别登机回
京，当日晚，空 15军部队抵达预定位置，开始控制市内制高点，并接管独立师
防务。
23日清晨，中央人民广播电台播送谢、王一行回到北京的消息，百万雄师
酝酿着揪出王力后夺权的计划随之终止，同日，三司革联发布《夺权公告》，向
支持百万雄师的三司夺权，自此，三司从武汉文革中消失。
“七二〇”事件后，陈再道、钟汉华被免职，沈阳军区副司令员曾思玉被任
命为武汉军区司令员，武汉空军副司令员刘丰被任命为武汉军区政委，独立师分
编到 44师、45师、29师。

1968年
1月 20日，在军队主导下，武汉革命委员会成立（曹承义在回忆录中记为
25日，应为笔误），曹承义任革委会委员。在军队主导下的革委会，只有形式上
的军干群三结合，柳英发回忆：
1968年省、市革命委员会成立初期，在革委会里，基本上是军代表说了算，
干部代表和群众代表不起作用。群众代表只是个花瓶和陪衬……当时有一种说法，
说群众代表是“开会主席台，看戏前三排，电话一打小车来”。省市革委会副主
任级别的群众代表一般配一辆吉普。基本上是部队干部决定什么事情，然后再通
过部队在各区的支左办公室贯彻下去。重大问题包括人事安排任命事前根本不打
招呼。后来结合了一些老市委的人进来，我们事先也不知道。
1968年 6月，清理阶级队伍运动开始，8月底，工宣队陆续进驻大中学校等
单位，军宣队陆续进驻工矿事业单位，武汉文革迎来转折。清队运动的目的主要
是清理“叛徒、特务、死不悔改的走资派和没有改造好的地、富、反、坏、右分
子”八种人，但在曾、刘的主持下变成了专整群众、造反派的运动，开办五不准
学习班，大量造反派头头被关进“牛棚”。
第二年元月，曹承义被一冶军代表定为“反革命”，被迫参加学习班，也成
为了被清队的对象，住进了“牛棚”。
 为了应对“造反者被造反，夺权者被夺权”的情况，武汉造反派掀起了反复
旧运动。工总的胡厚民是反复旧运动的主要发起者和组织者，1月底武昌造船厂
保守派到胡厚民家抓胡，胡脱逃外出，逃到了青岛，了解到了山东反复旧运动的
情况，2月回到武汉后与新派串连，4月 1
0日，朱鸿霞（钢工总）、吴焱金（工
造总司）、李想玉（钢九一三）联名贴出大字报《人类解放我解放，洒尽热血为
人民》， 在大字报贴出后各基层造反派纷纷响应，据中共武汉党史大事记记载，
在这期间全市成立了反复旧组织 736个，180个单位的造反派夺回了权力。4月
29日，群众代表朱鸿霞、李想玉、吴焱金、杨道远、张立国赴京解决武汉反复
旧问题。
5月 27日中共中央〔69〕28号文件批示同意的湖北省革委会《关于解决武
汉反复旧问题的报告》。五二七指示下达后，反复旧运动中成立的群众组织全部
解散，运动宣告结束。在此之后，运动趋于平静。

对湖北、武汉造反派造成致命打击的，是下半年开始的两清一批（即清查“五
一六”、清查北决扬和批判极左思潮），造反派头头陆续被关入各类五不准学习
班。在长达四年的二清一批中曾思玉、刘丰、方铭、张昭剑等军队高官大肆镇压
造反派，并因权力斗争而制造冤假错案，大整基层干部。
曹承义回忆：
1970年 6月，湖北省革命委员会召开扩大会议，批判胡厚民和李想玉。会
后，全部人员回到各自单位。我被一冶赶到汉阳县西南边水洪口附近的一冶五七
干校报到，到农村去劳动改造，在湖塘野地施工建平房，搬运砖瓦沙石，与一冶
广大造反派群众隔离。而背后，军代表则继续抓紧整我的黑材料，准备将我按头
头抓捕。这时，一冶反对资产阶级反动路线的造反派头头，已经被他们整的整、
抓的抓、关的关、赶的赶。他们为此用尽了一切手段。支左的军代表和被他们“
解
放”
的干部重新恢复了他们的天堂，一切都与造反派无关了。他们拆除各处的大
字报栏，用消防车高压水龙去冲洗、清除一切文化大革命的标语口号的痕迹，用
红色的油漆涂满他们想覆盖的一切地方，大搞所谓的“红海洋”。

