MTO-Guidelines For Prefabricated Bridges - September-2006

GUIDELINES
FOR
PREFABRICATED
BRIDGES
Ontario
Ministry of Transportation
Highway Standards Branch Report
Guidelines for Prefabricated

Bridges
BRO-021
TECHNICAL REPORT
Title Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges
Author(s) Iqbal Husain and Clifford Lam

Ontario Ministry of Transportation
Originating Office Highway Standards Branch, Ontario Ministry of Transportation
Report Number BRO-021; ISBN 0-xxxx-xxxx-X
Publication Date September, 2006
Ministry Contact Highway Standards Branch Executive Office, Ontario Ministry of Transportation
301 St. Paul Street, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2R 7R3
Tel: (905) 704-2638; Fax: (905) 704-2626
The intent of this report is to transfer technical information pertaining to prefabrication
Abstract
of bridges. The report describes the history of prefabrication in Ontario, explains the
need, gives the justification and describes the issues that need consideration. It shows
some of the details that have been used in Ontario, USA and other parts of the world to
introduce to the designers, fabricators and contractors the possibilities that currently
exist in prefabrication.
Key Words Prefabricated bridge elements and systems, design and construction details
Distribution Unrestricted technical audience.

Ministry of Transportation
Highway Standards Branch Report
BRO-021
Guidelines for Prefabricated

Bridges
September 2006
Prepared by
Highway Standards Branch Executive Office
Ontario Ministry of Transportation
301 St. Paul Street,

St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2R 7R3
Tel: (905) 704-2638; Fax (905) 704-2626
Published without
prejudice as to the
application of the findings.
Crown copyright reserved.
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary .......................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... vi
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
Prefabricated Bridges.................................................................................................................... 3
Background .............................................................................................................................3
Advantages of Prefabrication ..................................................................................................4
Disadvantages of Prefabrication..............................................................................................5
Prefabricated Elements ...........................................................................................................6
Prefabricated Systems ............................................................................................................7
Prefabricated Bridge Technology in MTO................................................................................7
MTO Prefabrication Projects..........................................................................................8
Prefabrication Goals and Challenges ....................................................................................11
Goals ...........................................................................................................................11
Challenges...................................................................................................................12
Consideration and Justification for Prefabrication .................................................................12
Decision-Making Tools ................................................................................................12
Considerations in Selecting Prefabrication as Construction Method ...........................15
Prefabricated Bridge Elements & Systems................................................................................ 21
Prefabricated Steel Beams and Precast Prestressed Concrete Beams ................................21
Precast Concrete Deck Slabs................................................................................................23
Partial-Depth Concrete Deck Panels (Stay-in-Place Deck Forms) ..............................23
Background........................................................................................................23
Partial-Depth Deck Panel System Description...................................................24
Initial MTO Trial Projects....................................................................................25
Full-Depth Concrete Deck Slabs .................................................................................25
Background........................................................................................................25
Full-Depth Deck Panel System Description .......................................................26
Initial MTO Trial Projects....................................................................................27
MTO Research Study ........................................................................................28
MTO Field Applications......................................................................................30
Full-Depth Deck Panel System Issues...............................................................30
Deck Panel Joints ....................................................................................31
Prestressed Joints ...................................................................................31
Cast-in-Place Concrete Closure Joint Details ..........................................33
Concrete, Grouts and Sealants for Closure Joints ...................................38
Welded or Bolted Joint.............................................................................39
Continuity of Superstructure at Support Locations...................................40
Composite Action.....................................................................................41
Deck Panel Supports ...............................................................................43
Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges (BRO-021)

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Maintaining Cross Slopes and Levelling Panels ......................................43

Deck Waterproofing and Asphalt Overlay ................................................45
Precast Barrier Walls ...............................................................................45
Steel Grid Decks..........................................................................................................47
Open Steel Grid Decks ..................................................................................... 47
Concrete-Filled Steel Grid Decks.......................................................................48
Exodermic Decks...............................................................................................48
Fibre-Reinforced Concrete Arch Panel Decks .............................................................50
Steel-Free Deck Concept...................................................................................50
Application to Prefabricated Bridges..................................................................51
Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Modular Decks ........................................................52
Background........................................................................................................52
Sandwich Deck System .....................................................................................52
Pultruded Deck System .....................................................................................53
INVERSETTM Bridge System.................................................................................................54
EFFIDECKTM Deck System ...................................................................................................55
Sandwich Plate System.........................................................................................................56
Total Superstructure Systems ...............................................................................................57
Substructure Elements and Systems ....................................................................................58
Background .................................................................................................................58
Prefabricated Abutments .............................................................................................59
Totally Prefabricated Bridges ................................................................................................61
Heavy Lift Technology...........................................................................................................62
Incremental Launching of Precast Concrete Bridges ............................................................65
Background .................................................................................................................65
Incremental Launching Considerations .......................................................................65
Advantages of Incremental Launching ........................................................................66
Disadvantages of Incremental Launching....................................................................66
References.....................................................................................................................................69
Appendix A: Standard Drawings for Precast Deck Panels For Concrete Girders..................... 73
SS109-40 ..............................................................................................................................74
SS109-41 ..............................................................................................................................75
SS109-42 ..............................................................................................................................76
SS109-43 ..............................................................................................................................77
Appendix B: MTO’s Recent Prefabricated Bridge Projects....................................................... 79
Moose Creek Bridge, Hwy 101..............................................................................................80
Little Savanne River Bridge, Hwy 17 .....................................................................................82
Passe-a-Fontaine Bridge, Hanlan Narrows ...........................................................................84
Sucker Creek Bridge, County Road 41 .................................................................................86
Hwy 401 underpass @ Mull Road .........................................................................................88
CNR Overhead @ Rainy Lake, Hwy 11 ................................................................................91
Beaver Creek Bridge, Hwy 12 ...............................................................................................94
CPR Overhead @ Morriston, Hwy 6......................................................................................96

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Appendix C: Texas DOT’s Piercap Drawings ........................................................................... 99

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Executive Summary
The intent of this document is to facilitate the use of prefabricated bridge technology in
the construction and rehabilitation of bridge structures in Ontario by transferring current
technical information and know-how pertaining to this innovative technology. It
provides general principles and guidance to designers, fabricators and contractors in the
design, fabrication and construction of prefabricated bridge elements and systems. It
explains the need, provides the justification and describes issues that need to be
considered for bridge prefabrication. A comprehensive review of recent prefabrication
initiatives, techniques and details that have been developed and used in various parts of
the world is given as well as a review of past prefabricated bridge applications in Ontario.
This report also provides up-to-date reference material on bridge prefabrication
technology and highlights the ministry’s preferences and what it considers as good
design, details and construction practice for use in future ministry’s projects. This report
is intended to develop design procedures and construction details that are workable,
economical, safe and durable, and introduce bridge designers, fabricators and contractors
to the possibilities that currently exist in bridge prefabrication.

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Acknowledgements
This document has been prepared to reflect the latest practice in prefabricated bridge
technology and to highlight what the ministry considers as good construction practices
and details for use in future applications of this technology in Ontario. To illustrate
concepts and details, photographic images and engineering details were obtained from
Ministry of Transportation archives, external sources such as US Federal Highway
Administration and Department of Transportations and other consultants and commercial
organisations. They have been reproduced in this publication for illustrative and
reference purposes. Use of the non-ministry material is gratefully acknowledged.

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Introduction
The use of prefabricated elements and systems in the design and construction of bridges is an
emerging and growing technology in USA and Canada. It offers many economic, safety and
functional benefits. Prefabricated bridge elements and systems range from simple girders, bent
caps and deck panels to substructure and superstructure units. They are manufactured on-site or
off-site, under controlled conditions and brought to the job location ready to install.
Prefabricated components have been shown to be efficient, durable and require much reduced
site-construction time. Growing traffic on the highways and increasing user delays due to
construction zone restrictions are challenging bridge designers and builders to find ways to build
bridges faster and minimise traffic delay, community disruption and exposure to construction
hazards. Prefabrication also allows bridge jurisdictions to take advantage of new bridge
technologies and materials that are emerging through new research and development work. As
such, there is a need to (a) develop design and construction details that are safe, workable,
economical and durable, and (b) transfer the existing knowledge and technology to potential
users in future bridge applications.
This guideline is developed to:

• Promote the use of prefabricated bridge elements and systems in Ontario.
• Provide general principles and guidance to designers, fabricators and
contractors in the design, fabrication and construction of prefabricated bridge
elements and systems in Ontario.
• Encourage the ministry service providers to consider prefabrication in their
submissions to the ministry.
• Evaluate and demonstrate recent field applications of prefabrication bridge
technology in Ontario.
• Provide up-to-date reference material on prefabricated bridge elements and
systems and typical design and construction details that have been used in
Canada, USA and other parts of the world.
• Highlight potential concerns with this innovative technology and suggest ways
to address them.
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Prefabricated Bridges
BACKGROUND
In Ontario, prefabricated elements such as steel and precast prestressed girders have been used
for nearly half a century. In the last twenty to thirty years, the use of concrete segmental deck
systems and segmental rigid frames has been added to the growing scope of prefabrication
technology.
More recently, partial-depth deck panels, full-depth deck slabs and precast barriers have been
tried on an experimental basis for selected projects. The driving forces behind the use of
prefabrication technology are:
• Accelerate bridge construction and minimise traffic delays and community disruption
• Reduce site construction time and minimise public exposure to construction hazards
• Need to maintain traffic flow during construction
• Bridge durability and maintenance
Many of the structures that were built in Ontario before the 1960’s are now coming up for major
rehabilitation or replacement due to deterioration or lack of functionality. The demand on the
transportation infrastructure is increasing at a fast pace, requiring expansion and improved
engineering practices to meet today’s challenges. The increasing traffic on our highways and
the need to minimise bridge construction-related impact on the public would in future put great
demand on the ministry to rehabilitate or replace these bridges with least disruption to the traffic
and increased safety to both workers and the travelling public. There is also the expectation that
by taking advantage of standardisation of bridge elements and systems and by making repeated
use of these units on our highway infrastructure, an economic advantage can be gained in the
long run.
In USA, the main impetus behind the prefabricated bridge technology was provided by
AASHTO in 2000. The AASHTO Technology Implementation Group (TIG) was formed in
December 2000 to facilitate rapid acceptance and implementation of high payoff and innovative
technologies and it selected prefabricated bridge elements and systems as the first of its
technologies to champion for rapid implementation. An implementation panel was setup in
2001 to extend the use of prefab technology in bridge design and construction. The panel was
responsible for arranging seminars and workshops, producing brochures, publications and video
clips, establishing the web sites for dissemination of information, sponsoring research and
supporting States initiatives. After the initial efforts of AASHTO-TIG, the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) carried forward the initiative and mobilized its vast resources with the
purpose of exploiting this technology and quickly expanding its use in future bridge
construction. A comprehensive coverage of latest developments, news, research and technical
information on prefabricated bridge elements and systems is available at
www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/prefab.
In Canada, the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) has also made a modest effort to
mobilize and benefit from this technology and work done in USA and other parts of the world.
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It initiated an in-house research program in 2000 to investigate the feasibility of using

prefabricated bridge technology for new and rehabilitation bridge projects. It also partnered
with Ontario universities to supplement its research activities. MTO also initiated meetings
with local fabricators to discuss its prefabrication initiatives and to seek their input and
cooperation in this regard. A Prefabricated Bridge Symposium was organized in conjunction
with the Cement Association of Canada in 2003 where consultants, contractors and academia
were invited to participate in presentations and discussions regarding prefabrication and ways to
accelerate its implementation.
MTO recently initiated a number of prefabricated bridge projects to implement some of the
research work and to test the design, fabrication and construction capabilities. Moose Creek
Bridge [27, 36], the first single span, prefabricated integral abutment bridge was designed by a
consultant with input from the ministry and fabricator and was successfully built in 2004. As of
2006, an additional seven bridge projects have been added to the growing list successful
applications of prefabricated bridge technology in Ontario.
ADVANTAGES OF PREFABRICATION
Prefabricated bridge elements and systems offer bridge designers and contractors
significant advantages:
• Minimise traffic impacts, community disruption and user costs
• Improve work zone safety
• Minimise environmental impact
• Improve constructability
• Increase quality and durability of bridge elements
• Lower life cycle costs.
With the growth in the population and economy of Ontario and an ageing highway
infrastructure, there is increasing pressure to build and maintain bridges with the lowest life-
cycle costs and least impact on the travelling public. Increasing traffic volumes and congestions
through construction zones are making it more difficult to close roadways or obstruct traffic
flow during construction for any great length of time. It is therefore desirable to carry out the
construction quickly in a manner that would also minimize the need for future maintenance and
rehabilitation.
Prefabrication is one of the technologies that offer this possibility by (a) shifting most of the
construction work offsite, (b) standardizing the design and construction of bridges, (c) reducing
construction time and (d) making them more durable so that the need for future maintenance
work is minimized.
Use of prefabricated bridge elements and systems means that time-consuming formwork
construction, placing reinforcement, concrete pouring and curing and other tasks associated with
on-site fabrication can be done off-site in a controlled environment without affecting traffic nor
causing user delays.
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With prefabrication, much of the preparatory work for bridge construction is moved off-site,
thus reducing the time that workers are exposed to the dangers of site work such as working
close to moving traffic, at elevated heights or over water. It also improves the safety of the
travelling public by minimizing the need for lane closures, detours and the use of narrow lanes.
Using prefabricated substructure elements reduces the amount of heavy equipment and the time
the heavy equipment is required on site. Keeping heavy equipment out of environmentally
sensitive areas is less disruptive to those environments. Also, off-site fabrication allows re-use
of formwork, thus making less demand on natural resources such as wood.
Job sites often impose difficult constraints on the constructability of bridge designs e.g. high
elevations, long stretches over water, restricted workspaces around bridge sites. Using
prefabricated elements can relieve much of these constructability pressures.
Prefabricating bridge elements and systems takes them out of the critical path of project
schedule thus allowing them to be built ahead of time, using as much time as needed, in a
controlled environment. This leads to improved bridge construction quality, enhanced
durability and reduced maintenance needs. Overall life-cycle costs of prefabricated structures
are effectively lowered.
DISADVANTAGES OF PREFABRICATION
Prefabrication has many advantages but its use requires caution, careful evaluation and
justification to ensure a satisfactory outcome. Some of these considerations and cautions
are:
• Need for higher precision in fabrication and construction especially where final fit
and matching of prefabricated elements is important
• Introduction of cold construction joints especially where they are vulnerable to salt
spray
• Concerns with the quality of joints
• Repairs of accidental damage
• Corrective measures for any damage during transportation, storage and construction
Prefabrication requires a fairly skilled work force and relatively high precision in fabrication
and construction (with low tolerances) compared to conventional cast-in-place construction and
fit-to-suit construction practices. The accumulation of construction tolerances and errors in
fabrication of elements can lead to serious problems on site as components may not fit or match
or may be distorted when erected, resulting in construction delays and extra repair costs.
Prefabrication requires considerable efforts to ensure that the components are not damaged
during transportation and erection, as repairs can be time-consuming and expensive. Special
care is required to support the elements and systems in place until they are made monolithic and
self-supporting as failure to do this may result in serious structural and financial consequences.
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One of the most important considerations in the use of prefabrication technology is the quality
of construction joints. A poorly designed or constructed joint can result in water leakage and
damage due to salt penetration and freeze and thaw. In addition to aesthetic issues, it may result
in reduced strength, loss of structural integrity, damage to the components and reduced life.
It is also important to consider the seismic response of the joint details in seismically sensitive
areas. Consideration should also be given to the bridge location and its environmental
characteristics because details, which are good for one area, may not perform as well in a
different setting.
PREFABRICATED ELEMENTS
Prefabricated elements are single components of the structure that are generally fabricated off-
site in the shop and brought to the project location ready to be erected. They can also be
constructed adjacent to a project site, where they do not interfere with traffic, and then moved to
the bridge site for erection. Examples of prefabricated elements are shown in Figure 1.
Prestressed concrete
Pier caps
beams
Steel plate girders Columns & piers
Partial-depth deck
Abutments
slabs
Full-depth deck slabs Culverts
Barrier walls Figure 1: Prefabricated Bridge Elements

