Chapter 3

Gastronomy and Tourism

Osman ÇALIŞKAN*, Gökhan YILMAZ**

INTRODUCTION
It is seen that in the last years gastronomy forges ahead towards becoming an academic discipline.
For instance, Hegarty (2009) stated that so many academic studies were put forward on gastronomy and
culinary arts between 1996-2007. In this context, the existence of academic journals (such as
International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, Journal of Culinary Science and Technology,
Journal of Foodservice Business Research, Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism) particular to
Gastronomy and Food-Beverage Management field and the increase in the number of scientific
publications are seen as remarkable developments. On the other hand, it is accepted that gastronomy is
in close relationship with tourism. In this framework, it is possible to encounter with lots of academic
studies indicating that gastronomy is complement and a significant component of tourism. In the light of
all of these, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept and
tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism relations;
gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues.
CONCEPTIONAL FRAMEWORK
The concept of gastronomy and its relation with tourism
The concept of “Gastronomy” composed with the integration of the Greek words “Gastro” and
“Nomos”. Gastro-relates to the stomach and, by extension, the whole digestive system, starting at the
mouth, while nomos means rule or regulation. Gastronomy therefore refers to rules or norms in respect
of eating and drinking (Katz, 2003; Santich, 2004; 2007). In related literature it is seen that the
gastronomy concept can be defined with its guidance, process and cultural ways (Yılmaz, 2015).
Santich (2004) considers gastronomy concept as rules and regulations about eating–drinking and in this
regard, depending on historical, cultural and environmental effects, he defines gastonomy concept as
offering proposals related to what, where, when, in which combination and how to eat and drink and
making guidance. Beşirli (2010) evaluates gastronomy in cultural frame and states that the doings made
during the process of producing, transporting, keeping and consuming of foods are related with culture.
Also, Hegarty and O'Mahony (2001) explain gastronomy within the framework of eating and drinking
culture as a concept containing elements and recipts used in preparing foods; preparing, cooking and
presenting methods of foods; the amount and variety of foods; liked and disliked tastes; customs,
traditions and believes about the presentation of foods; the equipments used. Richards (2002), Kivela
and Crotts (2006) summarise gastronomy concept as distinctive foods of a country or a region,
preparing and cooking methods of foods, presenting and consuming foods and emphasize on the relation
with culture. On the other hand, Richards (2002), Hegarty (2005; 2009) and Hegarty and Antun (2010)
evaluate gastronomy as a process in their studies (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011) and describe this
process as producing, handling, gathering, preparing, presenting, consuming of foods and getting
pleasure.
A significant discussion about gastronomy concept is carried out on its relation with science and
art concepts (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, gastronomy is also described as good food eating art and
science (Santich, 2004; 2007; Gillespie, 2006). Kivela and Crotts (2006) and Santich (2007) state that
gastronomy concept includes both the art of good eating and also the art of good cooking. Hegarty and
Antun (2007) qualify gastronomy as an art because of its trying to figure out the reality; as a science due