在造反派处于全面劣势之际，“九一三事件”发生，林彪、陈伯达倒台，曾
思玉被定性为林彪“活党”，刘丰被定性为林彪“死党”，造反派有了暂时喘息
的机会。
批林批孔运动开始后，到 1974年时，武汉市的三支两军人员已经全部撤回
部队，造反派在革委会等机关中暂时获得了权力。
1974年下半，我们要求的“
放、平、补、提、纳”
五字中的“
放”字在一冶还未
落实，“
平”字取得了一定的成绩，而“
补”、“
提”、“
纳”还未起步，刚刚热闹了一
阵，批林批孔运动转入“
深入持久发展”
以后，运动就很快冷了下来。这一回合的
斗争，我们在大好形势下又失败了。湖北省委又搞了一个新的花招，将省、市一
部分有影响的造反派头头进行工作调离。不仅不搞“
补”、“
提”、“
纳”，而是叫造
反派“
滚”。中共湖北省委组织部对我这个非党员的干部也发了红头文件，调动我
到湖北省黄石市钢录山附近一个省冶金建设公司去工作，甚至不派人找我谈话，
仅由一冶的基层领导干部将文件发到我的手里。我接到省委组织部文件以后，采
取回到家里不上班也不去黄石报到的办法，对省委组织部的做法进行了坚决抵制。
当时傅廉被调到宜昌工作，彭勋也被调离湖北大学，调到地、县挂职锻炼的还有
夏邦银、朱鸿霞、胡厚民 15、张立国等人。

1975年 1月，中共十届二中全会召开，邓小平被选为中共中央副主席。从
1975年到 1
976年初，文革运动局势多次反复，邓小平上台后各种“整顿”造反
派，有了否定文革的现象。
1976年，《人民日报》、《红旗》杂志、《解放军报》两报一刊“元旦社论”
对邓小平否定无产阶级文化大革命的行径提出公开批判，反击右倾翻案风拉开序
幕，要求各级党委转弯子（即纠正否定文革的错误倾向）。批邓运动开始不久，
朱鸿霞、张立国分别安排到省工办、省农办任副主任，造反派有了一定的权力。

1976年 9月 9日，毛泽东主席于北京逝世。无产阶级文化大革命结束。
毛主席逝世后不久，针对造反派的全面清算开始，1980年 9月 16日，曹承
义“打砸抢一案”一审由青山区法院以“不公开开庭”审理，曹承义在判决书上
写下“欲加之罪，何患无辞，违背事实与中央精神的判决与量刑，理当不服，拒
绝签字。”
在我上诉 12个月内对我不理不问后，突然于 1981年 11月 10日下午对我送
达了武汉市中级人民法院判决书（判决书落款日期为 1981年 11月 3日），将原

15
胡厚民于 1974年 3月 2日从监狱释放，“放、平、补、提、纳”五字方针是胡厚民等人提出的，即释
放仍关押在狱的造反派头头；给被打成五一六、北决扬的造反派平反；给各级革委会补台，把撵走的群众
组织代表请回来；提干、提职，各级党委、工会、共青团、妇联等组织中要有造反派的代表；吸收造反派
入党，贯彻“一个无产阶级的党也要吐故纳新，才能朝气蓬勃”的指示。
定我“
打砸抢”
的罪名改为“扰乱社会秩序罪”，判刑 5年。我签字为：“不服，
冤案。曹承义”。1981年 11月 17日，青山区法院又将一判决通知书送到我手
中。他们荒唐到不公开开庭，一审检察院也拒绝派人参加，竟然没有公诉人出庭，
法院不许我请辩护人，剥夺我的人权，二审连过场都不走，拖了一年，因我已被
关押了 5年，就判决 5年，将我赶出看守所。

在文革被全面否定的今天，回顾造反派的经历对研究文革史有十分重要的意义。
社会主义革命是长期的，革命形势的曲折、反复，革命战略上的防御、相持、进
攻，革命的统一战线，革命理论的更替……革命者须对此有充分的认识，曾经的
造反者们的得失足以成为经验教训，供后人借鉴。