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PREFABRICATED SYSTEMS
Prefabricated systems are combinations of different elements that are either fabricated
together or fabricated separately and assembled together off-site and brought to the
project location ready to be erected. Usually it is more difficult to transport and erect
bridge systems due to their size and weight. It is therefore more convenient to fabricate
or assemble these systems close to the site (away from traffic) and move to the site when
needed. Examples of prefabricated systems are given in Figure 2.
Decks cast on Precast

girders before segmental
erection bridges
Proprietary
Truss systems
deck systems
Incrementally
Modular
launched precast
bridges
and steel decks
Total
prefabricated Figure 2: Prefabricated Bridge Systems
system
PREFABRICATION BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY IN MTO
The ministry’s experience with prefabrication technology has to date been limited mostly
to the use of conventional precast CPCI girders, welded steel plate girders, steel arches
and trusses. Over the years, the ministry has experimented with more innovative
approaches to bridge design and construction featuring novel forms of prefabrication.
Such initiatives were infrequent and were taken to resolve unique engineering challenges
or undertaken as trial projects to gain experience and test design and constructability
issues. Thus, prefabrication has not been pursued as mainstream bridge technology in
bridge construction until the early 2000’s when the ministry started a concerted effort to
promote and encourage increased use of prefabrication as an innovative technology that
can potentially resolve many of the issues related to cast-in-place construction. As a
-8-
result, eight new bridge projects have been constructed between 2004 and 2006 to
develop and demonstrate the use of prefabrication in bridge construction.
Examples of prefabricated bridge types used to date by the ministry are:
• CPCI and steel plate girders

• Steel arches and trusses
• Precast segmental bridges
• Partial-depth stay-in-place deck slabs
• Full-depth deck slabs
• Lateral sliding of superstructure
• Precast barriers
• Precast culverts
MTO Prefabrication Projects
Table 1 lists the ministry projects where prefabrication bridge technology has been used.
Table 1: MTO Applications of Prefabricated Bridge Technology (as of 2006)

Prefabrication Construction
Bridge Location
Feature Year
Jordan Harbour/QEW (Figure 3) Partial-depth deck panel
Full-depth, full-width
Welland River/QEW (Figure 4) 1990
deck panels
McKenzie Creek/Hwy 6 (Figure 5) Precast barriers 1990
Twelve Mile Creek/Hwy 406 (Figure 6) Precast segmental 1982
Dedrick Creek Bridge, Port Rowan (Figure 7) Precast rigid frame units
Sturgeon River Bridge, Hwy 642 Precast deck panels 1999
Moose Creek Bridge, Hwy 101 (Figure 8) Precast T-beams, integral 2004
Little Savanne River Bridge, Hwy 11 (Figure 9) Full-depth deck panels 2005
Passe-a-Fontaine, Hanlan Narrows (Figure 10) 2005
deck panels
Sucker Creek Bridge (Figure 11) Side-by-side box girders 2005
Lateral sliding of
CNR Bridge/Hwy 6 (Figure 12) 2006
superstructure
Mull Road Underpass, Hwy 401 (Figure 13) 2006
deck panels
CNR OHead @ Rainy Lake, Hwy 11 (Figure 14) Full-depth deck panels 2006
Beaver Creek Bridge, Hwy 12 Precast T-beams 2006
CPR Overhead @ Morriston, Hwy 6 Precast Pier Cap 2006
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Figure 3: Jordan Harbour/QEW Figure 4: Welland River/QEW

(Partial-Depth Deck Panel) (Full-Depth, Full-Width Deck Panel)
Figure 5: McKenzie Creek/Hwy 6 Figure 6: Twelve Mile Creek/Hwy 406

(Precast Barriers) (Precast Segmental)
Figure 7: Dedrick Creek Bridge, Port Figure 8: Moose Creek Bridge/Hwy 101
Rowan (Precast Integral)
(Precast Rigid Frame Units)
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Figure 9: Little Savanne Bridge/Hwy 11 Figure 10: Passe-a-Fontaine Bridge

(Full-Depth Deck Panel) (Full-Depth/Full-Width Deck Panel)
Figure 11: Sucker Creek Bridge Figure 12: CNR Bridge, Hwy 6
(Side-by-Side Box Girders) (Lateral Sliding of Superstructure)
Figure 13: Mull Road Underpass, Hwy 401 Figure 14: CNR Overhead @ Rainy
(Full-depth Full-width Deck Slabs) Lake, Hwy 11 (Full-Depth Deck Panel)
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Figure 15: Beaver Creek Bridge, Hwy 12 Figure 16: CPR Overhead, Hwy 6
(Precast Integral) (Precast Pier Cap)
PREFABRICATION GOALS & CHALLENGES

GOALS
The ministry is implementing bridge prefabrication technology to achieve the following

goals:
Bridge Superstructures
• Use precast systems

• Use precast elements to assemble entire superstructure
• Use total superstructure systems
• Minimize field operations
Bridge Substructures
• Use precast elements in substructures

• Use precast systems for integral abutment bridges
• Use precast pier caps
• Use precast columns
• Use total substructure systems
Totally Prefabricated Bridges
• Use Self Propelled Modular Transporters (SPMT) to move complete bridges

into place
• Use Incremental Launching for precast concrete bridges
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CHALLENGES
The following are some of the main challenges that prefabrication poses to bridge
designers and contractors:
• Improve quality and performance of bridges

• Ensure long-term durability of prefabricated bridges to be similar to bridges
built using cast-in-place construction
• Capitalize on experience of ministry and other jurisdictions
• Develop design procedures and construction details for prefabrication
• Develop durable and structurally sound connections for prefabricated
elements and systems
• Develop inspection and repair procedures
• Develop construction specifications for prefabricated elements and systems
• Mobilize the construction industry to accept and adopt this technology
• Explore fabrication logistics for prefabricated systems
• Develop means of transportation for prefabricated systems
• Develop means of lifting and handling techniques in the plant and on site
• Ability of prefabricated systems to accommodate curvilinear geometry
• Develop details to provide negative moment continuity
• Develop standard sections and enable multiple forms usage
CONSIDERATION AND JUSTIFICATION FOR PREFABRICATION

Prefabricated bridges offer significant advantages over onsite cast-in-place construction.
However, careful planning, design, and implementation are required in order to realize
those advantages. Factors that need to be considered at the outset include (a) reasons for
fast-tracking construction, (b) applicability of the design, (c) abilities of contractors and
suppliers in the target market, (d) access to the project site, and (e) how the construction
requirements affect cost and schedule.
DECISION-MAKING TOOLS
To assist in the decision-making process on whether prefabrication might be an

economical and effective choice for a specific bridge, two decision-making tools are
provided:
(1) a high-level flowchart tool (Figure 17) that can be used as an initial tool to
address some of the above issues in an objective and structured manner, and
(2) a matrix decision tool (Figure 18) that provides users with a different format and
more details than the flowchart to help determine whether a prefabricated bridge
is achievable and effective for a specific bridge project.
Either tool can be used independently or together in the decision-making process.
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Y
RAILWAY SUBWAY
RAILWAY RAILWAY RAILWAY RAILWAY

OVERHEAD OVERPASS UNDERPASS CROSSING
HIGH ADT Y
AND/OR
AADT
LIFE SUPPORT Y
SYRUCTURE
DETOUR/
TEMPORARY
N CONSIDER & JUSTIFY DECIDE MOST
DETRMINE SCOPE OF EVALUATE FEASIBILITY
PREFABRICATION SUITABLE TYPE OF
CROSSING PREFABRICATION OF PREFABRICATION
STRUCTURE
POSSIBLE
N
CONSTRUCTION Y FEASIBILE?
SAFETY ISSUES
Y
N
*
Y CHEAPER THAN
EVALUATE COST OF
CONVENTIONAL PREFABRICATION
WEATHER/
ENVIRONMENTAL Y
CONSTRAINTS REQ'G
SPEEDY
CONSTRUCTION
N
N DECIDE IF OTHER
FACTORS JUSTIFY
PREFABRICATION
SEVERE
EONOMIC/SOCIAL Y
IMPACT FROM
CLOSURE
EVALUATE RISK
FACTORS
Y ACCEPTABLE N
RISKS?
PREFABRICATED
BRIDGE DESIGN
CONVENTIONAL
BRIDGE DESIGN
*
* Compare construction costs of prefabricated bridge against conventional
bridge(with detours). If difference is small, consider road user costs.
Figure 17: Flowchart Tool for Prefabricated Bridges

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Decision Chart -- Prefabricated Bridge Components

Project: Date:
BENEFITS Score * Comments
Does the bridge carry or cross high AADT road or major route/rail?
Is the bridge on Emerg Route or over rail or major navigation channel?
Will bridge closure or construction have adverse economic impact?
Will use of prefab mitigate long detours?
Does local weather affect construction season duration?
Will there be significant user costs due to construction?
Will prefabrication expedite bridge construction?
Are there structural or quality benefits from prefabrication?
Are there cost savings due to prefabrication?
Are there intangible benefits? E.g. Advancement of knowledge (explain)
Are there safety concerns with conventional construction?

Totals -- Benefits 0
* Pull down relative 'score' based on importance of the benefit 1=
low importance, 5 = high importance, 0 = N/A
RISKS Score * Comments
Are there significant cost premiums due to prefabrication?
Will use of prefabrication cause design schedule delays?

Are there overall project construction schedule delays due to
prefabrication?
Are there intangible risks? E.g. Contractor apprehension (explain)
Totals -- Risks 0
* Pull down relative 'score' based on seriousness of the risk: 2=
low importance, 10 = high importance, 0 = N/A.
Summary:
Note: No specific recommendations are being proposed at this stage on score values that can be used to trigger the use
of prefabrication in specific projects due to the lack of sufficient data from field applications carried out to date.
Because of variable conditions and differing needs in different regions of the province, it is judged appropriate to leave
the decision-making process at the regional level until such time when sufficient data is available to justify a standard
approach for the whole province.
Figure 18: Matrix Tool for High-Level Decision on Prefabricated Bridges

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CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING PREFABRICATION AS CONSTRUCTION