*
Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department
**
Res. Assist., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department
to its relation with fields like chemistry, physics and history. In this context, gastronomic products can
be considered as art when they contain subjectivity and esthetics factors; the informations produced in
gastronomy field can be considered as science when they contain subjectivity and rationality factors. In
other words it is accepted that gastronomy is an art for it requires mastership and ability; it is a science
for kitchen is not different from a laboratory and for it can get findings based on observation and
experiment (Hegarty and Antun, 2010). And, Özdemir and Çalışkan (2011) state that the informations
about foods and beverages reveal the scientific aspect of gastronomy; preperation and presentation of
foods and beverages to appeal to the five senses of people reveal the artistic aspects of gastronomy. In
terms of academic, it is seen that gastronomy is a working field requiring a very disciplined approach
and being in relation with several working fields and sciences (Santich, 2007; Zahari, Jalis, Zulfifly,
Radzi and Othman, 2009; Croce and Perri, 2010) like chemistry, literature, biology, geography, history,
anthropology, music, philosophy and sociology (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Hegarty, 2009). In this regard,
it is possible to say that gastronomy is both connected with social sciences and also physical sciences.
For example, Santich (2007) indicates that gastronomy is connected with other fields such as history,
literature, medicine, politics, law, ethics, business administration, religion, chemistry, philosophy,
physics, communication, cookery, agriculture, geography, economy, trade and technology and in this
context he considers the relation of gastronomy with other fields within the framework of production
and consumption extents. In other words, while the fields such as cuisine, agriculture, geography,
economy, trade, technology constitute the production extent of gastronomy, the fields such as religion,
ethics, law, politics constitute the consumption extent of foods which are suitable or allowed for people.
Also, communication, history and literature help learning cultural structures, customs and traditions of
societies.
Similarly, Croce and Perri (2010) state that at the heart of gastronomy there are factors as nature,
culture and society and also it is in relation with the fields such as botanic, zoology, chemistry, physics,
astronomy, engineering, architecture, painting and geology. Hegarty and Antun (2010) indicate that the
gathering, preparing and cooking stages of foods are connected with physics and chemistry sciences.
Also, This (2006a; 2006b; 2009) expresses that gastronomy is in relation with nature science due to the
classification of foodstuffs; with physics due to the assessment of foodstuff’s quality and content; with
chemistry due to the various analysis about the content of foods; with cookery due to the gathering
together a variety of foods in harmony and their artistic presentation; with business administration due
to getting materials on the cheapest and selling products lucratively; with economy due to its national
and international income-generating effects. Despite all these assessments, according to the studies in
related literature, it can be possible to say that the science which is in the closest relationship with
gastronomy is tourism and gastronomy is being analyzed in the context of this relation.
The benefits of gastronomy to tourism
While researchers are conceptualising the interactions between gastronomy and tourism, they can
consider different factors. For instance, when Tikkanen (2007) evaluates the effects of gastronomy to
tourism, he puts forward 4 factors as being an attractiveness of food that can be used in destination’s
advertising; being a potential element on the development of local agriculture and economy; being a
significant part of experiences tourists are going to liveand being a contact of local culture. Henderson
(2009) emphasizes the positive effects of gastronomy in the relations between gastronomy and tourism
and indicates that there are 4 factors ranging as being a touristic products of food; being a factor that can
be marketable to tourists; being a tool of gastronomy tourism in the development of destination and
providing diversification opportunities to the firms in destination. Mak, Lumbers and Eves (2012)
explain the determiners of the relations between gastronomy and tourism as foods’ being component of
a touristic product or activity; the food consuming behaviours of tourists; the food experiences of
tourists and their being specially interested in different foods-beverages and activities related with them.
Kivela and Crotts (2009) evaluate the gastronomy or local foods as a travel motivation, a criterion being
effective on the decision of a destination, a factor that ensures to visit the destination again and an
element that contributes to the general satisfaction of tourists. Yılmaz (2015) summarizes the benefits of
gastronomy to tourism as follows:
 It forms a basis to the differentiation of destinations

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  It plays significant role on marketing the destinations
 It is used as an important factor in promotion of destinations.
 It can be a travel motivation for tourists.
 It can be effective on chosing of destination for tourists.
 It can enable to visit a destination again for tourists.
 It can contribute to the satisfaction of tourists.
 It is beneficial to the economic development of destination.
When consider from economic angle, the expenses that tourists make for foods and eating out
during their travels show the importance of gastronomy in tourism industry. Hall and Sharples (2003)
indicate that foods are the second most important factor (28 %) after accomodation (36 %) in daily
expenses of tourists. Other researches show that the proportion of expenditures for food in total tourist
spending can be between 25 % - 40 %. For instance, while Boyne, Williams and Hall (2002) state that
food expenditures constitute 40 % of tourist expenditures Hudman (1986), Ardabili and Rasouli (2011),
Canizares and Guzman (2012) and Getz, Robinson, Andersson and Vujicic (2014) state that this
proportion is at a level of 25 %. Also Rimmington and Yüksel (1998),Telfer and Wall (2000), Torres
(2002) and MacLaurin, Blose and Mack (2007) indicate that food expenditures constitute one third of
tourists expenditures. For instance, it is stated that in South Africa, 8 % of foreign tourists’ expenditures
and 24 % of domestic tourists’ expenditures are food expenditures (Du Rand, Heath and Alberts, 2003).
According to the report of Turkish Statistical Institution it is indicated that 28,6 % of total expenditures
of tourists coming to Turkey between 2005-2007 is seperated to food and eating out activities
(Yurtseven and Kaya, 2011). Similarly, in Gastronomy Tourism Report published by the Association of
Turkish Travel Agencies, it is indicated that the expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to
Turkey in 2014 are at a level of 19 %. Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of
tourists coming to Turkey are shown by years in Table 1.
Table 1:Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists (2004-2014)
Expenditure on Eating – drinking
Year Total Expenditure
Eating – drinking expenditure
($)
($) %
2004 17.076.609 3.158.780 18,4
2005 20.322.111 3.690.171 18,1
2006 18.593.947 3.899.512 20,9
2007 20.042.501 4.746.747 23,6
2008 25.415.068 5.774.961 22,7
2009 25.064.481 5.975.660 23,8
2010 24.940.996 5.841.251 23,4
2011 28.115.693 6.440.577 22,9
2012 29.351.445 6.210.047 21,1
2013 32.308.991 6.583.641 20,3
2014 34.305.904 6.523.852 19
Source: Türkiye Seyahat Acentaları Briliği (TÜRSAB) (URL 1)
Apart from general touristexpenditures, the expenditures made by tourists travelling with the
purpose of gastronomy are being important factors contributing economically to local people (Haven-
Tang and Jones, 2005). For instance, it is stated that in 2013, 6.4 million people patricipated in
Oktoberfest beer festivity celebrated yearly in Munich Germany and 6.7 million litres beer were
consumed (Spiegel Online, 2013). Besides, it is seen that local food products including 549,899 pieces
of chicken, 140 225 pair of local sausages, 44.320 kg of fish and 116 pieces of cow were used up
(Oktoberfest.net, 2013). Similarly, it is indicated that millions of people visited the Maine Lobster
Festivity which has been organised since 1948 in America and it produced economic profit about a
billion dolar (TÜRSAB, 2014).