完
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of the body rests and through which the perch bolt passes, the
centre of the circle described by the lock may be carried forward.
Thus, if the beds be compassed 4 inches forwards from the straight
line a along the axle, the centre will be carried forward 4 inches, the
result of which will be, that when on the half lock the back part of the
wheel will be carried away from the arch 2 inches, and that when on
the full lock the wheel will stand 4 inches from the position it would
occupy if the bed were straight. The dotted lines below f and e in the
figure show the result of this difference in the shape of the bed; and
it will be seen that to get a 2-inch clearance of the arch from the back
of the wheel without carrying the wheel itself farther forward than 3
feet from the back of the arch, we must compass the bed 4 inches,
the compass mark being to the centre of the substance of the bed.
In the fore-carriages for one-horse vehicles, and two-horse
vehicles as well, the shafts are carried by “open futchells” (f, Fig.
30); and in the fore-carriages of two-horse vehicles the pole is
carried by “close futchells” (f, Fig. 31).
A reference to the figures will make the following remarks more
clear. The central circle is the wheel-plate, or, as the Americans term
it, the fifth wheel. This is flat at the bottom and round on the top, and
being fitted to the under part of the top carriage takes its bearing on
the bottom carriage, and by its extended circular formation gives
steadiness to the body when the carriage is running in a straight line,
or when the fore-carriage is on full lock. These bearings are at the
back ends and fore part of the futchells, and at those points of the
bottom bed which are covered by the wheel-plate. The fore and hind
bearings are of ash timber, and are necessarily circular in form.
It will be seen how imperative is the necessity of the wheel-plate
being a perfectly true circle and of its taking a perfectly flat bearing;
the forging and finishing such a piece of work requires, therefore,
peculiar care and skill. In the figure showing the open futchells, the
stays which run from the back end to the front of the futchells are the
wheel-irons, the back-stays, and the bed-clips in one. They clip over
the ends of the bottom bed, and being at these points made flat, they
are cranked downwards to take their bearing on the spring-block,
and here they are fixed to the springs either by means of bolts
passing through them or by clips and couplings. The best plan is by
the latter, as when they are bolted on holes have to be drilled
through the springs, which renders them weak at these points; the
same may be said of the manner of fixing the bottom half of the
spring on to the axle.
The wheel-iron, bed-clip, and back-stay being in one, a good
opportunity is afforded to the smith to display his skill and taste, as it
is desirable that this piece of workmanship should be well forged and
fitted, and at the same time a certain grace of outline must be given
to it, otherwise the appearance of the vehicle will be spoiled. When it
is finished it should fall into its position and take all its bearings
accurately without force being used, for if in bolting on any strain
should be put upon it, in order to get it into its place, it will be liable to
snap on meeting with an obstacle on a rough road.
The English coachsmith ought to possess a better knowledge of
metallurgy than he does. All smiths get a certain rule-of-thumb
knowledge, but what they should possess is a thorough scientific
knowledge of the properties of the metals they are dealing with. We
cannot enlarge here upon the subject, but the artisan will do well to
study a work like “Metallurgy of Iron,” in Weale’s Series; and if it only
teaches him to tell accurately the good qualities of metal from the
bad, he will have a greater knowledge than a large number of
coachsmiths have. For general purposes it is as well that he should
know that perfectly pure iron is so soft and tough, and at the same
time so malleable, that it can be rolled into sheets ¹⁄₃₀₀ part of an
inch in thickness; and that when wrought iron can be twisted, cold,
into almost any shape without breaking, he may rest assured that it
is as near pure iron as any one could wish to have for the proper
execution of smith’s work.
 Fig. 29.
Fig. 29 illustrates a light fore-carriage, with drop pole and shafts,
suitable for light phaetons, coupés, and Victorias.
The portion marked a represents the lower part. The new mode of
constructing this carriage is the doing away with the bent futchells
and using puncheons in their places. The inside front-stay is forged
in one piece; in the centre is formed the socket to receive the king or
perch bolt. The stay rests on the top of the two puncheons. There is
a T plate formed solid with these stays running back to the bed, and
at c forms the inner part of the socket for receiving the shafts. The
back-stay passes around under the puncheons, crossing the bed to
the front and bolted where the front-stay crosses the puncheons, the
other end extending to the front, forming the outside of the socket for
receiving the shafts. c c represents a piece of hickory bolted
between the two stays.
The following dimensions applicable to the figure may be useful:—
Springs 1½ inches thick, consisting of four plates 37 inches long,
11½ inches opening, which maybe varied to suit the body of the
carriage they are intended for. Lower bed 1¼ by 1⅛ inches; ⅜ inch
plate on the bottom. Wheel or stay-iron ½ inch round, increasing the
size to the puncheons. The box clips over the bottom bed with clip
bars, which are worked solid. The clips are put on from underneath
the springs, and are secured by nuts on the top. The size of the half-
wheel iron is 1 inch by ½ inch.
The portion of the figure marked b gives the upper portion of the
fore-carriage.

Fig. 30.
Fig. 30 shows a fore-carriage with open futchells. a a is where the
stiff bar detaches to receive the shaft of the drop poles, the futchells
extending to a a. The wheel-iron or stay on the outside of the futchell
extends ahead 5½ inches, and also the plate on the inside of the
futchells the same distance. These irons require to be a good
thickness and tapering to the end. The blocks are fitted on to this
space and scrolled at the end. The dimensions given for Fig. 29 will
apply to this, and it is used for the same light vehicles, only that a
pair of horses are used instead of one.
 Fig. 31.
Fig. 31 shows an arrangement adapted for hard service. With this
kind of wheel-plate we get a good bearing when it is turned under
the body. These are made solid, with a plate on the two beds. a is
the perch bolt.
 CHAPTER X.