METHOD
The following outlines some of the considerations that need to be included in the final
analysis to allow a more in-depth evaluation of the use of prefabrication as the selected
construction method:
Bridge Type - Highway v/s Railway
• The bridge type may influence the decision on whether to use prefabricated
construction. A railway subway may not be suitable for prefabrication because
the design of bridges carrying a railway is subject to approval of railway
authorities and they generally require strict adherence to their standards and
procedures. In addition, railways have developed their own preferred technique
for rapid replacement of railway bridges, which may not be suitable for highway
structures. As a result, railway bridges are not included within the scope of these
guidelines.
Bridge Geometry
• Bridge should have simple geometry, span arrangement and cross-sections, which
will make prefabrication details simple and casting and transportation of segments
manageable.
• Straight alignments allow the use of multiple identical components, which will
make prefabrication an effective and economical solution.
• Bridge alignment can affect the type of superstructure members, e.g., curved
alignments will typically result in steel or post-tensioned segmental
superstructures and will require shorter segments in order to transport over city
streets. Straight alignments will generally result in lower initial construction costs
and long-term maintenance costs as a result of simpler construction and load
paths. During preliminary planning, consideration should be given, if possible, to
straightening the roadway alignment along the bridge length to achieve lower life-
cycle costs. This may also benefit sight lines, improve drainage and raise design
speeds.
Bridge Traffic Volume
• Work zone safety concerns for road users as well as construction crew increase
with higher Average Daily Traffic (ADT) and in particular, the Average Daily
Truck Traffic (ADTT).
• Traffic control costs and user delay costs will be much higher if traffic volumes
are high. The safety concerns and costs can be significantly reduced by the use of
prefabrication as onsite construction time is minimised.
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Life Support Bridge or Emergency Replacement
• Repair or replacement of life support bridges on evacuation routes needed to

provide access to essential services or for restoration of services must be
completed quickly to ensure that the routes are available in the event of an
emergency. Prefabricated bridges have a particular advantage over conventional
bridges in such cases because they can greatly expedite on-site installation.
• Bridge replacements are either planned due to structural deficiency or functional
obsolescence of an existing bridge, or emergencies due to catastrophic damage to
an existing bridge. Emergency bridge replacements particularly benefit from the
use of prefabricated systems because the existing bridge cannot be used and must
be replaced in the least time possible in order to minimize traffic disruption.
Need for Detours, Temporary Crossings and Lane Closures
• In many cases it may not be possible to close a bridge during construction due to
the need to maintain traffic flows, such as on an evacuation route or a high-traffic
volume road that does not have a detour within a reasonable distance. In such
cases rapid installation with prefabricated bridges can provide a better solution
relative to conventional construction, because quicker installation would reduce
the lane closure time.
• Keeping all lanes open during peak traffic periods reduces traffic disruption and
improves safety. Compared to peak-hour partial lane closures, partial lane
closures during off-peak traffic periods are less disruptive to traffic and improve
safety for construction crews as well as travellers. Maintaining traffic flow will
require prefabrication details that can be installed using partial lane closures.
Weather and Environmental Constraints
• Winter weather conditions or environmental constraints may limit cast-in-place

construction work during certain periods of the year or necessitate construction
techniques and methods that may be undesirable or uneconomical. For example,
placing and curing cast-in-place concrete during severely cold weather conditions
need special precautions to be taken such as providing enclosures and heating that
can be expensive and problematic for large areas. The result is that construction
is often limited to only certain times of the year. These limitations are
significantly lessened with the use of prefabricated components since they require
very limited cast-in-place concrete such as in closure joints.
• Environmental constraints such as (a) presence of wetlands, urban areas where
air, noise and water quality pollution issues are important, and (b) need to
accommodate endangered species may limit construction windows and restrict the
use of heavy construction equipment or use of construction methods that can
cause damage to the environment or disturbance to prevailing ecosystem.
Environmental mitigation and court orders may result in increased cost and
- 17 -
reduced construction periods. Prefabrication can help lessen the risk to the owner
that obligations placed by outside agencies will not be met.
Severe Economic or Social Impact from Closure
• A bridge linking a community to the main routes and to other communities or a

bridge spanning over a navigation channel must be replaced quickly to avoid
impact to social life and commerce. Prefabrication can considerably reduce the
construction time and the disruptions to the navigational traffic resulting in much
reduced economic or social impact.
Suitable Type of Structure
• Prefabricated systems are the most cost effective solution for multiple span
bridges with constant cross-section, cross slopes and normal grades where
components can be standardized and formwork can be reused.
• Use of a standardized system in different bridges or in different locations of the
same bridge can result in more economy and speedy construction. The
contractor’s familiarity with the standardized systems can also result in economy
due to increased confidence and reduced insurance costs.
• The concrete slab-on-girder system is one of the most commonly used
superstructure systems for bridges. A considerable amount of work has been
done in developing the design details and construction methodology for this type
of structure, for which good historical records of performance are available to
help in deciding on the suitability of design details.
• Post-tensioned deck type structures are less amenable to prefabrication and are
only considered in special circumstances where segmental construction,
incremental launching or use of Self Propelled Modular Transporters (discussed
later) can be considered.
• For bridge substructures, consideration should be given to select the type that can
be precast in segments and assembled on site to form the complete system.
Scope of Prefabrication
• It is important to consider the scope of prefabrication during the planning stage of

a bridge project. Although it is desirable to build the entire bridge using
prefabricated segments and elements, it may in some cases be just as efficient to
use prefabrication for only certain parts of the structure e.g. substructure or
superstructure or individual elements of the structure. Determination of scope
helps in establishing the viability and feasibility of prefabrication and ensuring
that it is justified and cost effective.
• In many cases, foundation and substructure construction can be the most costly
and time-consuming part of constructing a bridge. To gain maximum advantage
from the on-site construction time reduction that comes with prefabricated bridge
- 18 -
installation, consideration should be given to using prefabricated components for

foundations and substructures wherever feasible. Shallow foundations such as
spread footings should be considered, especially on highway and railway
crossings, as well as precast piers and pier caps. Driven piles also provide rapid
onsite installation of bridge foundations.
Evaluating Feasibility of Prefabrication
• The availability of designers, fabricators and contractors, in the target bridge area,
with sufficient skill, experience and construction capacity to perform
prefabricated bridge construction can influence the decision to use prefabrication
or cast-in-place construction.
• Construction of prefabricated bridges is not inherently more difficult than
conventional construction but does require a greater degree of precision and
attention to details, tolerances and quality control to avoid problems on site. It
also requires an understanding and cooperation between the prefabricator and the
contractor to carry out their business in a way that may be different from their
normal practice. On the other hand if there is insufficient construction capacity in
the area, the owner may need to create conditions to develop expertise and carry
out activities to encourage a wider interest and get a sufficient number of
qualified bids.
• The size of the project may have an impact on the economic feasibility of
obtaining the specific prefabricated components that are required. For large
projects, the cost benefits to be gained from prefabrication may offset the setup
costs and expenditures for the prefabricator to construct a specific component or
expenditures for transportation of the components over long distances. For
smaller projects, the cost of fabricating non-standard elements or incurring high
transportation costs may not be justified. The use of standard elements and
segments on the other hand may result in making smaller projects more
economical.
• By giving the contractor the choice of either having the prefabricated components
built in a fabrication plant and transported to the site or setting up a casting
facility near the bridge site and fabricating the components near the construction
site may facilitate rapid onsite construction at competitive costs.
• Transportation routes to bring prefabricated components to the bridge site should
be considered in preliminary planning since hauling constraints will impact bid
costs. Longer and heavier prefabricated components can require that
conventional transportation and erection practices be modified. For transportation
over highways, the hauling systems must meet the permit limits, and the haulers
must find a route that has adequate turning radii and horizontal and vertical
clearances to get components to the bridge site.
Preliminary planning should include a transportation route study, allowable haul
times, permit regulations, utility relocations, easements (municipal, railroad,
- 19 -
airport), and ease of movement throughout congested areas including job site
detours.
• Access at the bridge site must be adequate to allow longer and heavier
prefabricated systems to be moved into position, and equipment must have
adequate capacity to erect the heavier components. The planning stage should
include these considerations for optimization of prefabricated systems for rapid
onsite installation.
• Tall falsework systems required for conventional construction are not only
expensive but also require substantial time for engineering, approval and
construction. Prefabrication can eliminate the need to provide support for cast-in-
place construction of the superstructure, which can have significant benefits to
both time and cost.
Evaluating Cost of Prefabrication
• Comparative cost evaluation for prefabrication versus cast-in-place construction is

not simple, as it should include the design and construction costs as well as the
life cycle costs. The benchmarks to be used for the life cycle cost calculations for
prefabrication are not as well established as for cast-in-place construction, which
makes the cost assessment difficult and often unrealistic.
• The calculation of design and construction costs for prefabrication projects can
also be misleading as contractors and prefabricators may include initial set up,
insurance and risk-associated costs in their bid price.
• Lack of competition, at least initially, may also influence the design and
construction costs.
• Traffic management and user-delay costs associated with bridge construction
activities are often significant and add up with time. They can significantly
influence the selection of the construction method. As prefabricated bridges can
be installed in hours or days compared to weeks or months for conventional
bridges, the prefabricated bridge can greatly reduce these costs.
For conventionally built bridges, traffic control costs can range from 5% to more
than 30% of construction costs, although they are typically less than 10%. Values
above 10% appear to occur in the case of smaller projects, where the set-up costs
of the traffic control plans may be high relative to the overall project costs. Cost
savings from the reduced duration of the traffic control plan can be estimated
based on the reduced number of days of traffic control cost times the average
daily operating cost of such measures for comparable bridge projects.
Evaluation of user delay costs is an even more difficult task. Traffic simulation
models can be used to measure the degree to which expediting the construction
will lower vehicle miles and hours of travel. Traffic analysis products are
presently available to capture the effects of work zones and bridge closures on
user delay costs.
- 20 -
• The cost of reduced damage to the environment and resulting mitigation

requirements should also be considered. The bundling of a few structures using
similar prefabricated elements and systems in the same contract or using
stockpiled and standardised components can significantly influence the cost of
prefabrication.
Other Factors Influencing Prefabrication
• Prefabrication can also be justified on the basis of other considerations such as:
(a) trial projects, research needs or acute emergency requiring rapid bridge
construction, (b) availability of expertise, material or commitment of
stakeholders, or (c) testing a new method of construction or evaluating new
design/construction details. It may often be necessary to initiate such projects to
gain confidence and test feasibility and constructability issues even though they
may result in initially higher costs.
Risk Factors
• The risk factors should be assessed and evaluated before making a decision to use
prefabrication. For example, contractor’s or designer’s apprehension may cause
delay or even jeopardise the project. It should therefore be assured that a
communication line is established between the owner, designer and the contractor
to discuss the ideas and details of the proposed prefabrication scheme. This
would not only help in the smooth execution of the project, it may also remove
some of the apprehension that may negatively impact the cost.
• An ill-conceived prefabrication scheme may result in design and construction
delays that may compromise the objectives of the prefabrication and result in
excessive cost implications.
• Long-term risk factors such as durability, repair, replacement and widening issues
should also be considered.
- 21 -
Prefabricated Bridge Elements &

Systems
Prefabricated bridge technology has been implemented with much success in North
America and other parts of the world in the recent past and their use is growing as bridge
jurisdictions find new ways of building/rehabilitating bridges with minimum traffic and
community disruption. The recent availability of mobile heavy lift transporters has made
it possible to prefabricate a complete bridge or bridge superstructure and move it in place
ready for use within narrow highway closure time frames. Alternatively, the pre-
assembled structure can also be installed by innovative launching or sliding techniques.
Prefabrication applications can range from individual prefabricated elements such as:
• Beams
• Girders
• Slabs
• Pier caps
• Columns and piers
• Footings
to prefabricated systems such as:
• Complete slab-on-girder units

• Total superstructures or substructures
• Segments of superstructures and substructures
PREFABRICATED STEEL BEAMS AND PRECAST

PRETENSIONED CONCRETE BEAMS
The use of prefabricated steel girders and precast pretensioned concrete girders is now
fairly common and does not warrant much discussions as they are routinely used in
everyday applications and methods of fabrication, transportation and erection have
become standard. Some main points to note are:
• These girders are usually used when it is not feasible or uneconomical to provide
falsework or where falsework is not desirable due to the need to maintain traffic
below and other traffic safety issues. It is sometimes necessary to stop the traffic
for short durations, on a rotating basis, to erect the girders. In heavy traffic areas,
erection of girders can be accomplished during off-peak traffic hours or at night.
- 22 -
After the girders are erected, the deck is cast over formwork, which is supported
from the girders, avoiding any interference with the traffic below.
• Use of precast pretensioned girders (especially the smaller girder sizes) is often
the most economical type of construction due to standardisation of girder shape
and sizes. The use of these girders is particularly advantageous when the site is
close to the fabrication plant. One major disadvantage of precast concrete girders
is that they are susceptible to damage by overheight vehicles travelling below,
which is often difficult and expensive to repair.
• Steel I-girders are not suitable for use over traffic lanes as salt spray caused by
traffic below can settle over the bottom flanges and cause corrosion and long-term
durability issues. As a result, only steel box girders are used over traffic in
Ontario.
• MTO has also used side-by-side precast box girders to avoid the need for
falsework and formwork. However, this type of girder system requires a cast-in-
place topping slab to (a) prevent water leakage through the joints and (b) transfer
the live load shear forces.
Recently, the ministry has tried a side-by-side precast box girder deck system
without the topping slab but with an improved shear connection detail between
the box girders (Figure 19). This system was successfully implemented in the
Sucker Creek bridge replacement project on County Road 41 in 2006.
Figure 19: Shear Key Detail for

Side-by-Side Box Girder Deck
System
Use of side-by-side box girders with the shear key detail shown in Figure 19
should be considered in future MTO projects as it can considerably reduce the
construction time as well as resolve potential vertical clearance issues due to
the elimination of the 150mm topping slab.
- 23 -
PRECAST CONCRETE DECK SLABS

PARTIAL-DEPTH CONCRETE DECK PANELS (STAY-IN-PLACE DECK
FORMS)
Background
The first bridge that was built using partial depth precast concrete deck panels in USA
was in early 1950’s on the Illinois Tollway [1]. Extensive research on this form of
construction was undertaken in USA in the late 1960’s and 1970’s. The research,
sponsored by Texas Department of Transportation, showed that the use of precast
pretensioned concrete panels in bridge decks produces a stronger, stiffer and more crack-
resistant deck when subjected to applied loads than a conventional cast-in-place deck [2].
The encouraging results led to their widespread acceptance and subsequent incorporation
in the AASHTO specifications in the late 1970’s.
The ministry first used partial-depth precast concrete deck panels on the QEW North
Service Road at Jordan Harbour in the early 1990’s followed by the Eighty Mile Creek
Bridge on the QEW (Figures 20 and 21). It was proposed as an alternative to the
traditional cast-in-place concrete deck by the contractor to speed up construction and
realize some savings. Some bridges on Highway 407 were also built in the 1990’s using
this type of deck forms.
As a result of (a) good field performance of these decks, (b) confirmation of composite
behaviour of the deck system by a successful load test of the Jordan Harbour/QEW
structure and (c) tests on structural models in the ministry research laboratory, draft
standard drawings have been prepared and will soon be available for the general use of
this type of deck slab construction (Appendix A).
Design code provisions for the application of this type of deck system in bridges are
included in the new Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code [3]. At present, the Ministry
permits the use of these panels on a project-to-project basis when proposed by the
contractor. With the release of the standard drawings, contractors and design consultants
would be able to use them on projects when justified. However, it is suggested that if the
partial-depth deck panels are supported on steel girders, consideration should be given to
the flexibility of the system as steel girders are judged too flexible and may adversely
affect the performance of the partial deck slabs due to premature cracking.
- 24 -
Figure 21: Partial-Depth Deck Panels