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 In another example, it is indicated that gastronomy tourists visiting Canada Ontario Region in 2010
spent 816 million Canadian Dollars (Richards, 2012). In this study, Schmantowsky (2008) states that
the tourists travelling in order to discover different local cuisines and taste local foods spend in average
1.194 dollars per person; Green and Dougherty (2008) state they spend in average 1000 dollars per
person. Such as to support this, Noseworthy, Martin, Wade, Sabev and Csillag (2005) state that the
average daily expenditures of gastronomy tourists double the expenditures of typical tourists. For
reaching to these spending levels, the payments tourists made for gastronomic products and services
have a great share. In fact, some tourists are eager to pay more in order to be able to experience local
foods (Everett and Aitchison, 2008). In this regard, in the research made with 1.440 English tourists by
Enteleca Research and Consultancy (2001), it was concluded that the 67 % of tourists are willing to pay
more for local foods and drinkings. Westering (1999) states that tourists pay 425 pounds for two-day
France Loire Valley wine and mushroom tours and 3.999 pounds for seven-day Greece Odesa wine
tour. Also Hunter (2006) indicates that tourists pay 680-1000 dollars to 3-hour gastronomy tours
including cookery courses, accomodation, gourmet breakfasts and dinner.
Tourism creates value for its stakeholders. Gastronomy helps the development of the economic,
social and cultural values of tourism stakeholders (Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002). In a study made by
Kivela and Crotts (2006) in Hong Kong it was reached the end of which gastronomy tourism make
various contributions to producers, tourism industry, local people and tourists. Haven-Tang and Jones
(2005) state that local foods and drinks have various benefits to tourists, tourism establishments and
local people. Quan and Wang (2004) summarize the importance of gastronomy tourism on promoting,
developing and marketting a destination as creating alternative opportunities and providing added value
for food producers who are in rural areas, converting rich and various foods in the region and regional
cuisine culture into festivals or activities about foods and creating attraction centers to which tourists are
able to come, diversifying tourism activities as a result of presentation of foods seperately as touristic
products and developing local people’s identities and cultures and helping to the participation of several
people.
In the light of all of these, the benefits of gastronomy tourism to tourists, producers, local people,
tourism industry and environment are as follows (Quan and Wang, 2004; Kivela and Crotts, 2006;
Yılmaz, 2015):
 Benefits to tourists
 Being a discovery tool of local culture
 Providing the opportunity of experiencing and purchasing different foods
 Providing the opportunity of participating in gastronomy focused activities
 Contributing to the tourists satisfaction
 Benefits to producers
 Developing agricultural activities
 Developing local husbandry
 Providing the increase of production and selling
 Improving the quality and diversity of products and services
 Ensuring the local producers’ being a part of tourism industry
 Benefits to local people
 Creating new business opportunities
 Strenghtening of local identity
 Increasing the intercultural interaction
 Development of local economy
 Benefits to tourism industry
 Increasing the number of tourists
 Extension of staying time
 Increasing of touristic expenditures

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  Development of tourism types
 Presentation of alternative products
 Benefits to the environment
 Contributing to the development of local destination
 Helping to the keeping of local attractivenesses
 Developing the environment friendly infrastructure
 Helping to the ensuring sustainability