IRON AND METAL-WORK GENERALLY.—

LAMPS.—PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION.
In addition to the foregoing, a large quantity of expensive ironwork is
used in the construction of carriages; the principal cause of which
expense is not the cost of the material, but the highly skilled labour
which is necessary in preparing it.
In carriages suspended from C springs, the front and hind wheels
are connected by a central longitudinal timber, called a perch. This
has to be plated with iron in order to prevent its breaking when
running over bad ground; and without this precaution there is great
danger of the perch giving way, as owing to its curved form, which
follows the contour of the body, it is necessary to cut across the
grain, and thus weaken the timber.
These wooden perches have, to some extent, been superseded
by wrought-iron perches, as previously mentioned, and these have
been found to answer admirably.
In C spring carriages there are the loops, which serve to suspend
the body; and these require very good workmanship, for they are
curved in many opposite directions, are tapered and irregularly
formed every way, yet requiring to have bearing bolts accurately
adjusted, and sundry contrivances for affixing ironwork to them, and
all this without a single square side for the mechanic to work from.
They are samples of great mechanical skill and dexterity of hand.
Other carriage ironwork may be generally divided into stays,
plates, hoops, clips, bolts, steps, treads, joints, shackles, and jacks.
 Stays are iron brackets of various forms, bolted by their
extremities to such parts as they are intended to sustain or
strengthen, but they do not take a bearing on any part.
Plates are irons which take a bearing throughout their length and
breadth on the part they are intended to strengthen, and to which
they are fastened by bolts, screws, or rivets.

Fig. 32.
AXLE CLIP
ELLIPTIC T HEAD
POINTED CONE
CARRIAGE STEP HEAD OR
TIRE HEAD
BOLT BOLT PERCH SHAFT
BOLT BOLT
BOLT BOLT