Figure 20: Partial-Depth Deck Panels
Placed on Bridge Girders
Partial-Depth Deck Panel System Description
This bridge deck system consists of precast concrete panels spanning between
longitudinal girders and topped with a cast-in-place concrete layer to achieve the finished
deck thickness. The panels can be of normal reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete.
Some of the main characteristics of the deck system are:
• Precast deck panels span between adjacent girders and are supported on
continuous expanded polystyrene bearing strips.
• Precast panels act as formwork for the pouring of the cast-in-place concrete and
become an integral component of the deck when completed. The finished deck
acts as a composite slab in carrying the design traffic loads.
• To minimize the possibility of cracking of precast panels during transportation,
construction and service life, panels can be pre-tensioned. Although this was
usually done in the earlier applications of partial-depth deck slabs, the use of
prestressing is being reduced and the panels are reinforced accordingly to allow
the slabs to be handled safely during transportation and erection.
• The steel reinforcement in the precast panels is assumed to represent the bottom
reinforcement in a conventional cast-in-place deck slab. However, due to the
lack of rebar continuity between the deck panels, there was concern that the
bottom transverse reinforcement may not act as a tie, which is required to
produce an arching effect in the deck slab. As a result, it was thought that this
type of deck system would carry loads by flexural action.
• An ultimate load test carried out by MTO’s R&D Office in 1995 on a full-scale
model of a partial-depth deck slab system showed that the deck failed by
punching shear with an ultimate load that exceeded the factored design wheel
load, thus confirming the existence of arching action in the system.
• CHBDC gives provisions for both prestressed and non-prestressed deck panels
(Clause 8.18.4.3). The MTO draft standards do not require any pre-stressing for
girder spacings of up to 2000 mm. Further information on the recommended
- 25 -
practice and use of the partial-depth precast concrete panels are published
elsewhere [1, 4].
Initial MTO Trial Projects
QEW/North Service Road at Jordan Harbour

This structure, which saw the first use of the stay-in-place formwork system in Ontario,
was designed with the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code [5], which did not have
provisions for this type of deck construction. However, the use of the stay-in-place
formwork system was approved on the basis that the precast panels would be prestressed
transversely across the full width of the bridge deck to provide the arching action in the
composite slab, which is the premise for the simplified slab design methodology given in
the code.
The deck slab of the Jordan Harbour/QEW Bridge was load tested by the MTO R&D
Office and was found to have adequate load carrying capacity [6].
Partial-depth concrete deck panels can be used on a project-to-project basis when

justified. However, if panels are supported on steel girders, due consideration should
be given to the overall flexibility of the deck system as steel girders can be too
flexible and may adversely affect the performance of the partial deck slabs due to
premature cracking.
MTO draft standards for these panels do not require prestressing for girder spacings
of up to 2000 mm. Panels for larger girder spacings will require prestressing.
FULL-DEPTH PRECAST CONCRETE DECK SLABS
Background
The first use of full-depth precast deck panels started as early as 1965 in the USA after
initial research was conducted on the use of precast, prestressed concrete bridge deck
panels [7]. The 1980’s saw a gradual increase in the use of this system for both new and
rehabilitation projects. In 1982, a survey conducted by the PCI Bridge Committee [8]
revealed that 21 US states utilised precast prestressed concrete bridge panels regularly.
Following another survey carried out in 1986, design specifications for precast composite
deck panels were published [9].
The main motivation behind this prefabrication system has been its ability to accelerate
the construction schedule for rehabilitation projects especially in areas with high traffic
volumes where traffic closures have a high cost and cause a lot of inconvenience to the
public. The University of Illinois conducted a comprehensive survey in 1994, with
funding from the Illinois Department of Transportation, to study the application of full-
depth deck panels in North America [10]. The objective was to evaluate the stability,
- 26 -
durability and performance of such deck systems when exposed to harsh conditions. The
survey included information on type of construction, deck dimensions, deck supporting
system, panel dimensions and reinforcement, type of connecting system between panels
and supporting systems, type of joint between adjacent panels, type of bonding material
used to fill the joints, problem associated with the joints, reasons for adverse results and
type of protection system.
Other references include a 2002 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute publication of a
design guideline for full depth precast concrete deck slabs [11]. The results of a more
recent survey conducted as part of NCHRP 12-65 project, “ Full Depth, Precast Concrete
Bridge Deck Panel Systems” has been published in 2004 [12]. Note also that design
code provisions for the application of this type of deck system in bridges are included in
the new Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code.
In Ontario, the ministry first used a full-depth precast concrete deck slab system for the
deck replacement of a portion of the Welland River Bridge (Figure 4) on QEW in 1990 to
reduce the time of bridge closure and to test whether this new technology and associated
economic advantages can be realized [13]. More recently, applications of this deck
system have been implemented on five new bridge rehabilitation projects (Table 1).
Full-Depth Deck Panel System Description
This bridge deck system consists of individual precast full-depth concrete deck panels
that span between steel or concrete girders. They are made composite with the girders
and connected together by transverse and longitudinal cast-in-place closure strips. Some
of the main characteristics of the deck system are:
• Precast deck panels span between the girders supported on continuous expanded
polystyrene bearing strips or other suitable material. The panels can span over
two or more girders to suit the requirements of staged construction (Figure 9) or
can extend over the full width of the deck as a single unit (Figures 10 and 13).
• Panels are linked together to form a composite deck slab by cast-in-place concrete
closure pours (approximately 300 mm wide), which can be located longitudinally
over the girders or midway between girders and transversely across the bridge
width. Special reinforcement details are used to provide the continuity of
reinforcement in the closure strips.
• Another connection detail, more commonly found in US applications, involve the
use of specially designed grouted joints. These joints are typically narrow
(approximately 25 mm wide) and are filled with high-strength, non-shrink grout
to bond the panels together and to resist vertical shear stresses in the joints. These
grouted joints require the use of prestressing (transverse and/or longitudinal) to
improve leakage control and provide proper load distribution between panels and
girders.
It should be noted that MTO does not support the use of this type of panel
connection. The ministry’s preference is to use cast-in-place concrete closure
- 27 -
strips to link the precast panels together and protect the deck surface with a 90mm
thick waterproofing membrane and asphalt system.
• Elevations of panels are achieved by levelling bolt devices.
• Shear pockets, formed into the deck panels at girder locations, can be used to
facilitate installation of shear connectors to achieve composite action (Figure 10).
• Panels can be fabricated with normal reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete
(with pretension tendons).
• Panels can be pre-tensioned transversely to control cracks during handling and
installation or to achieve thinner slab thicknesses. They can also be post-
tensioned longitudinally to seal the transverse joints and eliminate reflective
cracking in the wearing surface.
• Bridge barriers can be cast monolithically on-site with the precast deck panels
after the closure strips have been cast. Alternatively, the following precast
options are available: (a) barrier wall and/or sidewalk can be prefabricated
together with the deck panel (Figure 13), and (b) use can be made of precast
barriers, which are connected to the deck panels through specially designed
attachment details (Figure 38).
Initial MTO Trial Projects
Welland River Bridge on QEW (Westbound)
This structure, which saw one of the first

applications of the full-depth, full width
deck system in Ontario, was designed with
the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code,
which did not have provisions for the full-
depth precast deck panel system. As a
result, the Ministry initiated an extensive
test program (Figure 22) to confirm the
performance of the proposed rehabilitation
and suitability of the details and concepts
[14, 15]. Details of deck panels are: Figure 22: Experimental Full-Depth
Panel Deck System
• The deck consisted of full width 2.5m long and 0.225m thick panels supported on
steel girders.
• Shear pockets were provided in the panels to allow site-installation of shear
connectors for composite action.
• The transverse joints between the panels were provided with the double female
configuration keys that were grouted after installation.
• The panels were then post-tensioned in the longitudinal direction.
- 28 -
• The deck has performed satisfactorily over the years without any sign of distress
or need for rehabilitation.
• The cost of installation of this deck was found to be about 30% higher compared
with the cost of a similar cast-in-place deck. However, the higher costs were due
to the small size and novelty of the project and also because part of the testing
programme was included in the contract. The higher costs of using precast deck
panels could be expected at least until the technology gains wider acceptance.
But, the Welland River Bridge has conclusively demonstrated that a precast deck
can be installed, without any major concern, significantly faster and at a lesser
inconvenience to the road user.
MTO Research Study
To simplify the full-depth panel deck system, reduce construction time and minimise
costs, consideration was given to eliminate the need for post-tensioning. However, it was
important that the joints between the precast elements and systems must (a) transfer loads
and forces adequately as in a monolithic structure, and (b) provide the desired durability.
The Bridge Office of the Ministry of Transportation initiated an in-house research
program in 2000 to investigate the use of prefabricated bridge technology for new and
rehabilitation bridge projects. Based on the type of bridges commonly used by MTO,
the initial focus was on two prefabricated bridge systems: (1) slab-on-girder system and
(2) precast full-depth deck panels. Scale models of the prefabricated bridge systems were
tested in the laboratory to validate the design assumptions and investigate the
performance of potential joint details. Two potential systems (Systems A and B) were
investigated, details of which are described below.
Prefabricated Bridge System A

System A consists of T-shaped precast composite slab-on-girder (steel or prestressed
concrete) elements that span between bridge supports and are connected together with
longitudinal cast-in-place concrete closure strips (Figure 23).
Prefabricated
Prefabricated
Slab-on-Steel
Cast-in-place Slab-on-PSC
Girder
Closure Strip Girder
System A : Precast Slab-on-Girder Elements
Figure 23: Prefabricated Bridge System A

- 29 -
Prefabricated Bridge System B

System B consists of individual precast full-depth concrete deck slab elements that span
between new or existing steel/concrete girders and are connected together with
longitudinal and transverse cast-in-place concrete closure strips (Figure 24).
Prefabricated
Cast-in-place
Full-Depth Deck
Closure Strip
Slab
System B : Precast Full-Depth Deck Slabs
Figure 24: Prefabricated Bridge System B
Laboratory Test Models
Laboratory tests were performed on scale models of the two prefabricated deck systems
(Figure 25) to study:
• Structural behaviour of the overall bridge system under service loads,
• Long-term cyclic load effect on the cold joints created by the closure pours, and
• Ultimate load-carrying capacity of the concrete deck after cyclic load tests.
Four scale models were fabricated and tested first under extensive cyclic loading and then
loaded to failure to obtain the ultimate load carrying capacity of the deck. The first three
models (Models 1 to 3) simulated single span structures and the fourth model (Model 4),
a two-span continuous deck system. Models 1 and 2 were based on System A while
Models 3 and 4 were based on System B.
System A System B
Prefabricated T-Girders with longitudinal Prefabricated Slab Panels with
closure strips longitudinal and transverse closure strips
Figure 25: Laboratory Test Models
- 30 -
Models 1 to 3 were subjected to over

seven million load cycles applied at two
locations on the deck (Figure 26) while
over sixteen million load cycles were
applied on Model 4 at three different
locations.
The results of the cyclic load tests showed
little evidence of distress and no major
impact on overall structural behaviour or
serviceability. Other than hairline cracks Figure 26: Cyclic Load Test Setup
along the cold joints, no major signs of
deterioration were observed.
The ultimate load test (Figure 27),

performed after the cyclic load test,
showed that the deck models still had
ample strength to resist design wheel
loads.
Results of the MTO research study have
been reported in 2004 and 2006 [16, 17].
Figure 27: Ultimate Load Test Setup
MTO Field Applications
Encouraged by the excellent structural behaviour and integrity of the closure joints
observed in the laboratory tests, the ministry decided to proceed with full-scale prototype
applications of the prefabrication bridge concept in a number of new bridge and
rehabilitation projects. As shown in Table 1, eight prefabricated bridge projects have
been successfully completed as of 2006. Full details of these structures are given in
Appendix B.
Based on the experience acquired in recent prefabricated bridge projects, both

Prefabricated Bridge Systems A and B (Figures 23 and 24) are recommended for use
on future Ministry projects.
Full-Depth Deck Panel System Issues
The following describes some of the main issues that need to be considered when using
the full-depth deck panel system.
- 31 -
Deck Panel Joints
• Longitudinal joints are used between precast panels under the following
circumstances:
− the installation of full width panels is not possible, such as in staged
construction,
− exit is required at a section,
− crown is provided in the cross-section, and
− the construction or transportation requirements limit the size of the panels.
• Transverse joints are provided where panel size is limited by construction and/or
transportation requirements.
• Precast concrete panel joints, whether longitudinal or transverse, present the most
important challenge to the long-term durability of these decks. They are not only
required to provide (a) structural integrity, (b) ability to distribute loads laterally
and (c) continuity in the longitudinal and transverse direction, but they are also
expected to perform equally well as conventional cast-in-place slabs with
minimum repair and maintenance.
• It is difficult to control the quality of the closure joints since they are subject to
the variability of environment and uncertainty inherent in field construction.
• Consideration should be given to sealing the interface (cold joint) between the
prefabricated panels and the closing strips to ensure that it does not allow the
leakage of moisture through the joint.
In Ontario, bridge decks are normally protected by a 90mm thick waterproofing
and asphalt system that has been proven to keep the deck slab in dry and good
conditions. Consequently, any shrinkage cracking at the joint interface is not
expected to cause any significant leakage issues.
• Considerable research has been carried out in developing different types of joints
for connecting precast deck slab panels. Features and details of these joints are
discussed below.
Prestressed Joints
• Prestressing in the longitudinal direction is required to

− produce compression across the joint to close any cracks that may occur at the
cold joint interface,
− prevent cracking under the live loads,
− enhance the load distribution, and
− resist negative bending moments due to live loads at the intermediate supports
for continuous span bridges.
• Prestressing in the transverse direction would enhance:
− handling capability of precast panels,
- 32 -
− transverse load distribution between girders, and