Gastronomy and tourism studies

Researches made about gastronomy and tourism relation constitute a significant conceptional basis
in order to understand the gastronomy and tourism relation. In this regard, it is thought that explaining
this issue in the light of related literature will be beneficial. Nowadays, it can be said that academic
studies made on gastronomy and tourism relation get up to a certain level in quality and quantity and
predominantly focus on following issues:
 Destination and local cuisine relation (Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Barkat & Vermignon,
2006; Guzman & Canizares, 2011; Beer, Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2012; Yılmaz & Özdemir, 2015)
 Promotion (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006; Horng & Tsai, 2010; Lan, Wu and Lee, 2012) and
marketing (Du Rand er al., 2003; Du Rand & Heath, 2006; Okumus, Okumus & McKercher, 2007;
Horng & Tsai, 2012c) of local cuisines
 The behaviours of tourists to local cuisines (Torres, 2002; Hjalager, 2004; Cohen & Avieli,
2004; Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Chang, Kivela & Mak, 2010; 2011; Mak et al., 2012)
 The expectations and satisfactions of tourists about gastronomic experiences (Ryu & Jang,
2006; Correia, Moital, da Costa & Peres, 2008)
 The classification of tourists according to their relations with gastronomy (Boyne, Hall &
Williams, 2003; Hjalager, 2004; Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Kivela & Crotts, 2009; Yun, Hennessey &
MacDonald, 2011; Canizares & Guzman, 2012) and the determination of them as a part of market
(Kivela & Crotts, 2005; MacLaurin et al., 2007; Mack, Blose & MacLaurin, 2009; McKercher, Okumus
& Okumus, 2008)
 Gastronomic identity (Harrington, 2005; Fox, 2007; Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010; Lin,
Pearson & Cai, 2011; Çalışkan, 2013)
 Gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism (Long, 1998; Hall and
Mitchell, 2001; Hjalager, 2002; Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis and
Cambourne, 2003; Hall and Mitchell, 2005; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Tikkanen, 2007; Henderson, 2009)
 The sources (Deneault, 2002; Smith & Xiao, 2008; Silkes, 2012) and development strategies
(Green & Dougherty, 2008; Horng & Tsai, 2012a; 2012b; Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2013) of
gastronomy tourism
 The usage of local foods in tourism (Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Özdemir, Yılmaz, Çalışkan &
Aydın, 2015; Özdemir, Aydın, Çalışkan & Yılmaz, 2015)
Gastronomy tourism
Traveling of people for the purpose of experiencing local foods is accepted as a different tourism
type (Molz, 2007). In order to describe this tourism type, in related literature as shown in Image 1, the
development of several number of concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism,
meal tourism, gastro tourism or food and wine tourism and from time to time using these concepts
interchangeably or seperation of these concepts from each other are seen. Karim and Chi (2010) state
that the concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism are used
because, in the heart of concepts, there is traveling of people to particular destinations in order to
discover foods and drinks and in this context, indeed, the concepts have the same meanings. Lin (2006)
indicate that no matter which concept is used, the main aim is using foods and drinks as important
means in order to promote and develop tourism in a certain region. In spite of that, Kivela and Crotts
(2005) and Ignatov and Smith (2006) allege that there are some differencies between the concepts of

37
culinary tourism and gastronomy tourism. According to this distinction, gastronomy tourism is related
to eating and including consumption, enjoying and quality factors. In other saying, the word
“gastronomy” in the gastronomy tourism concept emphasize mostly on its consumption extent (Ignatov
and Smith, 2006). And culinary tourism comprises foodstuff, the processes of food preperation and
production, activities about foods and motivations (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and handles the production
and consumption extents together (Ignatov and Smith, 2006). Similarly, Ninemeier (2010) states that
culinary tourism grounds on the food preperation process and it is about cuisine. In wine tourism,
experiencing wines and visiting wineries or regions are main travelling motivations (Charters and Ali-
Knight, 2002).

Figure 1: The concepts about gastronomy tourism used in literature (Yılmaz, 2015).
According to related literature, the concept of gastronomy tourism was used firstly by Lucy Long
in 1998 (Long, 1998; Kivela and Crotts, 2005; Karim and Chi, 2010; Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In this
context, Long (1998) describes gastronomy tourism as a tourism type developed in order to discover
other cultures and civilisations through activities about foods (Kivela and Crotts, 2005; 2006). Thus,
Long (2003) emphasises the aim of recognising different cultures along with consumption in
gastronomy tourism. The basis of gastronomy tourism bases on agriculture, culture and tourism
(Westering, 1999; Cusack, 2000; Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Everett and Slocum, 2013).
Agriculture is effective in providing products or foods to be consumed; culture is effective in the history
or authenticity of destinations. In terms of tourism, it is accepted that gastronomy tourism is one kind of
culture tourism. Because, local cuisine forms an inseparable part of destination’s or society’s culture
(Horng and Tsai, 2012c). With providing required background and services, agriculture, culture and
tourism elements gather under the gastronomy tourism roof (Du Rand and Heath, 2006).
In the literature gastronomy toruism is defined as a new type of tourism (Kivela and Crotts, 2006;
Smith and Costello, 2009; Chaney and Ryan, 2012; Horng and Tsai, 2012b); special interest tourism