Hoops are flat straps of iron riveted or welded together, for the
purpose of securing timbers together side by side.
Clips are a kind of open hoops, the ends of which have a thread
run upon them in order to take nuts. The purposes for which they are
used is to screw springs and axles in their places without having to
weaken them by drilling holes through them.
Bolts are cylindrical pieces of iron of various sizes (Fig. 32), one
end of which is flattened out to form a head, and the other is formed
into a screw to receive a nut. The use to which they are applied is to
secure the ironwork and heavy framework.
 Steps may be single, double, or treble. In the two latter cases they
are made to fold up, and are called folding steps, and may be made
to fold up outside or into the body; this latter is the best way, and if
they be well managed they do not incommode the sitters inside.
Treads are small single steps a few inches square, fixed for the
most part on a single iron stem.
Joints are jointed iron stays, made in the form of the letter S, and
serve to keep the leather heads or hoods of open carriages, such as
landaus, stretched firmly out when required.
Shackles are iron staples, which serve to receive the leather
suspension braces of C spring carriages on the springs; they are
also used for coupling springs together.
Jacks are small windlasses, which serve to receive the ends of the
leather suspension braces after passing round the backs of the
springs. By means of a wrench or winch handle the jacks may be
wound up or let down so as to lengthen or shorten the brace.
Then we have the hinges, which are now concealed in the door
pillar, effecting a great improvement in the appearance of the
vehicle, though it necessitates a somewhat stouter pillar than would
otherwise be necessary.
To preserve the ironwork and steelwork of carriages from rusting, it
is either painted or plated with some metal on which the oxygen of
the air does not act. When it is wished to make it ornamental,
carriage ironwork is plated, in which case it is first covered with a
coat of tin laid on by means of a soldering iron, with rosin and a
small portion of sal-ammoniac in order to promote union between the
two metals. The tin being smoothed, a small portion of silver or
brass, rolled exceedingly thin, is laid on, and by means of the
soldering iron is made to adhere to the tin; more of the plating metal
is then added to join the first by the edges, till the whole surface is
covered. It is then burnished and polished by means of the proper
tools. All articles of iron requiring to be covered with silver are
treated in the same way; small articles of ornament in brass, which
do not require strength, are cut in solid metal, as it is cheaper by the
saving in labour; but for heavy articles, the weight of the metal would
considerably enhance the price, supposing that strength were not
required. Wheel nave hoops, axletree caps, loops, brace buckles,
check rings, and door handles are generally plated.
The beading, which is used to cover the joints, is of three kinds,
brass, copper, and plated copper. It is formed by strips of metal
being drawn into a circular or angular form by means of a die, the
hollow space being filled with solder, into which small pins of pointed
wire are fixed to attach it by. The brass beading is polished; the
copper is painted, for which purpose the surface is roughened. As
the quantity of beading used is often very considerable, the labour of
silvering by means of a soldering iron would be too great, and
therefore the plated or silvered beading is prepared from metal
silvered in the sheet. The process is very simple:—A bar of copper
being reduced to the proper thickness, a bar of silver is then united
to it by means of heat. They are then passed through the rolls
together, and occasionally annealed in the fire until the requisite
thickness be obtained, the two metals spreading equally. This kind of
metal is much used in the manufacture of carriage lamps.
Several kinds of lamps are used in carriages, both as regards
principle of construction and form and ornament. In the simplest kind
the light is furnished by the combustion of wax candles, which are
contained in tin tubes, through a hole in the upper part of which the
wick passes, the candle being pressed upwards as fast as it
consumes by a spiral spring. In dress carriages, where the lamps are
somewhat ornamental, wax candles are invariably used on account
of their superior cleanliness, though the light is inferior to that of oil.
Oil is often used on account of its superior illuminating power. The
lamp then simply consists of a tin reservoir for holding the oil, and a
round wick of the most ordinary kind, though sometimes flat for the
sake of spreading the flame. Reflectors of many kinds are used in
every variety of carriage lamps, formed of silvered metal highly
burnished.
Attempts have been made to bring the argand lamp, with a current
of air through the wick, into use, but sufficient success has not
attended these efforts to make them general, owing to their liability to
be suddenly extinguished by violent draughts of wind. This may,
however, be accomplished when the scientific principles of
combustion and the regulation of the draught shall be better
understood.
By a common lamp is understood one that feeds the wick with oil
by capillary attraction, the column of oil being below the level of the
flame. An argand lamp, on the contrary, has a column of oil
considerably above the level of the flame and constantly pressing
upwards to it like a fountain. The motion of a carriage has a
tendency to make oil at times flow too rapidly and extinguish the
flame, and sometimes to cause too sudden a rush of air up the
central tube, which blows away the flame from the wick; and when
these difficulties are overcome by ingenuity they become such
complicated pieces of work that it is beyond the ordinary “gumption”
of the servants to trim them properly, and if this be not done the
object of the improvements is defeated.
The principle of constructing an argand lamp, so that it may
regulate its own air draught, is set forth by Lord Cochrane in one of
his patents. It is to divide the lamp into three chambers—one in the
centre, which contains the reflectors and light, surrounded by the
chimney glass, and is pierced with holes at the sides to permit the
egress of the heated air and the ingress of the fresh air. From this
chamber a tube or tubes communicate with the lower chamber, into
which the air tube of the burner descends, and thus furnishes a
regulated supply of air. It is evident by this process the air rushing in
must be regulated by the air rushing out, and vice versâ.
The flame of the lamp is not produced by oil or tallow alone, it
requires the oxygen of the air to mix with it in order to sustain
combustion. This may be proved by putting a glass bowl over a
candle, when, as soon as the oxygen is consumed, the light will be
seen to go out, the bowl having the remaining constituent of air left in
it, viz. nitrogen, which will neither support nor assist combustion.
Herein consists the advantage of the argand lamp in furnishing
atmospheric air in the centre of the flame. The flame arising from a
thick wick is hollow, i.e. it is a film of light, like a bladder, and not
continuous, the inner portion of the flame being filled with gas.
It is well known that if the flames of two candles be brought in
contact they will produce a greater intensity of light than if burned
separately. Upon this principle what are technically termed “cobblers’
candles” are made. For the same reason lamps are sometimes
made to burn two or three wicks, placed just so far apart that the
flames may come in contact. This is an approximation to the argand
principle, by admitting air between them. But there is one difficulty
attending them, viz. the regulating of all the wicks to an equal height,
which would be considerable unless the lamp were so contrived that
all could be regulated by one movement. If this difficulty can be
overcome a very excellent lamp might be made by placing four wicks
in a square.
 CHAPTER XI.

PAINTING.

principles of colouring in painting.