− long-term durability
• Transverse prestressing may become complicated if cross-falls are provided in the
deck.
• Prestressed joints are typically narrow, ranging between 15 mm and 50 mm in
width. They consist of female-female shear key details (Figure 28) and are filled
with grout before the prestressing is applied. Alternatively, the joints can be
match cast with epoxy applied to the joints if precise tolerance can be maintained.
• Shear keys are usually grouted using a high early strength non-shrink polymer
grout (45MPa in an hour), which is important for post-tensioning purposes.
• Other prestressing considerations include:
− Past research and analysis have shown that that for simply supported spans, a
prestressing stress of at least 1.5 MPa is needed to keep the joints in
compression. For continuous spans, approximately 3.0 MPa is needed.
− Allowance should be made for prestress losses in the concrete slab due to
shrinkage and creep of concrete, acting on the composite section. Losses are
estimated to be in the order of 30%.
− Significantly different views exist among different researchers on the question
of the prestressing requirement [13, 18, 19].
• Post-tensioning may provide an assurance of good long-term performance, but it
requires an additional step and presents an added complexity to onsite operations.
This not only increases costs, it also tends to impede construction speed. It also
raises the issue of durability of tendons and makes the future maintenance and
rehabilitation more difficult.
As a result, the ministry’s preference is to avoid the use of post-tensioning
wherever possible and to rely on the cast-in-place concrete closure joints to
provide the connections between the prefabricated elements.
The ministry does not encourage the use of longitudinal and transverse post-
tensioning as it adds complexity to design and construction. Their benefit over a
cast-in-place closure joint in a deck that is waterproofed and paved is not fully
established.
However, based on the importance and location and traffic volumes, post-
tensioning could be considered for bridge decks that are neither paved nor
waterproofed.
- 33 -
Figure 28: Typical Shear Key Details for Prestressed Joints
Cast-in-Place Concrete Closure Joint Details
• This type of joint details (Figure 29) has been developed in Ontario and in USA to
eliminate the need for longitudinal and transverse prestressing of full-depth
precast deck panels.
• These joints usually have plain steel reinforcements, which extend out from the
sides of the precast panels and provide the structural continuity between adjacent
panels in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
• The continuity of reinforcing steel in the closure strip may be achieved by
providing fully developed straight bars (Figure 29(g)) or a combination of looping
and lapping of reinforcing bars (Figure 29(h)) in a way that would improve their
development.
When loop or U-shaped bars are used, the preferred detail requires straight bars to
be placed at the interior corners of the looped-bars to provide an effective
anchorage for the U-bars (Figure 29(h)).
- 34 -
Smaller diameter lapping bars can be used to meet bending radius restrictions and
to satisfy concrete cover requirements (Figure 19).
• The use of U-shaped bars helps to reduce the width of the closure strip that in turn
reduces (a) the amount of cast-in-place concrete and (b) the likelihood of
shrinkage cracking.
• The use of spirals around the straight lapped bar (Figure 29(a)) can also help to
reduce the width of the closure joints by allowing bars with reduced lap lengths to
be used [17].
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
(g) (h)
CLOSURE JOINT CLOSURE JOINT WITH

WITH LAPPED LOOPED (U-SHAPED) BARS
STRAIGHT BARS
Figure 29: Typical Closure Joint Details for Full-Depth Deck Slab Panels
- 35 -
• The placing of reinforcing steel in the precast units requires precision in location
(within low tolerances) to avoid interference and misalignment on site and ensure
required concrete cover to the reinforcement.
• After the panels are in place and their locations and elevations are set, the gap
(closure strip) between the panels is filled with concrete to complete the deck
system and enable proper load sharing between girders.
• Placing the concrete in the closure strip may require the need for site-installed
formwork at the deck soffit (Figure 30(a)) or alternatively, a nib detail may be
incorporated into the panel to act as a stay-in-place form for the in-situ closure
pour concrete (Figure 30(b)). The nib detail has some potential drawbacks such
as (i) reduction in available depth for vertical looped reinforcement and making
concrete cover tolerances harder to achieve, (ii) need for increased deck thickness
to accommodate bar bending details, and (iii) thin nib section is susceptible to
damage during transportation.
Based on recent ministry’s experience, the first option i.e. forming the closure
pour with site-installed formwork (Figure 30(a)) would be the preferred approach.
However, a modified nib detail, which required a narrower strip joint and the use
of an ultra-high performance concrete (Ductal) in the closure pour (Figure 31(g)
and Figure B-39, Appendix B), was successfully used in a recent MTO
application in Northwest region.
• The need to cure the cast-in-place concrete may slow down construction, which
may be critical for some projects.
• To maximise the benefits of prefabrication, the closure strip concrete should
ideally develop a strength of about 20-30MPa within 6 hours or less after casting,
which would allow bridges to be replaced over one weekend. This target strength
can be achieved with a combination of early strength concrete and an accelerated
thermal curing system, which would be applied at the deck top surface.
• Some closure strip connection details used in recent MTO projects are shown in
Figure 31.
The ministry encourages the use of cast-in-place concrete closure joints with lap
or
(g)mechanical splices. Attempt should be made (h) to minimize the size and number
of
(a)these joints to reduce the risk of leakage(b)due shrinkage cracks and deficiency
in construction. Mechanical splices should only be considered for larger size bars
that requireCLOSURE
greater splice
JOINTlengths or where moment transfer is required.
CLOSURE JOINT WITH
WITH LAPPED LOOPED (U-SHAPED) BARS
It is preferable to use
STRAIGHT site-installed formwork for the concrete closure pours
BARS
instead of nibs, as the latter will complicate the reinforcing details, casting and
erection of elements and segments.
Figure 29: Typical Closure Joint Details for Full-Depth Deck Slab Panels
- 36 -
(a) Site-Installed Formwork for Closure Pour Concrete
(b) Nib Detail for Self-Forming Closure Pour Concrete
Figure 30: Forming Closure Pour Concrete

- 37 -
(a) Nib Detail & Loop Bars (b) Spliced Straight & Horizontal Loop
(Moose Creek Bridge) Bars (Little Savanne River Bridge)
(b) Spliced Straight Bars (c) Loop/U-shaped Bars

(Beaver Creek Bridge) (Passe-à-Fontaine Bridge)
(e) Horizontal & Inclined Loop Bars (f) Mechanically Spliced Straight Bars
(Mull Road Underpass) (Mull Road Underpass)
(g) Spliced Straight GFRP Bars with CIP Ductal Concrete Joint
(CNR Overhead @ Rainy Lake)
Figure 31: CIP Concrete Closure Joints Used in MTO Projects

- 38 -
Concrete, Grouts and Sealants for Closure Joints
• The performance and durability of prefabricated deck elements and system greatly
depend on the ability of the closure joints to prevent leakage, which can cause
long-term deterioration and damage to structural elements and create the need for
frequent maintenance. The success of prefabrication therefore depends on the
performance of these joints and the need to control the quality of these joints
cannot be overemphasized.
• For wider joints (more than 300 mm wide), custom-designed normal or early
strength concrete can be used (Figure 32(a)). For narrower closure joints (less
than 50 mm wide), non-shrink cementitious grouts are usually specified.
• Specialty materials such as magnesium ammonium phosphate mortars or
polymer-modified concrete exhibit superior bond strength, greater early
compressive strength and lower permeability but their use requires careful quality
control, handling experience and assurance of satisfactory long-term performance.
• Before filling the joints with concrete or grout, the closure strip area should be
properly cleaned and washed with water to remove laitance and dirt.
• The bond between the grout and the shear key surfaces can be significantly
enhanced by abrasively cleaning the surfaces prior to washing. The precast
surfaces should be kept moist before grouting and grout shall be cured with the
aid of moisture or curing compounds. Note that this procedure may not be
workable if epoxy-coated bars are present in the shear keys.
Alternatively, the surface of the closure joints can be artificially roughened by
applying a concrete retarding agent on the formwork prior to casting the precast
panels. After the mould is stripped, the edge surfaces of the panels are pressure-
washed to remove the relatively weak layer of uncured concrete to provide a
rough aggregate-exposed surface (Figure 32(b)).
• A penetrating sealant can be applied to the top surface of the grouted joints after
curing to enhance durability.
• A super low viscosity epoxy can be applied to the interface between the precast
units and cast-in-place concrete to seal any cracks that may develop.
(a) Normal Concrete Closure Joint (b) Closure Joint Surface Preparation
Figure 32: Cast-in-Place Concrete Closure Joints

- 39 -
Welded or Bolted Joint
• Another type of joint that can been used to join individual precast deck panels
together is the welded or bolted joint, which consists of a grouted key joint and a
welded or bolted connection detail (Figure 33).
• To achieve the structural joint continuity for the proper transfer of tensile and
shear forces due to live loads, vertical or inclined steel plates are anchored in the
precast units by means of shear studs or deformed bars welded at 1.5m to 2.0m
spacing.
• The two plates are joined together by inserting a steel rod and field welding them
together as shown in Figure 33.
• After the connection is made, the joints are filled with non-shrink cementitious
grout for smaller joints or standard or special concrete mixes for larger joints.
• Some bolted connection details have also been developed but they are mostly
used by proprietary precast deck and superstructure systems.
Figure 33: Welded Joint Connection
The welded and bolted joint connections are more complex in design than the
cast-in-place closure joints. They are also prone to leakage and fatigue and
therefore have not gained popularity in Ontario.
The ministry is, however, interested in this type of joints and will review the
possibility of its use on a trial basis.
- 40 -
Continuity of Superstructure at Support Locations
• Deck expansion joints often leak and allow debris and water contaminated with
de-icing salt to ingress through to the substructure below, often resulting in
damage to the superstructure bearings and supporting components below. To
address this issue, deck superstructures are typically designed as continuous
structures for live loads in Ontario, which requires the superstructure beam/slab
elements to be continuous at pier locations.
• Expansion joints can be avoided at the abutment support locations by using
integral or semi-integral design.
• Structural continuity at the supports requires rebar continuity and additional
reinforcing steel in the deck at those locations, which complicates the
prefabrication of these deck elements.
• This continuity can be achieved in a
prefabricated bridge system either by
the use of post-tensioning e.g. on I-95
over James River Bridge in USA
(Figure 34(a)) or by providing a
continuous full-depth deck panel at the
pier locations with transverse closure
joints provided at approximately a
quarter span away from the pier
supports e.g. Little Savanne River (a) I-95 over James River Bridge
Bridge on Hwy 11 (Figure 34(b)).
In the Little Savanne River Bridge, the
length of the precast panel was chosen
such that the additional negative
moment reinforcing steel requirement
is limited to the prefabricated segments
over the piers. These segments are
connected to the adjacent panels by
transverse closure joints, with spliced
straight bars (Figure 31(b)).
Alternatively, a wider closure joint may
be used in conjunction with the use of
mechanical anchorages e.g. Mull Road (b) Little Savanne River Bridge, Hwy
Overpass on Hwy 401 (Figure 31(f)). 17
Figure 34: Providing Structural
Continuity at Support Locations
- 41 -
Composite Action
• The majority of bridges built in USA before 1973 were non-composite. After that
period, significant advances were made in the construction of full depth precast
concrete deck slabs and many of those bridges were made composite with the
supporting girders [12]. The basic advantages resulting from composite design
are:
− Smaller steel beams i.e. less steel weight
− Increased deck stiffness
− Increased span length for a given girder
− Increased overload capacity
• Composite action is achieved by providing block-outs in the deck system (Figure
35) through which a cluster of studs can be welded down to the supporting
girders. The block-outs are subsequently filled with grout or a specially designed
concrete mix.
• Making the deck composite with the girder results in a more efficient and
economical deck design as the girder size can be reduced without affecting overall
performance. It, however, makes the construction more complicated and results
in the increased construction costs. It may therefore be more economical in some
situations to forego the composite action for simplicity, speed of construction and
increased durability.
• Some existing decks, designed for non-composite action, may be made composite
at the time of deck replacement to increase their load carrying capacity.
• The spacing of the shear pockets can vary between 450 mm to 600 mm and the
number of shear connectors in each pocket may range from 4 to 12 studs [12].
In the Welland River/QEW Bridge, the pockets were provided at 800 mm spacing
and between 8 and 12 shear connectors were placed in each pocket [13].
In the CNR Overhead at Rainy Lake, a maximum of 24 studs were welded into
some of the shear pockets.
The use of composite action for girder design is preferred unless a non-composite
design for prefabricated elements and systems can be justified based on the ease
of fabrication, reduced construction time and balanced cost considerations.
- 42 -
(a) Typical Shear Pocket and Connector Details
(b) Shear Studs Welded to Girder Through Block-outs in Deck Slab
Figure 35: Providing Composite Action Between Precast Slab and Girder
- 43 -
Deck Panel Supports
• Deck slab panels are supported on the

longitudinal girders through grouted (a)
haunches to compensate for girder camber,
sag in existing girders or irregularities in the
splice plates.
• The depth of the haunch varies between 25
and 75 mm depending on the girder length
and camber requirements. As the grout (b)
hardens, it provides proper bearing of the
precast slab on the girder, eliminating any
stress concentration in the panel.
• In the Welland River/QEW Bridge, light
gauge side forms bolted using a 6mm
diameter tie rod was used to facilitate the (c)
grouting of haunches (Figure 36(b)).
Alternatively, elastomeric or expanded
polystyrene strips are bonded to the girder to
support the precast panels (Figure 36(a), (c)).
Figure 36: Supporting Precast
Panels on Girders
Maintaining Cross Slopes and Levelling Panels
• Adjustment and levelling of precast panels are required to achieve correct

elevations and cross slopes. These operations are done by means of special
levelling devices (Figure 37).
• To facilitate levelling operations, the number of levelling devices should be kept
to a minimum. Two screws per girder line per panel are usually required for full-
width panels. The screws are designed to support the dead weight of the panel
and construction loads. Depending on the type of levelling device used, the
screws can either be removed or torch-cut to below top of the deck after the grout
in the haunches has gained sufficient strength or they can be left embedded in the
concrete in the blockouts or closure joints.
- 44 -
Figure 37: Panel Levelling Devices