38
(McKercher et al., 2008) or a niche market segment (Stewart, Bramble and Ziraldo, 2008; Silkes, 2012;
Forga and Valiente, 2012). Some researchers take gastronomy tourism also as one of the fastest growing
in tourism industry (Deneault, 2002; Mautner, 2009) and one of the most demanding tourism type
(Beer, Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2012). At the heart of gastronomy tourism, there are discovering
local foods or cuisines (Horng and Tsai, 2012a), enjoying (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and experiencing
unforgettable experiment (McKercher et al., 2008). Traveling to different destinations provides tourists
the opportunityof recognising new cultures, cuisines and local foods and experiencing the sense of
authenticity(Westering, 1999; Cook, Yale and Marqua, 1999; Okumus et al., 2007). Gastronomy
tourism focuses on unique food, cuisine and culture (Yun et al., 2011). In this regard, the definitions
related to gastronomy tourism are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Definitions related to gastronomy tourism
Study Definition
Travels including preparing, presenting and consuming of foods, done
Long (1998; 2003) in order to learn and discover local cuisines and eating patterns that
they do not own.
Travels from which tourists can learn the producing process of foods,
Richards (2002)
cooking methods, ingredients used and culinary culture of region.
Gastronomy tourism, goes well beyond the dining experience. It
includes a variety of cuisine and/or agri-tourism activities developed
Deneault (2002) for visitors involving food and beverages. These can range from food
festivals to farm visits and factory tours, and often involve the cultural
discovery of a region's unique dishes.
Wolf (2002) Travels made in order to search foods and drinks and enjoy.
Travels which are made towards primary and secondary food
Hall & Mitchell producers, foods festivals, restaurants and special food and wine
(2001; 2005) regions in order to discover or experience foods and drinkings and
travels whose main travel reason is foods.
A tool of interesting in food and drimk or eating and drinking,
Santich (2004)
traveling motivation and experiencing other cultures.
Tourism trips during which the purchase or consumption of regional
foods (including beverages), or the observation and study of food
Ignatov & Smith (2006)
production (from agriculture to cooking schools) represent a
significant motivation or activity.
A tourism type which provides oppotunity to experience local foods
Chang, Kivela & Mak (2010)
and learn local culture with various aspects.

Silkes (2012) Cultural interaction taking place among tourists and local people
Silkes, Cai & Lehto (2013) through sharing experiences about foods.

Source: Yılmaz, 2015

In this regard, it is possible to define gastronomy tourism as travels comprising “the production,
preperation, presentation and consumption processes of foods and eating-drinking patterns, being
interested in table manners and cuisine culture and participating in activities about foods organised in
destinations (visiting food-drink producers, wine and beer factories, farmer markets; meal experience in
restaurants; participating in festivals; gastronomy tours; taking part in cookery classes and wine tasting
courses); made in order to enjoy, learn and discover and whose main travel motivation are made up of
local foods (Yılmaz, 2015). In gastronomy tourism it is seen that during travels, the fact of travel for
foods comes to the forefront rather than consuming foods. As of both this definition as well as related
literature addressed that the followings are among the distinctive features of gastronomy tourism.
 Dining is consistently one of the top three favorite tourist activities (Sparks, Bowen & Klag,
2003; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Quan & Wang, 2004; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009; Munjal & Sharma,
2013; Bessiere & Tibere, 2013)

39
  Tourists dine out when traveling, and each dining opportunity is a chance to get to know local
food (Deneault, 2002), culture (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Kim et al., 2009) and people (Fox, 2007; Kivela
& Crotts, 2006; 2009)
 Culinary or gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art form that affects all five human
senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch (Long, 1998; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim et al., 2009;
Chang et al., 2010; Mak et al., 2012)
 There is a high positive correlation between tourists who are interested in wine/cuisine and
those interested in museums, shows, shopping, music and film festivals, and cultural attraction
(Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; Lang Research Inc., 2006; Fox, 2007; Vujicic, Getz & Robinson, 2013),
Interest in cuisine when traveling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethnic group (Kivela &
Crotts, 2006)
 Unlike other travel activities and attractions, gastronomy is available year-round, any time of
day and in any weather (Deneault, 2002; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Canizares & Guzman, 2012)
 More often than not, gastronomy tourists are explorers (Telfer & Wall, 2000; Heldke, 2003;
Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009).
Gastronomic tourism products
Gastronomic tourism products can be described as products that tourists can consume during their
travels or use for a while, include gastronomic factors (like foods-drinks) at its heart and services or
factors formed by the combination of these (Yılmaz, 2015). For instance, local restaurants, wineries and
vineyards in destinations are among the main gastronomic tourism products tourists can live an
exhilarating experience (Kivela and Crotts, 2006). If it is though more comprehensive, in studies in the
related literature traditional or high quality restaurants, food and wine festivals, cookery schools, wine
trainings, local markets, cookery and meal competitions or activities (Long, 1998), wineries and
vineyards, vegetable and fruit harvesting fields, food and wine routes (Yun et al., 2011), peddlers and
farms (Karim and Chi, 2010) are considered among gastronomic tourism products.
In order to develop gastronomic tourism products some resourches are required. There are
resourchers making comprehensive classification on this issue. For example, Ignatov and Smith (2006)
and Smith and Xiao (2008) classify the resources of gastronomic tourism products in four categories as
facilities and opportunities, activities, events and organizastions. This classification is shown in Table 3.
Facilities comprise buildings, areas and routes where the foods are produced, prepared and
disseminated. These facilities are places which are open to tourist visits and where tourists can buy and
consume gastronomic products, see the production areas and learn local culture. Among activities, there
are eating in local restaurants, visiting wine and agricultural regions, courses about cookery, wine
tastement educations and taking part in contests. And within the scope of consumer fairs and festivities,
tourists can visit various food and beverage fairs and take part in local festivals.
Even if they are not considered directly in gastronomic tourism products, the organizations related
to gastronomy have great importance in terms of their functions. For example, the destinations willing
to develop gastronomy tourism need to make some arrangements about foods and wines. In this context,
it is thought that the arrangements to be made by institutions are going to become important determiners
of food quality (Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000). The institutions are expressed as systems or
organisations which confirm, document and assume control of local foods and wines quality (Smith and
Xiao, 2008). The certification of foods guarantees the products and increasing their quality (Horng and
Tsai, 2010). For example, it is known that Hong Kong Tourism Bureau started Quality Tourism
Services (QTS) implementations in order to guarantee the quality of services in restaurants and increase
food standarts and customer security (Chang et al., 2011). This implementation enable tourists to find
reliable restaurants and thus to feel safe themselves (Horng and Tsai, 2012c).
It is possible to collocate main gastronomic tourism products as gastronomy tours, factories (wine,
beer), farms and farmer markets, cooking courses, festivals, museums and restaurants. Gastronomy
tours can be events performed on a specific route (like wine region, agricultural region) especially in
order to discover different culinary culture, foods and wines and including such activities as making