Colours are distinguished by artists as pure, broken, reduced, grey,
dull, &c.
The pure colours consist of those which are called simple, or
primary; these are red, yellow, and blue; and those which are formed
from their mixture in pairs (binary compounds) are termed
secondaries: such are orange, violet, green, &c.
Broken colours are formed by the mixture of black with the pure
colours, from the highest to the deepest tone.
A normal colour is a colour in its integrity, unmixed with black,
white, or any other colour.
The mixture of equal parts of red and yellow produces orange; mix
equal portions of yellow and blue and we have green; equal parts of
red and blue produce violet. These are called secondary colours.
Three parts of red mixed with 1 part of blue produce violet-red; 3
parts of red and 1 of yellow produce a red-orange; 1 part of red to 3
of yellow produces orange-yellow; 3 parts of yellow to 1 of blue
produce a light yellow-green; 1 part of yellow to 3 of blue produces a
blue-green; 1 part of red to 3 of blue produces a light violet colour. All
these are called secondary hues.
Normal grey is black mixed with white in various proportions,
producing numerous tones of pure grey.
 Lamp and gas-lights throw out yellowish-coloured rays, causing a
great many light colours to appear different in tone from what they
really are. Certain shades of green and blue are not easily
distinguished by gaslight. A blue fabric will appear to be green, or of
a greenish tone, caused by the yellow rays falling on it. Green being
formed by the mixture of blue and yellow, whatever contributes
yellow to blue, as in the case cited, or by mixture of pigments, the
hue will be green.
When coloured rays fall on a coloured surface, which is lighted by
diffused daylight, the coloured surface is changed, the effect being
the same as that produced by adding to it a pigment of the same
colour as the coloured light. When red rays fall upon a black stuff
they make it appear of a purple black; on white stuff they make it
appear red; yellow stuff they make appear orange; and light blue
stuff they make appear violet.

Complementary Colours.

“The colour required with another colour to form white light is

called the complementary of that colour. Thus green is the
complementary of red, and vice versâ; blue is the complementary of
orange, and vice versâ; yellow is the complementary of violet, and
vice versâ, because blue and orange, red and green, yellow and
violet, each make up the full complement of rays necessary to form
white light.”
These remarks are deduced from experiments with a prism of
glass, giving the spectrum or analysis of the coloured rays forming
white light. When a ray of sunlight is passed through a triangular
prism of flint glass, and the image received on white paper, it will be
noticed that the spectrum (as the image is termed) consists of
several colours—seven in all. Red, yellow, and blue are the most
prominent. The red rays are modified by the pure yellow, and we
have orange; the yellow rays becoming mixed with the blue become
green; the blue and red give violet.
 Look intently for a few moments at a bright red object, then
suddenly transfer the gaze to a sheet of white paper; the paper will
appear of a greenish tint. Reverse the process; look intently at
green, then on white paper, and red will be the tone of the paper.
Blue will excite the eye to see orange, and orange will excite the eye
to see blue. This is called successive contrast. In placing colours
near each other it is of the greatest importance that the painter
should bear in mind the foregoing laws. From these laws the coach-
painter may derive some useful hints. In ornamenting and striping
bear in mind that colours that are complementary purify each other.
The effect of placing white near a coloured body is to heighten that
colour. Black placed near a colour tends to lower the tone of it. Grey
increases the brilliancy and purity of the primary colours, and forms
harmonies with red, orange, yellow, and light green.

Chiaro-oscuro and Flat Tints.

“There are two systems of painting; one in chiaro-oscuro and the

other in flat tints. The first consists in representing as accurately as
possible upon the flat surface of canvas, wood, stone, metal, &c., an
object in relief in such manner that the image makes an impression
on the eye of the spectator, similar to that produced by the object
itself. Therefore every part of the image which receives in the model
direct light, and which reflects it to the eye of a spectator viewing the
object from the same point in which the painter himself viewed it,
must be painted with white and bright colours; while the other parts
of the image which do not reflect to the spectator as much light as
the first must appear in colours more or less dimmed with black, or
what is the same thing, by shade.
“Painting in flat tints is a method of imitating coloured objects,
much simpler by its simplicity of execution than the preceding, which
consists in tracing the outline of the different parts of the model, and
in colouring them uniformly with their peculiar colours.”