- 45 -
Deck Waterproofing and Asphalt Overlay
• In Ontario, use of waterproofing and asphalt overlay on bridge decks is a standard

practice. Waterproofing helps to protect the concrete deck surface from ingress of
moisture and de-icing salt while the asphalt layer protects the waterproofing as
well as provides a uniform riding surface.
Studies have shown that this deck protection system has performed well in the
field and has kept the deck dry and slowed down long-term corrosion. It is
therefore expected that the deck waterproofing system should be equally effective
in preventing water leakage through any shrinkage cracks that can occur at the
closure joints.
Installation of the waterproofing and asphalt overlay system, however, constitutes
one extra step in the construction schedule, which can cause delay in opening of
the structure to traffic.
Caution should be exercised when installing waterproofing membrane on
relatively young concrete, where the increased moisture content may cause water
vapour to form and get trapped in the bituminous compound.
• For exposed decks, consideration should be given to post-tensioning the deck
elements to close the joints, in order to improve leakage control of salt-
contaminated water through the cold joints and prevent concrete damage from
corrosion and freeze and thaw cycles. However, the ministry prefers that
concrete decks be protected with a waterproofing membrane and asphalt system,
thus avoiding the need for prestressing.
Precast Barrier Walls
To obtain the full benefits of prefabricated superstructures, precast bridge barriers can be
used to accelerate bridge deck construction and allow the bridge to be completed in the
shortest possible time. In 1991, the ministry implemented the first use of permanent
precast concrete bridge barriers for the rehabilitation of the Mackenzie Creek Bridge on
Hwy 6. The field performance of the barriers has been generally good to date. Details of
the precast barriers used in the Mackenzie Creek Bridge project are shown in Figure 38.
- 46 -
Figure 38: Precast Barrier Walls (Mackenzie Creek Bridge)
• The ministry does not currently have provincial standards for precast concrete
bridge barriers. However, it recognises the need and importance of a precast
barrier system in order to fully tap into the benefits of prefabricated bridge
technology. To that end, a research project is being undertaken by Ryerson
University in collaboration with the Bridge Office to investigate the requirements
and performance of such a system and develop appropriate standards for future
ministry use.
- 47 -
STEEL GRID DECKS

There are three types of steel grid decks that are commercially available for use in bridge
decks:
1) Open Steel Grid Decks

2) Concrete Filled Steel Grid Decks
3) Exodermic Decks
OPEN STEEL GRID DECKS
• Welded open steel grid decks present an attractive solution when self-weight is of
concern as they are generally of lightweight construction.
• They are suitable for use on moveable bridges or older bridges that can no longer
support the dead or heavy live loads.
• They can be welded directly to the supporting members or bolted down.
• They are galvanized to provide protection from corrosion.
• The grids are available in rectangular and diagonal pattern as shown in Figure 39.
Diagonal grids offer a more efficient distribution of load and a smoother ride.
• The use of open steel grid grids is presently limited to the replacement in kind due
to following potential disadvantages:
− They are prone to fatigue internally and by the nature of their connections to
the supporting members.
− They are noisy, provide unpleasant riding surface and may present safety
concerns.
− They allow debris and salt laden water to pass through.
Diagonal
Pattern
Rectangular
Pattern
Figure 39: Open Steel Grid Decks

- 48 -
CONCRETE-FILLED STEEL GRID DECKS
• Concrete filled steel grid decks are used to overcome some of the shortcomings of
the open steel grid decks. They have been used mostly in USA since early 1930’s
and have proved to be quite durable.
• Concrete filled steel grid decks utilize the capabilities of both constituent
materials by combining the tensile strength of steel and compressive strength of
concrete.
• These decks come in a variety of heights and designs and are usually lighter than
their reinforced concrete counterparts. The steel grid decks may be filled to half-
depth, full-depth or overfilled with concrete (Figure 40(a)), and are suited for both
cast-in-place and precast applications.
• Some of the fatigue problems and distortion associated with the open and concrete
filled steel grid decks are addressed in the Weldless Concrete Overlay Steel Decks
(Figure 40(b)).
(a) Concrete-Filled (b) Weldless Concrete Overlay
Figure 40: Concrete-Filled Steel Grid Decks
EXODERMIC DECKS
• Exodermic decks consist of a reinforced concrete slab that is cast on top of a steel
grid (not filled with concrete) to form a composite deck system (Figure 41).
• They were developed in USA by Neal Bettigole in 1980’s and have been in use
since 1984.
• Compared to the concrete filled steel grid slab, a more efficient use of concrete
and steel is made in the exodermic deck where the concrete is moved to the top of
the steel grid. A mat of the reinforcing steel was also added to take care of
shrinkage and tensile stresses.
• In the early exodermic decks, the horizontal shear transfer between the concrete
slab and the steel grid was achieved by welding studs to the tertiary bars that were
themselves welded to the base grid. The tertiary bars were embedded in the deck
to a depth of 25mm.
- 49 -
Figure 41: Exodermic Deck System
• In the early to mid 1990’s, the original exodermic concept was revised to achieve
a more economical, efficient and easier-to-install deck system. This revised
design has been used in all new exodermic deck projects since 1998.
• In the new design, the horizontal shear between the slab and the steel grid is
achieved by embedding the main bearing bars of the grid directly into the
concrete slab.
• The bearing bars are punched with 75mm dia. holes at 200mm centres at the top
to act as shear connectors (Figures 42). The horizontal shear flow takes place
directly from the concrete slab to the main bars of the grid.
• While any steel grid can be used in constructing an exodermic deck, use of
standard grid configurations is more efficient and cost effective. The designer has
a number of choices of main bar size and spacing, reinforcing steel size and
spacing and thickness of concrete deck in choosing a standard exodermic deck
configuration.
• The overall thickness of the system using standard components ranges from
150mm to 240mm. The deck slab can be either cast-in-place or precast. During
precasting, block-outs are left in the slab at predetermined locations over the
girders and studs are welded through these openings during erection to develop
the composite action.
• The openings are filled with rapid setting concrete after the shear connectors have
been installed.
• Exodermic decks offer advantages of lightweight and rapid construction
especially when the concrete slab is precast. The reduction in dead load allows
decks to be widened with increased load capacity for rehabilitation projects. For
new projects, potential benefits include use of lighter girders and substructures.
• There are many applications of exodermic decks in USA and further information
is available on Interlocking Deck Systems Internationals web site: www.idsi.org
- 50 -
Figure 42: New Exodermic Deck System
There are many applications of steel grid decks in the US but they have not been
popular in Canada as they are mostly proprietary products and their durability, in
areas where highways are subjected to heavy use of de-icing salts in winter, is of
concern. The ministry may consider its use in unique situations if the need and
distinct advantage from their use can be justified.
FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH PANEL DECKS
STEEL-FREE DECK CONCEPT
• Fibre-reinforced concrete (FRC) deck slabs cast without internal steel

reinforcement are known as steel-free decks. Extensive research was carried out
in Canada in the early 1990’s to develop this innovative structural deck system.
• The premise in developing the concept is that composite concrete slabs supported
over concrete or steel girders carry loads by arching action as opposed to bending
and hence do not need to be provided with the normal flexural reinforcement,
except where arching action is not present such as in deck cantilever areas.
• For arching action to develop, it is essential that the concrete deck be sufficiently
restrained. Restraint in the longitudinal direction is provided by the in-plane
resistance of the slab acting compositely with the girders. In the transverse
direction, the restraint is provided by the addition of external steel straps spaced at
a regular interval over the entire length of the deck, which act as tie members for
the theoretical arch system.
• The steel free deck concept was first tried by MTO on the County Road 10/Hwy
401 underpass structure in 1993. Except for a few minor cracks in the deck soffit,
the deck appears to be performing well. The development of these cracks from the
durability point of view is not serious as the deck is waterproofed and paved, and
- 51 -
potential corrosion due to penetration of salt water is eliminated as a result of the

absence of reinforcing steel in the deck. However, the long-term integrity of the
deck under dynamic loading is still of concern and has yet to be established. This
concept has been applied in five highway bridges in Canada [20].
APPLICATION TO PREFABRICATED BRIDGES
• The application of steel-free deck concept to prefabricated bridges was developed

through extensive experimental investigation in Canada [21]. The prefabricated
steel-free deck concept has been implemented in one forestry bridge and one
marine structure. The deck cross-section for the prefabricated slab is shown in
Figure 43.
• The soffit of the precast panel is profiled to reduce the dead load, which is an
important consideration when transporting and erecting prefabricated elements
especially in remote locations.
• The external steel strap ends are anchored by a row of studs and embedded into
the deck at the time of precasting. Thus, the panel is provided with the transverse
restraint required for arching action in the prefabrication stage.
• The composite action is achieved by leaving pockets in the precast panels and
welding a cluster of studs to the girders after the panels are erected in place. The
pockets are then filled with fast setting concrete.
• MTO has not used this type of prefabricated panels owing to the concerns
expressed above regarding the durability of steel free deck and also concerns
regarding the suitability of details used to ensure composite action and arching
action in the slab.
Figure 43: Prefabricated Steel-Free Deck Panel System
The ministry has used steel-free cast-in-place concrete deck on a trial basis
but its use has not gained acceptability due to concerns about the long-term
integrity of the deck under cyclic loading and unfavourable economics. A
satisfactory detail for precast steel free decks, acceptable to the ministry, has
yet to be developed.
- 52 -
FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYMER (FRP) MODULAR DECKS

BACKGROUND
FRP composites are becoming popular as alternative construction materials to

conventional materials such as concrete and steel. Their use, however, is still in the
preliminary stages and has mostly been tried on an experimental basis. They are popular
because of their high strength, low density, better durability and corrosion resistance
when compared with concrete and steel. They can be prefabricated into different shapes
and forms and can be transported and erected easily. In recent years, a number of
innovative systems of prefabricated FRP decks have been developed and have been used
on approximately 85 bridges in about 20 States of the USA [22]. The performance of
these projects is being continuously monitored.
Two types of FRP decks are commercially available:

1) Sandwich deck system [23], and
2) Pultruded deck system [24].
SANDWICH DECK SYSTEM
• The sandwich deck is comprised of a top and bottom membrane with a low-
density, bonded core material in-between.
• Two types of sandwich deck panel have been used in the US, i.e. the Hardcore
composite deck (Figure 44(a)) and Kansas composite deck (Figure 44(b)).
• The membrane provides the flexural resistance whereas the core separates the
membranes and bonds the membranes into a composite section.
• The membranes are usually composed of fibreglass sheets and are infused with a
polyester or vinylester resin.
• The core material can be a rigid foam material or a thin-walled cellular material.
• The FRP panels can be formed in a variety of shapes, sizes and depths with
different materials for the membrane and the core as determined analytically.
(a) Hardcore Composite Deck (b) Kansas Composite Deck

Figure 44: FRP Sandwich Deck Systems
- 53 -
PULTRUDED DECK SYSTEM
• The pultruded FRP modular deck consists of assemblies of multi-cellular

pultruded shapes (Figure 45), which are bonded together with adhesive. The
pultruded shapes can be hexagonal, trapezoidal dual-cell sections, triangular
single or dual-cell sections, rectangular box section.
• Five types of pultruded FRP deck are available on the North American market
under the following proprietary brands: Duraspan®, Superdeck®, Strongwell®,
EZ-span® and ProDeck®.
• The variation in the design is usually affected by changing the shapes, orientation,
type and constituent materials and to a lesser degree by changing the cross-section
of the shapes itself.
• The FRP deck modules are joined in the field using shear keys that provide
mechanical interlocking and adhesive bonding to achieve continuity. In addition
to adhesive bonding, mechanical fasteners are also provided in the shear keys to
facilitate shear transfer between modules.
• The FRP deck panels are bonded adhesively or connected mechanically to the
longitudinal girders by shear studs for steel girders and by stirrups for concrete
beams.
• Issues that are being investigated in the development of FRP deck systems include
environmental acceptance, connections for modules, connections to supporting
girders, attachment of crashworthy barriers, durability of wearing surfaces.
Figure 45: Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Deck Systems
Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Decks can potentially have useful applications as

prefabricated bridges. However, their development is still in the experimental
stage and more R&D work is necessary before the technology can mature into
a reliable and useful tool for bridge construction and rehabilitation.
- 54 -
INVERSETTM BRIDGE SYSTEM
• The INVERSETTM Bridge System [25] is a precast, precompressed,

concrete/steel, composite superstructure made up of steel beams and a concrete
slab that acts as a composite unit to resist its own dead load (Figure 46).
• The prestressing effect is achieved by a unique casting technique. It is introduced
by either:
− Casting the slab together with the girder in an upside-down position 1 , or
− Casting the deck on top of the girders in the normal right side-up position and
prestressing the girders by raising them at one or two temporary supports
provided near the centre 2 .
• In conventional cast-in-place girder deck systems, the concrete dead load is
supported by the girder alone and the superimposed dead loads and live loads are
supported by the composite section. In the Inverset system, the concrete deck
load is also supported by the composite section, thus allowing lighter and
shallower steel girders to be used.
• Other advantages of the Inverset system include increased construction speed,
enhanced quality and reduced life cycle costs.
• The Inverset system offers both longitudinal and transverse systems. For smaller
spans of less than 33m, the first generation Inverset works well. For larger spans,
the second generation Inverset works better as the weight can be reduced by
dividing long span decks into shorter longitudinal segments and, by being able to
be cast right side-up, it also eliminates the need to invert the deck after casting.
• More than 200 bridges have been built in USA utilizing this deck system since
1982 when the first bridge was installed in Cleveland County in Norman,
Oklahoma.
Figure 46: InversetTM Deck System
1
Used in the first generation of Inverset System
2
Used in the second generation of Inverset System
- 55 -
EFFIDECKTM DECK SYSTEM
• The EFFIDECKTM Deck System is a lightweight deck consisting of a thin

concrete deck slab cast on top of closely spaced steel members (Figure 47).
• The structural steel members may span transversely or longitudinally, as desired,
depending upon the orientation of supporting beams.
• Panels may be quickly attached to the supporting structure by erecting them on
shims placed directly on the girders and then bolting them securely in place.
• Composite action is achieved by providing block-outs in the deck system through
which a cluster of studs can be welded down to the supporting girders. The block-
outs may be filled with grout or a specially designed concrete mix.
• The panels can be prestressed transversely and longitudinally if required.
• The system provides a lightweight option, which allows a rapid top down
installation with minimum disruption to the traffic and minimizes the need for
long-term closure.
• This system has been used on a few bridges mostly in USA.
Figure 47: EffideckTM Deck System
InversetTM and EffideckTM deck systems are proprietary products and have
mostly been used in USA. At the present time, their use in Ontario is not
being considered unless a definite need and advantage can be justified.
- 56 -
SANDWICH PLATE SYSTEM