40
food shopping in local markets (Kivela and Crotts, 2006), participating in cooking and wine tasting
classes (Hunter, 2006) and visiting local restaurants (Hjalager, 2002; Ardabili and Rasouli, 2011).
Especially local restaurants constitute one of the main gastronomic tourism products (Kivela and Crotts,
2006; Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008) and both gastronomy tourists whose primary
travel motivation is local foods and other tourists are willing to live food experience in local restaurants
in order to experience local foods (Du Rand et al., 2003; Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). For example, Law,
To and Goh (2008) state that in Hong Kong there are restaurants over 9000 where tourists can
experience local cuisine or east and west cuisines. Similarly, Au and Law (2002) express that tourists
can live unforgettable and unique experience in the restaurants in Hong Kong. On the other hand, in
Canada, 8 day gastronomy tours named West Coasts Cuisine are organised and tourists can learn how
the local foods are produced and prepared (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006). Farmers markets are indicated
as places where the local products, produced or prepared by local people, are presented directly to
consumers (Smith and Xiao, 2008) and fresh and organic foods can be bought (Henderson, 2009).
Farmers markets offer informations to tourists about local culture and life that they can not obtain from
knowledge sources like internet and travel magazines (Chang, Kivela and Mak, 2011). The visits made
to factories where the local products like wine or beer are manifactured have similar function. Museums
like food, cheese, wine and culinary museums are described as areas where various foods and
equipments related to these foods are displayed (Bessiere, 1998). And farm visits enable tourists to
make contact with local producers and local products directly (Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). Meal
courses are explained as organised by restaurants (Green and Dougherty, 2008) or hotels (Henderson,
2009) and as places where tourists can learn how the local foods are prepared (Bessiere, 1998) and can
consume local foods (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). Food festivals combiningeating-drinking culture and
entertainment (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011) are events in which local foods and products are main
themes (Henderson, 2009), organised for short-term as 1-3 days and periodically (Smith and Xiao,
2008). In Canada Ontario Region every year 73 food and wine themed festivals are organised. In some
situations, festivals can be comprehensive products in which a lot of gastronomic tourism products are
served together. For example, in 2-day Abergavenny Food Festival organised every year, opportunities
are given to participants like wine tasting, participating in cookery classes, serving and tasting food,
buying local foods from local producers, visiting fish market (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005).
Also many researches in related literature show the importance of gastronomic sources and
gastronomic tourism products both for destinations and tourists. Horng and Tsai (2012a) state that
developing gastronomy tourism multi directional is going to be possible with gastronomic sources such
as food routes, food festivals, consumer fairs, wine tours. In this context, many destinations are trying to
show and familiarise the unique gastronomic sources that they own (Cohen and Avieli, 2004).
For instance, Canada is trying to present so many and a large variety of gastronomic tourism
products such as local festivals, agritourism events, cookery schools, farm holidays, food festivals,
dinner activities, vintage, food, wine and beer routes, winery and brevery tours, cheese production
centers, food museums, farmer markets and special wine tasting tours (Deneault, 2002) and gourmet
restaurants (Stewart et al., 2008). Restaurants generally serving foods belonging to local cuisine and
festivals about foods constitute the gastronomic tourism products of Asian countries like Hong Kong
and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). Similarly, according to The World Tourism Association’s
report cookery classes or courses, food museums, food events, foods, food and beverage fairs, visits to
the local food producers or food markets and food tours constitute the main gastronomic sources.
In many researches in related literature some findings on the participation of tourists to these
activities in destinations are presented. In the study which was done with Taiwanese and Austrian
tourists visiting Hong Kong and Macau by Kivela and Crotts (2009), tourists’ participation in events
about foods like visiting farms, participating in cookery courses, fruit picking and visiting cheese
makers was revealed. Similarly, Yun et al., (2011) line the activities about gastronomy tourism to which
tourists participate in as visiting markets selling local foods, taking part in local fairs, participate in food
and wine festivals, taking part in cookery and wine courses, eating in the restaurants serving local foods
or eating in luxury restaurants, participating in wineries and breweries tours, visiting food and wine
routes, visiting farms and food producing places. And, in the study done with 3.137 European tourists