Paint Shop.
 The paint shop should be a roomy apartment, well lighted and
ventilated. If possible, bodies and carriage parts should have
separate shops to be painted in; the rough work on bodies, too,
ought to have a separate room for its execution.
There should be a good assortment of brushes suitable for every
variety of work, plenty of paint pots, at least two paint mills, marble
slab for mixing colours on, and a stone to be used exclusively for
making putty on; water buckets, sponges, chamois, palette knives,
and putty knives. Light trestles set on casters for light bodies, and
heavy trestles, with two wheels and a pole, for heavy bodies.
Screens, covered with heavy paper or enamelled cloth, to protect
varnished work from floating particles of dust, and also from the
unsightly marks left by flies, will be found very useful.
Also the necessary colours; white-lead, whiting, ground and lump
pumice-stone, &c.
The brushes used are of various sizes and have various names.
The largest are used for covering large surfaces with paint. A smaller
kind are called tools, or sash tools, the name tool being applied more
especially to the smaller varieties. Those brushes used for striping
and ornamenting, being very small, are called pencils. All these are
made round and oval, and filled with various kinds of bristles.
There are also flat bristle brushes of various sizes, which are
useful for body painting. A small variety of these is also used for
painting the carriage parts.
For varnishing, the black sable and badger brushes (both flat) are
handy, though in applying rubbing varnish, the hair of these is
sometimes too soft to lay it on without its being thinned with
turpentine. But they are capable of producing very finely finished
work.
For painting carriage parts, the medium-sized brushes should be
used. For lead and rough coatings on bodies a larger brush is
required than for carriage parts. Body brushes should be kept
separate from those used for carriage parts, as the latter wear the
brush hollow in the centre, which unfits them for laying a level coat
on the body.
The pencils made of sable, camel, and cow-hair. Sable-hair is of
two colours, red and black, either of which is superior to any hair
now used. The red sable-hair is rather finer than the black, and is
rather better adapted for ornamenting, while for striping and lining
the black sable is very suitable. Camel-hair pencils work very well for
broad lines. Those made from cow-hair are not much used.
Ornamenting pencils are either made in quills, or tin-bound with
handles. They are of various sizes, suited for the most delicate
touchings or broad handlings. They should be kept clean, as the
smallest quantity of dry paint in them prevents them working well.
When not in use, they should be greased and put away in such
manner that the points may not be bent.
Lettering pencils, of sable and camel-hair, are commonly used;
they should be from ½ inch to 1 inch long, the shorter ones being
used for filling in after the outlines are traced.
There are three or four kinds of paint mills manufactured. They
vary in size and price, and are suited to the wants of large or small
factories. Where several painters are employed there should be two
paint mills, one kept exclusively for grinding colours, and the other
for lead, filling, pumice-stone, &c. By this means the colours are not
so likely to be soiled by mixture with lead colours or other rough
heavy paints, which clog the mill up so rapidly.
Paint mills have not penetrated into every workshop yet. In some
is still used the old-fashioned slab and muller; this is a more tedious
operation, and is not so successfully accomplished as by the mill.

Colours.

The colours generally used in the carriage paint shop are the
following:—White-lead, whiting. Yellow ochre and red-lead, used for
rough work. Ground colours, which the painter uses in combination
with other pigments, as chrome yellow, Indian red, raw umber,
Prussian blue, &c. Panel colours, as carmine, lake of various hues,
ultramarine blue, verdigris, &c.
White-lead is very largely used, not only as a foundation, but
enters into the composition of various colours, as stone, drab, straw,
&c. In the mixture of rough stuff or filling, white-lead gives elasticity
and life to the ochre, and when properly used forms the tenacious
part of the under-coatings. But oil white-lead should not be used
where there is not sufficient time for it to thoroughly dry.
After a good foundation has been secured, and smooth coatings of
lead are desired, which will sand-paper smoothly and leave a
pleasant surface to colour over, the dry or tub white-lead should be
used. Whiting and white-lead make a good putty, though it is not so
much used as it ought to be.
Chrome Yellow is seldom used clear, except for line-striping.
There are different shades of it as well as qualities, the best being
the cheapest in the end, as it has more body. Lemon and orange
chrome are all the carriage painter requires; with these he can mix
up any hues needed by the addition of reds.
Indian Red is a strong colour and of great service to the painter,
especially in forming the groundwork for transparent colours, such as
lakes of a reddish or purple cast, and carmine. Mixed with
lampblack, it forms the most durable under coatings that can be
obtained where a brown is needed.
Raw Umber is largely used. With blue and yellow it forms a
pleasant range of quiet greens.
Combined with white and yellow it gives drab tints or stone colour,
which may be toned down by adding black, or lightened up by
vermilion or lake. In mixing a light striping colour which may have too
much of a raw yellow tone, if a little umber be added the defect is
corrected.
Carmine is a very brilliant colour, surpassing vermilion in richness
of tone, and yet similar to it for height of colour. It is often adulterated
with vermilion, which of course injures its purity. Pure carmine will
dissolve in ammonia water without leaving any sediment.
 Mixed with drabs, delicate greens, asphaltum, &c., carmine
imparts warmth without injuring the colours.
There are several tints and qualities of Lake. Those commonly
used are English purple, Munich and Florence lakes. English purple
lake will bear some raw oil in mixing it; the others are best without it.
Ultramarine Blue, when pure, is a very durable colour. It is
prepared from the mineral Lapis lazuli. Mixed with the lakes, it tones
them down without seriously injuring the purity of the colour. For
clear ultramarine a dark lead-coloured ground will answer, or make a
ground colour of Prussian blue and white to nearly match the tint of
the ultramarine.
This is rather a difficult colour to handle, but the secret of laying it
on successfully is to have sufficient varnish or boiled oil in the colour
to prevent it “flying off” or drying too dead.
Verdigris is an acetate of copper, of bluish colour, and requires a
groundwork. It is not used to any great extent as a panel colour.
The following is a list of compound colours and their application:—

Pure Grey.—White and black in various proportions.