• The sandwich plate system (SPS) [26] is a composite material comprising of two
metal plates separated by a compact polyurethane elastomer core, which transfers
shear between each plate, eliminates the need for stiffeners and precludes local
faceplate buckling (Figure 48). It is a proprietary product developed by
Intelligent Engineering Limited, in conjunction with Elastogran GmbH, a member
of BASF group and was originally developed for shipbuilding applications.
• The thicknesses of the composite elements are tailored to meet the needs of each
application.
• SPS is an alternative to both stiffened steel and reinforced concrete and provides
high stiffness to weight ratio, simpler fabrication and faster erection.
• Use of SPS for bridge applications is still in the developmental stage with the
completion of the first two trial bridge projects in Quebec in 2003 and 2005.
Additional pilot projects are being planned in USA and Germany.
Figure 48: Sandwich Plate System
The Sandwich Plate System is a proprietary product that has been used in
trial bridge projects since 2003. Its field performance needs to be closely
monitored to assess its long-term properties under extreme weather and
highway traffic conditions. At the present time, its use in Ontario is not
being considered for routine applications unless a definite need and
advantage can be justified.
- 57 -
TOTAL SUPERSTRUCTURE SYSTEMS
• The success and experience gained in

the use of prefabricated elements and
the recent availability of heavy lift
transporters that has allowed the
moving and erection of heavy
components of considerable sizes, has
given rise to efforts to combine
prefabricated elements into bridge
systems and install them as a unit,
ready for vehicular use. Figure 49: Partial Superstructure
• Prefabricated systems would usually System
consist of assemblies of multiple slab-
on-girder elements (Figure 8) or a
continuous slab cast over multiple
beams (Figure 49) that are erected in
place and linked together with
longitudinal deck closure strips.
• An entire full-width superstructure,
complete with parapet walls may also
be fabricated off site and installed as a
unit (Figure 50). Figure 50: Complete Superstructure
System
• It is feasible now to assemble a
complete truss superstructure off site
and either transport or float it to the
site and erect in place (Figure 51).
• These systems are more durable due to
the uniformity of construction
materials and fabrication process as
well as the reduction in the closure
strips and grouted joints, which are
often a major source of durability
concerns. Figure 51: Complete Truss System
• It is also easier to maintain the required profiles and cross-slopes during the
fabrication of prefabricated systems, which is particularly suitable in cases where
prefabrication can be carried out close to the site or transported to the site without
exceeding the weight and size limits of the transportation route.
Total superstructure systems are most desirable for prefabrication, as they require
the least amount of site work during erection and are more durable due to reduced
need for closure strips or grouted joints. They are suitable where they can be
prefabricated and assembled close to the site or transported to the site without
exceeding highway weight and size limits.
- 58 -
SUBSTRUCTURE ELEMENTS AND SYSTEMS

BACKGROUND
• Substructure elements consist of piles and caissons, spread footings, abutments,

pier shaft segments, wingwalls, columns, column segments, complete pier shafts
and piercaps (Figure 52).
• For short columns, the entire column length can be prefabricated as a unit.
However, for long columns, multiple column segments can be assembled and post
tensioned together.
Hollow-core prefabricated column or shaft elements may also be used for long
columns to reduce the weight of the elements. The hollow-core columns can act
as stay-in-place forms for cast-in-place concrete that can be used to connect the
column to the footing and provide resistance to vehicle impact.
• Conventional substructures require intensive formwork assembly and dismantling,
placement of reinforcing and curing of concrete, which require considerable
amount of time and construction activity on site. This can often undermine the
benefits gained from using prefabricated superstructures.
• Prefabricating substructure components and removing these construction
activities off site can have a positive impact on the construction schedule as well
as project costs.
• For substructures to be economical, repetitive use of elements with similar details
is needed to justify the investment by a fabricator into the precasting forms.
Casting the elements close to the site and minimising the cost of transportation
can offset some of the formwork costs.
• There has been considerable progress in the use of prefabricated substructure
elements and systems but not nearly as much as for bridge superstructures. This
may be due to the fact that prefabricated superstructure systems evolved from the
need to replace the superstructure more often than substructures and any
rehabilitation activity on the superstructure has more impact on traffic.
- 59 -
(a) Precast Footing (b) Abutment Wall (c) Abutment System
(d) Pier (e) Column (f) Pier Cap
(g) Pier Bent (h) Pile Bent (i) Wingwall

Figure 52: Prefabricated Substructure Elements
PREFABRICATED ABUTMENTS
In Ontario, a large proportion of bridges being built are integral abutment bridges where
the abutments are supported on a single row of piles. When prefabrication was
considered for the Moose Creek Bridge [36], details were developed for prefabricated
integral abutment segments with cast-in-place concrete closure pours that would connect
the segments together and make them integral with the deck (Figure 53). The main
details are:
• The abutment was founded on a single row of steel H-Piles with each precast
abutment segment supported on at least two piles for stability.
• Blockouts were provided for the top of the piles to be embedded into the segments
(Figure 53(c)).
• After the segments were placed and adequately braced, the blockouts were filled
with concrete.
- 60 -
(a) Steel Piles Driven in Ground (b) Precast Abutment Segment Installed
(d) Abutment Segments Braced for

(c) Segment with Wingwall Support
Stability
(e) Closure Pour (f) Wingwall

Figure 53: Prefabricated Substructure at Moose Creek Bridge
In USA, a variety of prefabricated substructures have been used [28,29,30] but the most
common prefabricated substructure elements have been pier columns and pier caps:
• The most widely advertised prefabricated pier cap construction is the SH 66/Lake
Ray Hubbard Bridge, Texas, which is shown on the cover page of the AASHTO
Technology Implementation Group brochure on prefabricated bridges [34]. It
clearly demonstrates the feasibility and simplicity of this type of construction.
• Another notable precast pier cap construction is the Lake Bolton Bridge, also by
Texas DOT, which is featured in the Prefabricated Bridges- Good Business- Best
Practices Showcase 2004 [35].
• Standard details used for these projects are supplied by Texas Department of
Transportation and are attached in Appendix C for reference.
• Research has also been carried out by University of Texas at Austin on the
development of precast pier cap systems for non-seismic regions [31]. This
- 61 -
research included the pier cap to substructure connection details, use of grouted
vertical ducts, bolted connections and provides guidance on design, construction,
specifications and examples.
A variety of prefabricated substructures have been used in USA. In Ontario,

prefabricated substructure elements have been developed and successfully used
in the Moose Creek Bridge (integral abutments), Beaver Creek Bridge
(wingwalls) and CPR Overhead at Morriston (pier caps). The ministry is
interested in developing details for prefabricated spread footings, columns and
pier caps similar to those used in USA.
TOTALLY PREFABRICATED BRIDGES

In order to gain the maximum advantages from prefabrication, efforts should be directed
at prefabricating all components of the bridge, which are either assembled and erected on
site or assembled close to the site and moved into place, in a rapid construction sequence.
The totally prefabricated bridge systems would thus allow bridges to be completed in the
shortest duration with minimum cast-in-place concrete construction. It, however,
requires utmost care in precasting, erection and planning to ensure a successful
completion.
A number of total prefabricated bridges have been successfully completed in USA since
1999, some of which are shown in Figure 54. However, the most widely advertised
example of totally prefabricated bridges is the Baldorioty de Castro Avenue Bridge in
San Juan, Puerto Rico, which was completed in 1992 (Figure 55).
MTO has initiated a project to develop standardised bridge elements and systems in a
way that would allow their assembly to achieve different configurations of fully precast
bridges in a “Lego-type” fashion.
(a) Mississippi River Bridge, Wisconsin (b) Richmond-San Rafael Bridge,

California
Figure 54: Totally Prefabricated Bridges in USA
- 62 -
Figure 55: Baldorioty de Castro Avenue Bridge in San Juan, Puerto Rico
HEAVY LIFT TECHNOLOGY

One of the most significant developments in building
prefabricated bridges in recent years is the advent of
the Self Propelled Modular Transporter (SPMT)
(Figure 56), which is designed to lift and move large
and heavy loads with precision and reliability.
• These transporters allow the building and/or
assembly of complete bridges or bridge
systems away from the bridge location and
then moving the completed bridges into their Figure 56: Self-Propelled
final positions on the bridge bearings, thereby Modular Transporter System
eliminating the need for lengthy road closures
and detours while minimizing overall
inconvenience to the public.
• Complete bridges can now be installed in a matter of hours rather than weeks and
months.
• The SPMT’s have been used in Europe for
some time, primarily in the heavy industrial
and shipping industry (Figure 57). Their use in
bridge construction is relatively recent.
Figure 57: Moving Large

Industrial Plants in Europe
- 63 -
• The SPMT’s consist of flatbed transporters

with several axle configurations, which are
self-propelled, fully computerized and can be
operated using a small hand-held console
(Figure 58).
Figure 58: SPMT Operating

Console
• All axles have independent suspension controls
that allow the payload to be moved in a
virtually horizontal position (Figure 59).
Figure 59: Independent Axle

Suspension Controls
• For handling larger and heavier loads, more
than one unit can be coupled together (Figure
60).
Figure 60: Multiple SPMT’s

for Larger Loads
• The Titan Bridge Lift System (Figure 61)
allows bridges to be lifted off or lifted onto the
bridge bearings through the use of modular
“stools” that range in height from 450mm to
1200mm. The hydraulic suspensions of the
SPMT’s provide the lifting ability and the
stools are inserted incrementally as required to
reach the proper height. The entire bridge can
be supported on these stools and specially
Figure 61: Titan Bridge Lift
designed framing can be used to move the
System
bridge into place.
• The hydraulic skidding system provides an alternate method for moving heavy
loads in straight direction over a short distance. This is done through the use of
specially designed skid shoes. The skidding system’s capacity to lift and move
loads is virtually limitless as more weight can be picked up and skidded by
increasing the number of shoes and push-pull units.
- 64 -
• Self Propelled Modular Transporters and hydraulic skidding systems have already
been used in USA and in Germany to move complete bridges and superstructures
in place as shown in Figure 62. These pictures clearly demonstrate the capability
of such systems and the potential they offer to the prefabrication initiative.
Figure 62: Moving Complete Bridges
The Self Propelled Modular Transporters (SPMT’s) are used to lift and move
heavy loads with a high degree of precision and reliability. They have been used
in USA and Europe with much success. The ministry will be using this heavy-lift
technology on five bridge sites affected by the widening of Hwy 417 in the
Ottawa area. The setup cost for these machines is quite heavy and their use can
only be justified where a few applications can be grouped together or where the
need to minimise traffic disruption can justify the higher cost.
- 65 -
INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING OF PRECAST CONCRETE

BRIDGES
BACKGROUND
The traffic demand on Ontario highways is expected to increase in the future and it is in
this anticipation that the possibility, feasibility and economy of using incremental
launching techniques to build bridges with minimum traffic disruption is being explored.
The ever-increasing traffic demand on the existing highways and the need to bridge over
them with minimum disruption to traffic is challenging highway planners and designers
to design bridges that can be built in fast and effective ways. In Ontario, in the past, steel
I-girders, steel box girders and precast prestressed girders have been the preferred choice
for use in provincial bridge construction. This type of super-structure allows for the
prefabricated girders to be lifted on the supports from below and the deck to be cast on
formwork suspended from the girders. The girders can be lifted in place at night or
outside the peak traffic flow hours. This construction method of bridges provides for
economical and functional designs with minimum disturbance to the traffic.
In recent years, the use of steel I-girders was prevented in underpass bridges (over
highways) and the use of precast pre-tensioned girder bridges over major highways was
discouraged due to durability concerns and their vulnerability to being hit by traffic
below.
As a result, post-tensioned deck bridges became increasingly popular due to the fact that
they could be designed and constructed for longer spans and they provided an aesthetic,
economical and durable design option. However, post-tensioned bridges require
falsework, which provides a limited opening during construction, thus posing a danger to
traffic and may cause instability to the structure itself in the event a vehicle hits it during
construction. The use of precast pre-tensioned (CPCI) girders over major highways has
recently increased due to their adaptability in Integral Abutment design and their
enhanced competitive edge in the span ranges commonly used in underpass structures.
INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING CONSIDERATIONS
The principle of incremental launching for steel structures is well accepted and quite
understandable in view of the equal strength of steel in tension and compression, which
allows the alternating stresses during launching to be more easily managed during the
design and construction. Concrete on the other hand can withstand only a small tensile
stress without the skilful application of prestressing at different stages during the
launching. In addition, it requires special precautions during casting to ensure accuracy
and trouble-free launching.
The concept and technology of the incremental launching of concrete bridges is attributed
to Leonhardt and has been known for decades. The first incrementally launched bridge
was designed and built in Venezuela in 1962-1963. Since the construction of this bridge,
many more bridges have been built all over the world using this technique. The use of
- 66 -
incremental launching has, however, been limited to situations where access to the
supports has been limited by environmentally sensitive conditions or by geographical
obstructions such as waterways and valleys, where the use of falsework and access by
heavy machinery is prohibitive, if not impossible.
In recent years, there has been interest in the
use of incremental launching techniques for
underpass structures over highways (Figure
63), and its viability and economic feasibility
has started to generate interest [31]. Normal
highway bridges, although of shorter length
than customary for this type of construction,
may be constructed with this technique as the
demand on the highways increases in the
future.
Figure 63: Highway Underpass Bridges
ADVANTAGES OF INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING
• No falsework is required in this type of construction. In some situations, a temporary