41
visiting Sweden by Vujicic et al., (2013), it was determined that the activities of tourists about foods
during their travels are experiencing local foods in local restaurants, visiting local food markets and
purchasing local products, living romantic dinner experiences, participating in the food festivals,
visiting food routes and taking cookery courses.
Table 2: Typology of culinary tourism resources
Food processing facilities
Wineries
Breweries
Buildings / Structures Farmers’ markets
Food stores
Food-related museums
Restaurants
Facilities
Farms
Orchards
Land uses
Vineyards
Urban restaurant districts
Wine routes
Routes Food routes
Gourmet trails
Dining at restaurants
Consumption Picnics utilising locally-grown produce
Purchasing retail food and beverages
Wine regions
Touring Agricultural regions
Activities City food districts
Cooking schools
Wine tasting/education
Education/Observation Visiting wineries
Chef competitions
Reading food, beverage magazines and books
Food and wine shows
Consumer shows Cooking equipment, kitchen shows
Product launches
Events
Food festivals
Festivals Wine festivals
Harvest festivals
Restaurant classification/ certification systems (e.g. Michelin, Taste of Nova Scotia)
Organisations Food/wine classification systems (e.g. VQA)
Associations (e.g. Cuisine Canada, Slow Food)
Source: Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008.
Similarly, Bessiere and Tibere (2013) line the places where French tourists can discover local
foods during their travels as farms and production places, restaurants and local markets and the places
where home cookings are made. In the study donein Taiwan by Lin et al., (2011) with tourism officials
and 83 people working as senior executives (director, executive..), the activities to which tourists
participate in are lined up as, in order of, food festivals, gourmet tours and gourmet holidays. Besides, it
is indicated that the most attractive factor about tourists’ experience the cuisine of Taiwan is
participating in local festivals, gourmet tours and holidays. In the study made with 42 people in South
Africa by Du Rand et al., (2003), gastronomic tourism products are determined as specificial restaurants
(62 %), food products produced in local destinations, food routes, food festivals, specific activities
about foods and othes. In the research done by Lang Research Inc. (2006) it is indicated that 22 % of
Canadian tourists show participating in cookery and wine tasting courses, 17.4 % of them show visiting
vinery ans tasting wine, 11.9 % of them show food producing centers like cheese factory, 10.5 % of

42
them show visiting brewery and tasting beer and 3.3 % of them show taking part in all activities as the
main travel reasons. In a research made in America it is concluded that 17 % of tourists (Harrington and
Ottenbacher, 2010) and in a research made in Canada 74 % of tourists (Stewart et al., 2008) participate
in the activities about food and wine.
Gastronomic identity
Foods are in close relationship with culture and identity issues (Hall and Mitchell, 2000). Foods
and drinkings are seen as main components forming the identity of a destination (Haven-Tang and
Jones, 2005; Munjal and Sharma, 2013). In this context, gastronomic identity is stated as an identity
reflecting food culture of a particular region or a community (Bessiere, 1998; Lin et al., 2011). And, in
the studies about the subject, what are the components of gastronomic identity and which factors are
effective on its formation are explained. For instance, Danhi (2003) indicates that there are 6 main
factors determining a region’s gastronomic identity and lines these factors as geography, history, ethnic
diversity, culinary etiquettes, common tastes and local receipts. Rao, Monin and Du Rand (2003) state
that the identity movement in French cuisine during the transition process from classical period to new
period took place in 5 dimensions as cuisine expression, cooking rules, materials, chefs and menu
management.
Harrington (2005) classifies the factors that have impact on the formation of gastronomic identity
in two dimensions as culture and environment. While history, ethnical diversity, trial and error,
innovations, skills, traditions, believes and values constitute the culture category, geography, climates,
microclimates, local products and the harmony of new products constitute the environment category. In
this context, with the effects of environment and culture, a gastronomic identity is created comprising of
taste profiles, etiquettes, receipts, the entegration of materials or techniques, the harmonisation of wine
and food, climatic zones and new world and old world styles in winemaking. Thus, foods that are
among the main components of gastronomic identity become reflecting the social, cultural and natural
features of a particular region (Lockie, 2001). According to Harrington (2005), during the gastronomic
identity formation process geography, climate, historical process and ethnical diversity are the
prominent factors. In historical process, migrations, battles, religional visits and discoveries taking place
in the region and ethnical diversity that is formed with getting together of the communities from
different cultures effect the gastronomic identity of region.
By being entegrated with local products, new and different foods and drinks that are brought from
remote regions with commercial activities lead to develop new preperation methods and to change the
local traditions. Innovations are able to be made with trial-and-error and thus it is possible to meet the
growing demands of consumers. Gastronomic identity takes form with the skills of local people apart
from trial-and-error and innovations. Environmental factors comprise of the elements that are related to
how the foods grow. Geographical and climatical changes such as soil diversities, precipitation,
temperature, wind, humid and altitudes effect the food diversity that are produced or grown in a region
and eating habits of people. In this regard, the emerging local products are foods and drinks having the
characteristics of growing area and generally being perceived as good quality.
In the world, it is possible to encounter with succesful samples about gastronomic identity in the
world. For example, Harrington and Ottenbacher (2010) state Lyon city as the capital city of both
France and the worldwhich has local foods like 140 kind of cheese and Bresse chicken, 61 restaurants
with Michelin star and wineyards like Burgundy. Lin et al., (2011) utter that Taiwan has gastronomy
destination identity with its various and different local foods. Because the gastronomy culture of Hong
Kong is influenced by the cultures of several countries and ethnical groups, it is mentioned at present
time as Gastronomy Paradise of Asia. Similarly, due to the cuisine culture that Singapore has is
influenced by various ethnical groups, it is known as the Gastronomy Capital of Asia. This situation
creates a gastronomic identity for Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012c).
In the study, Chang et al., (2011) state that due to several of animals such as sheep and lambs in
Australia, the gastronomic identity of the country includes sheep and lamb dishes. Within the
framework of local and ethnical elements it owns, French cuisine takes part in among the special cuisine
in the world and thus France is known with cuisine culture it has (Barkat and Vermignon, 2006). In the
interview he gave to Newsweek magazine in 1961, former President of France Charles de Gaulle utters