Coloured Greys.—Red and green. Blue and orange.
Straw Colour.—White, chrome yellow, and raw umber.
Light Buff.—White and yellow ochre.
Deep Buff.—White, yellow ochre, and red.
Salmon Colour.—White, yellow, and vermilion.
Flesh Colour.—White, Naples yellow, and vermilion.
Orange.—Equal parts of red and yellow.
Pearl Colour.—White, black, and vermilion.
Lead Colour.—White and blue, with a little black.
Stone Colour.—Black, amber, and yellow.
Canary Colour.—White and chrome yellow.
Tan Colour.—Burnt sienna, yellow, and raw umber.
Pea Green.—White and chrome green.
Sea Green.—Prussian blue and yellow.
Citron.—Green and orange.
Chocolate.—Black and Spanish brown.
 Olive.—Umber, yellow, and black.
Lilac.—White, carmine, and ultramarine blue.
Purple.—Olive, red, and carmine.
Violet.—Blue and red.
Wine Colour.—Purple, lake, and ultramarine blue.
Dark Brown.—Vandyke brown, burnt sienna, and lake.
Green.—Blue and yellow in different proportions according to
the tone required.
Marone.—Crimson, lake, and burnt umber.

The above list will enable the painter to mix about all the colours
required in coach-painting. A great many shades may be made of
each of those given by varying the proportions of the component
colours.
A good quality of raw linseed oil should be used, as it works well
and dries dead when not used in excess, and it is free from the
gumminess found in boiled oil. Raw oil simmered over a gentle fire
for two or three hours has its drying qualities improved, more
especially if a little sugar of lead be added to it.
Japanners’ gold size is made as follows:—Asphaltum, litharge, or
red-lead, each 1 oz.; stir them with a pint of linseed oil, and simmer
the mixture over a gentle fire till it is dissolved and the scum ceases
to rise, and the fluid thickens on cooling.
The quality of the varnish used is very important. Rubbing
varnishes are required to dry firmly in from two to five days,
consequently they have not much oil in their composition. A good
wearing rubbing varnish should not be rubbed until the fourth or fifth
day after being laid on; when rubbed it should not sweat (become
glossy) soon after, even in hot weather. Slow-drying rubbing varnish,
when allowed to stand a day or so after having been rubbed down,
will sweat out in hot weather, and should again be run over with the
“rub rag” and fine pumice before another coat is applied.
Rubbing varnish that sweats at all times, soon after being rubbed,
is liable to crack and should not be used.
 By the use of hard drying varnish the painter is enabled to level his
work down, and prepare for the last coat or finishing varnish. This
last coating must be of an opposite nature to that on which it is laid if
great brilliancy is sought after; and, as its surface must ever be
opposed to the action of heat and cold, sunshine and shower, it must
possess an elasticity or oily nature that will resist these changes for
a great length of time.

Painting the Coach.

The body generally receives a coat of priming on the bottom, top,

and inside in the wood shop. This is called “slushing,” so that when
the body arrives in the proof shop these parts are one coat in
advance of the other portions.
The top and the panels require a considerable amount of attention.
If the top is constructed of green timber it will cause the covering to
rise up in ridges or blisters, and when the canvas is put on, if it is not
well stretched when it is nailed on, the air gets under it and causes a
deal of trouble. The inside of the top should have a good heavy
coating of slush or oil lead to preserve the wood from dampness,
and the outside of the top should be properly primed with clean
smooth lead colour. When this is dry the nail holes should be puttied
in, and sunken places brought forward with firm drying putty, which
will bear blocking down with sand-paper, leaving the top as level as
possible. When this is dusted off clean, apply a heavy coat of lead in
oil, with sufficient varnish in it to hold the lead together.
The inside of the body should be well coated, as it is a great
protection to the panels. The priming coat should be composed of
the best pure keg lead and oil, with only a small quantity of drier, and
allowed at least a week in which to dry. This coat should be well
worked in to the nail holes and the grain of the wood. A well-worn
springy brush is the best. When this coating is dry sand-paper it
carefully, and apply a second coat of lead colour, using less oil. The
third day after this, putty the nail holes half full; two after this, apply
the third coat, mixing it so that it will dry firmly, no oil being used
except that which is present in the lead. When dry, finish puttying the