Psychology Notes – Research Methods

Gianna George 10D

Designing psychological research

Keywords:
Independent variable (IV): the variable directly manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variable (DV): the variable being measured in a study.
Operationalization: making the variables in an investigation detailed and specific.
Extraneous variable: a variable that is not controlled, which could affect the results of a study.
Confounding variable: an extraneous variable that affects the results of the study so that the
effect of the IV is not truly being seen.
Situational variable: an extraneous variable present in the environment of the study.
Order effects: when participants improve or worsen in the second condition because they have
practiced or become fatigued.
Demand characteristics: when the participant alters their behavior in response to the perceived
aims of the investigation.
Investigator effect: when a researcher unintentionally gives clues to participants, altering their
behavior.
Participant variables: extraneous variables specific to the participants of an investigation, for
example their mood, ability or personality.
Standardized procedure: where the procedure of a study is the same across all conditions.
Counterbalancing: where half of the participant group experience condition A then condition B,
while the other half experience condition B then condition A.
Randomization: when participants are randomly assigned to condition A or B as their first or
second test condition.
Single-blind technique: when information about the study is withheld from participants.
Double-blind technique: when the aims of the study are withheld from both participants and
researchers.
Random allocation: when participants are randomly assigned to a condition of the study.
What is a variable?
A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are
generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes
to another.
Independent variable (IV)

In an experiment, it is the variable that is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter. For
example, in an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test performance, sleep
deprivation would be the independent variable.

Dependent variable (DV)

The DV is the variable which is measured by the researcher as a result of the manipulation of the
IV. For example, in the experiment that researches the impact of sleep deprivation on test
performance, test performance would be the dependent variable.

Extraneous Variables
These are generally unwanted variables that can have an impact on the relationship between the
IV and DV. Examples of extraneous variables in our study relating to the how sleep deprivation
affects test performance would be: age; gender; academic background. There are two basic types
of extraneous variable:
- Participant variables: This relate to individual characteristics of each participant that may
impact how he or she responds. Examples are mood, anxiety, intelligence, awareness.
- Situational variables: These relate to things in the environment that may impact how each
participant responds. Examples are the temperature of the room, outside noise.

How to reduce extraneous variables

There are different ways to reduce extraneous variables:
Standardization: Keeping parts of the procedure the same so each participant experiences the
same procedure
Random allocation: Participants are picked out of a hat to allocate them to a condition, rather
than the experimenter choosing.
Single/double blind technique: The people conducting the tests don’t know the condition that the
participant is in.

Hypotheses

Keywords:
Null hypothesis: a prediction that the results will fail to show any difference (or relationship) that
is consistent or systematic.
Alternative (experimental) hypothesis: a prediction of the outcome of a study based on what is
expected to happen.
Directional hypothesis: a hypothesis that predicts the direction the results will go in.
Non-directional hypothesis: a hypothesis that predicts that a difference/relationship will be
found, but does not specify what the difference/relationship will be.
Experimental hypothesis: the name given to a hypothesis when used in field and laboratory
experiments.
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a precise, testable statement of what the researchers predict
will be the outcome of the study. There are two main ways of expressing a hypothesis:
- The Null Hypothesis
* States that there is no relationship between the two variables being studied (i.e. the IV does not
affect the DV). Any results found are due to chance.
* In a study investigating the effect sleep deprivation might have on test performance, the null
hypothesis would be:
* There will be no significant relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance.
* For example, a null hypothesis when you are looking for a difference could be: “There will be
no difference in the number of digits recalled whether participants listened to classical music or
jazz. Any difference will be due to chance.”
* A null hypothesis when looking for a relationship (correlation) could be: “There will be no
relationship between time spent revising and percentage score on a test; any relationship found
will be due to chance.

- The Alternative Hypothesis

* This is also called Experimental Hypothesis when the method of investigation is an experiment
(e.g. a laboratory; field; natural or quasi)
* The alternative (or experimental) hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two
variables being studied (one variable will have an effect on the other).
* In a study investigating the effect sleep deprivation might have on test performance, the
alternative hypothesis would be: Sleep deprivation will significantly affect test performance.
* When looking for a relationship (correlation): “ There will be a negative correlation between
self- esteem and depression OR the more depressed people feel, the lower their self-esteem.”
* If a theory cannot make a clear prediction, or if the evidence is mixed, then we use a non-
directional hypothesis. A non-directional hypothesis states that a difference or relationship will
be found, but does not state what that difference or relationship will be. For example, when
looking for a difference: “There will be a difference in the number of digits recalled by adults
and children.”
* When looking for a relationship (correlation): There will be a negative correlation between
self-esteem and depression.