43
the variety of his country has with the sentence “who and how can manage a country that has 246 kinds
of cheese?” (Nadeau and Barrow, 2005). Indeed, it can be said that the word “cheese” is one of the most
effective gastronomic identity elements indicating the region’s climate, history, culture, geography and
cuisine (Çalışkan, 2013).
Thus, gastronomic identity become usable for tourists in order to live unique and recollective
gastronomic experience (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). A strong gastronomic identity special to a
particular destination becomes an inseparable part of that destination’s success in tourism development
(Fox, 2007). Gastronomic identity can constitute one of the attractive factors for tourists in order to visit
destinations. Tourists are possibly want to experience local foods due to the destinations they travel
have strong gastronomic identity (Chang et al., 2011).
Grounding on these explanations, the possiblity of being so significant source of gastronomic
identity for destinations comes to mind. In this framework, Fox (2007) evaluates the contributions of
destination’s gastronomic identity to tourism destinations in five dimensions as differentiation,
aestheticization, authentication, symbolization and vitalisation. Differentiation indicates that foods are
important signs of cultural difference among regions and communities and by this way the destination is
going to become different. Aestheticization expresses making aesthetic of food and beverage experience
with tourist experience. Gastronomic identity that involves history, trade, transportation, technology and
ethnic diversity, within the framework of authentication, creates desire to live past on tourists.
Symbolization expresses that gastronomic identity can be presented with various gastronomic symbols
and in this case it gives the symbolisation of Italian gastronomy with pizza as a sample. He states that,
via vitalisation, a new image can be gained to destination by providing the use of old traditions and
culinary heritage in tourism.
The variation of factors from region to region that have impact on the creation of gastronomic
identity causes to emerge different gastronomic identities and not to be able to imitate each gastronomic
identity (Çalışkan, 2013). Because of its features like being valuable, rare, unimitable and not being
replaced, gastronomic identity becomes a strategic source for destinations (Harrington and Ottenbacher,
2010). In this regard, matching of certain areas with certain foods and drinkings become possible with
gastronomic identity special to destination (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005). Thus, food is strongly
correlated with a particular region (Lin et al., 2011). Champagne known as the most qualified sparkling
wine of the World can only be produced in Champagne Region of France. Therefore, champagne and
Champagne Region matches and a gastronomic identity special to the region emerges (Özdemir and
Çalışkan, 2011). Similarly, matching cognac and Cognac region enables creating unique gastronomic
identity (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, especially number of geographical indication products
contributes to gastronomic identityalso. For instance, in Turkey, there are 124 geographical indications
about foods. On the other hand, entering into the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists of the
factors about eating and drinking like “keşkek” oftraditional ceremony, mesir paste festival and Turkish
coffee and tradition also have importance in terms of gastronomic identity. Thus, with the integration of
gastronomic identity and tourism development of a destination, it is possible for that destination to gain
competitive advantage in the fierce competition environment in tourism market (Horng and Tsai,
2012a). In order to do this, destinations are required to create and present gastronomic tourism products
based on their unique gastronomic identities.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept
and tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism
relations; gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues.
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