bent may be required to reduce the length of the cantilever to ensure that the stresses
during launching can be maintained within allowable limits.
• Useful particularly in urban areas or spanning over obstacles below, such as roads,
railways, rivers, valleys or environmentally sensitive areas.
• Provides the opportunity for production of enhanced quality product in an area behind
the abutment, which can provide conditions similar to a precasting plant setting with
controlled environment.
• Provides opportunity for economic advantages to be realised due to centralised
casting, repeated use of forms and reduced labour force requirements.
• The cost and need for transportation of the structural elements is eliminated.
• The use of heavy cranes or other erection equipment and associated costs is
eliminated.
• Provides opportunities for optimising a smaller work force to maximize output.
• The method is suitable for launching both steel and concrete girders decks.
DISADVANTAGES OF INCREMENTAL LAUNCHING
• Some constraints apply to the geometry of the structures that can be launched and the
designer should take these into account from the early stages of the design. The
incremental launching can be used for straight or curved bridges, however the
curvature must be of constant radius whether horizontal or vertical.
- 67 -
• The section of the deck and the depth should be constant. This restriction may prevent
its use in long span bridges where a haunch section would provide a better economy
of materials.
• A slender deck does not provide a practical proposition for an incrementally launched
bridge as the level of prestress, required at a critical section to overcome tension
stresses during launching, would result in excessive compressive stresses at the same
sections. While it is theoretically possible to overcome this situation by stressing and
de-stressing the tendons, it is not considered to be a practical and safe practice.
Therefore, the span-to-depth ratio of the completed deck should be limited to less
than 16 [32,33]. A smaller span-to-depth ratio than normally used for conventional
designs, especially for small span structures, may be aesthetically undesirable and
requires higher approaches to provide adequate clearances under the bridge.
• Strict dimensional and alignment control is required during casting and assembly of
the segments. Any mistakes are costly and difficult to correct especially if they are
not detected until after some length of the deck is launched.
• A large area is required behind the abutment(s) for the casting and assembly of the
segments, which may not be readily available on some project sites such as densely
populated urban and traffic congested areas.
• The superstructure of the bridge must consist of a continuous girder so that it is
possible to launch it through a continuously changing static system.
The incremental launching technique is a versatile and useful method for new
bridge construction and can provide numerous advantages when building bridges
over obstacles such as roads, railways or rivers, particularly in congested or
environmentally sensitive areas. The ministry is interested to try this technique
on a bridge project at the earliest opportunity.
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- 69 -
References:
1. Recommended Practice for Precast Prestressed Concrete Composite Bridge Panels
by Ross Bryan Associates, Inc, PCI Journal March-April 1988
2. Tsui,C.K., Burns, N.H., Klinger, R.E., Behaviour of Ontario-Type Bridge Deck on
Steel Girders: Negative moment Region & Load Capacity, Centre for
Transportation Research Report 350-3, 1986
3. Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code: A National Standard of Canada,
CAN/CSA-S6-00, and Commentary on CAN/CSA-S6-00: Canadian Highway Bridge
Design Code, S6.1-00, Canadian Standards Association, Mississauga, Ontario,
Canada.
4. Precast Deck Panel Guidelines, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute New
England Region, Research Report Number PCINER-01-PDPG, 2001
5. Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code and Commentary 3rd Edition, Ministry of
Transportation of Ontario, Downsview, Ontario, Canada.
6. Bakht, B., Stay-in-place Concrete Formwork for Deck Slabs of Girder Bridges,
Ministry of Transportation Research Report, 1996
7. Kluge, Ralph W., and Sawyer, Herbert A., Interacting Pretensioned Concrete Form
Panels for Bridge Decks, PCI Journal Vol. 20, No. 3, May-June 1975, pp. 34-61
8. Precast Prestressed Concrete Bridge Deck Panels, PCI Journal Vol. 32, No. 2,
March-April 1987, pp. 26-45
9. Recommended Practice for Precast Concrete Composite bridge Deck Panels, PCI
Journal Vol. 33, No. 2, March-April 1988, pp. 67-109
10. Issa, M.A., Idriss, A., Kaspar, I. I., Khayyat, S.Y., Full Depth Precast and Precast,
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Deck Panels, PCI Journal, January-February 1995
11. Design Guidelines, Full Depth Precast Concrete Deck Slabs, Precast/Prestressed
Concrete Institute New England Region, Research Report Number PCINER-02-
FDPCDS, 2002
12. Badie,S.S., Patel,P., Tadros, M.K., Rose, J., Utilization of Full-Depth Precast
Concrete Deck Panels in Bridge, Past and Future, PCI Journal, Bridge Conference,
2004
13. Farago, B, Agarwal,A.C, Brown, J., Bassi, K.G., Precast Concrete Deck Panels for
Girder Bridges, American Concrete Institute, Spring Convention, Washington D.C.,
1992
14. Agarwal, A.C., Selvadurai, A.P.S., McMartin, K.C., Behaviour of a Shear
Connection between Steel Girder and Concrete Deck Slab, CSCE Annual
Conference Proceedings, Vol. 3 Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Montreal,
Quebec, 1991
- 70 -
15. Agarwal, A.C., Testing of the Welland River Bridge and the Prototype Bridge with
Precast Deck Construction, Report by Research and Development Branch, Ministry
of Transportation, Ontario, Downsview, Ontario, 1992
16. Au, A., Lam, C, Tharmabala, B., Prefabricated Bridge Technology in MTO,
Proceedings of “2004 Concrete Bridge Conference”, Charlotte, North Carolina,
USA, 2004
17. Au, A., Lam, C, Tharmabala, B., Experimental Studies of Prefabricated Bridge
Deck Models and Closure Strip Connections, Proceedings of Canadian Society of
Civil Engineering 7th Short & Medium Span Bridge Conference, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, 2006
18. Issa, A. M., Yousif, A. A., Issa, M.A., Construction Procedures for Rapid
Replacement of Bridge Decks, Concrete International, January 1995
19. Johnson, R.P., Buckby, R.J., Composite Structure of Steel and Concrete, Volume 2:
Bridges, Collins Professional and Technical Books, London, U.K., 1986
20. Bakht, B., Mufti, A.A., Five Steel Free Deck Slabs in Canada, Structural
Engineering International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering,
Zurich, Vol. 8, No. 3, 1998
21. Mufti, A.A., Bakht, B., Newhook, J.P., Experimental Investigation of Prefabricated
Composite FRP Deck Slabs, Canadian Society of Civil Engineering, 30th Annual
Conference, Montreal, Quebec, 2002
22. Prefabricated Bridge Elements and Systems to Limit Traffic Disruption During
Construction, NCHRP Synthesis 324, Transportation Research Board, Washington,
D.C., 2003
23. Reising, R.M.W., Shahrooz, B.M., Hunt, V.J., Neumann, A.R., Helmicki, A.J.,
Hastak, M., Close Look at Construction Issues and Performance of Four Fibre-
Reinforced Polymer Composite Bridge Decks, Journal of Composites for
Construction, Vol. 8, No.1, February 2004.
24. Bakis, C.E. et al., Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites for Construction: State-of-
the-Art Review, Journal of composites for construction, Vol. 6, No 2, 2002
25. INVERSETTM Bridge System, Design/Installation/Technical Manual, J.W. Peters
and Sons Inc., Highway Products Division, Joliet, Illinois
26. Kennedy, D.J., Dorton, R.A., Alexander, S.D.B., The Sandwich Plate System For
Bridge Decks, Proceedings of 2002 International Bridge Conference, Pittsburg,
USA, 2002
27. Huh B. and Low J, Moose Creek Bridge, The First Field Application of Fully
Prefabricated Bridges in Ontario, PCI National Bridge Conference, 2004
28. Ralls M. L., Hyzak, M.D., Medlock, R. D., Wolf L.M., Prefabricated Bridges-
Current U.S. Practice and Issues, FHWA/AASHTO National Prefabricated Bridge
Elements and Systems Workshop, New Jersey, 2004
29. Freeby, G., Medlock R., Slage S., Prefabricated Bridge Innovation
- 71 -
30. Ralls, M.L., Medlock, R.D., Slagle, S., Prefabricated Bridge National
Implementation Initiative
31. Alistair P., Large and small Incrementally Launched Structures, Transportation
Research Record 1696, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington D.C., USA, 2000
32. Podolney, W.. J.R., Muller J. M., Construction and Design of Prestressed Concrete
Segmental Bridges, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982
33. Rowley F. N., Incremental Launched Bridges: UK Practice and Some Foreign
Comparisons, The Structural Engineer, Volume 71, No. 7, 1993
34. Prefabricated Bridges - Get in, Get Out, Stay Out, AASHTO Technology
Implementation Group (TIG), 2002
35. Prefabricated Bridges 2004, Good Business - Best Practice, AASHTO Technology
Implementation Group (TIG) Federal Highway Administration, 2004
36. Husain, I., Huh, B., Low, J., McCormick, M. Moose Creek Bridge-Case Study of a
Prefabricated Integral Abutment Bridge in Canada, Proceedings of “2005 –FHWA
Conference, Integral Abutment and Jointless Bridges”, Baltimore, Maryland, 2005
- 72 -
Blank Page
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Appendix A
MTO’S STANDARD DRAWINGS FOR PRECAST STAY-IN-PLACE

DECK PANELS
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Appendix B
MTO’S RECENT PREFABRICATED BRIDGE PROJECTS

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MOOSE CREEK BRIDGE, HWY 101

DESCRIPTION:
• Single span, integral abutment structure, 22 m long and 14.64 m wide (Figure B-
7)).
• Slab-on-girder type superstructure.
• Prefabricated System A used with six precast pre-tensioned concrete CPCI 1200
girders cast integrally with a full depth concrete deck, spaced at 2.45m centre-to-
centre spacing, and cast-in-place safety barriers (Figure B-1).
• Full depth cast-in place concrete closure strips provide the connection between
the T-shaped girder deck sections (Figure B-3).
• Substructure consists of precast concrete abutment units (Figure B-4) founded on
steel H-piles and connected together with cast-in place concrete closure pours
(Figure B-5).
• Precast wingwalls also used (Figure B-6).
• The deck surface is protected by a 90 mm thick waterproofing and asphalt layer.
Typical Bridge Section Prefabricated Girder Element Details
Figure B-1: Section Views of Bridge and Prefabricated Girder Element
Figure B-2: Installation of Prefabricated

Figure B-3: Closure Strip Detail
Girder Elements
- 81 -
Figure B-5: Precast Abutment Closure

Figure B-4: Precast Abutment Unit
Pour
Figure B-6: Precast Wingwall Figure B-7: Moose Creek Bridge

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LITTLE SAVANNE RIVER BRIDGE, HWY 17

DESCRIPTION:
• Three span, integral abutment structure, 48 m long and 13.25 m wide (Figure B-
13).
• Slab-on-girder type superstructure with six steel I-girders spaced 2.77 m apart.
• Prefabricated System B used with 16 precast full-depth deck panels spanning
between girders (Figures B-8 and B-9)
• Panels linked together by longitudinal closure pours located over girders and
midway between central girders and four transverse closure pours (Figure B-11)
• Composite action achieved through studs in shear pockets and closure strips over
I-girders.
• Exterior panels built with edge beam to support box beam barrier system (Figures
B-12 and B-13).
• Completed in 2005
Figure B-8: Section View of Bridge
Figure B-9: Section Views of Prefabricated Deck Panel

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Figure B-10: Installation of Prefabricated Deck Panels
Figure B-11: Closure Strip Details
Figure B-12: Transverse Closure Strip and Figure B-13: Exterior Panel with Edge
Shear Blockout Beam to Support Bridge Barrier System
Figure B-14: Closure Strips Poured Figure B-15: Little Savanne Bridge
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PASSE-A-FONTAINE BRIDGE, HANLAN NARROWS

DESCRIPTION:
• Single span, single-lane structure, 36.5 m long and 6.25 m wide (Figure B-21)).
• Slab-on-girder type superstructure with 2 steel I-girders spaced 3.0 m apart.
• Prefabricated System B used with precast full-depth and full-width deck panels
(Figure B-16).
• Panels linked together by transverse closure pours (Figure B-20))
• Composite action achieved through studs in shear block-outs preformed in deck
panels (Figure B-20)).
Figure B-16: Prefabricated Deck Panel Details

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Figure B-18: Precast Full-Depth and Full-

Figure B-17: Supporting Steel Girders Installed
Width Deck Panels
Figure B-19: Precast Panels Installed on Girders
Figure B-20: Closure Strips and Shear Pocket

Figure B-21: Passe-a-Fontaine Bridge
with Studs Installed
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SUCKER CREEK BRIDGE, COUNTY ROAD 41

DESCRIPTION:
• Single span, single-lane structure, 29.68 m long and 25.92 m wide (Figure B-28).
• 21 precast concrete box girders linked by longitudinal cast-in-place shear key
connections (Figures B-22, B-24 and B-25).
• No topping slab used (Figure B-27).
Figure B-22: Precast Concrete Box Layout & Shear Connection Details
Figure B-23: Erection of Precast Concrete

Figure B-24: Shear Key Connection Details
Boxes
- 87 -
Figure B-25: Precast Concrete Boxes Figure B-26: Cast-in-place Concrete Closure
Assembled Joint
Figure B-27: Completed Bridge Deck (No Figure B-28: Completed Bridge Deck (No
Topping Slab) Topping Slab)
- 88 -
HWY 401 UNDERPASS @ MULL ROAD

DESCRIPTION:
• Four span structure, 61.57 m long and 11.28 m wide (Figure B-37).
• Existing bridge rehabilitated with a new concrete deck using full-depth and full-
width deck slab panels (Figures B-29 and B-31).
• Deck slab features an innovative debonded link slab detail that provides slab
continuity over the pier locations, with existing five steel girders remaining
simply supported (Figure B-35).
• Prefabricated System B used with 23 precast full-depth, full-width deck panels
spanning over girders (Figures B-29 and B-32).
• Panels linked together by transverse closure pours, with steel continuity provided
by loop bars and mechanical connectors for link slab segments at pier locations
(Figures B-33 and B-34).
• Composite action achieved through studs welded to girders in block-outs in slab
panels (Figure B-36).
• Panels precast with concrete barrier walls (Figure B-32).
Figure B-29: Deck Panels Layout and Details

- 89 -
Figure B-30: Deck Slab Panels Figure B-31: Deck Panel Lifted
Fabricated in CSA Certified Plant From Transporting Truck
Figure B-32: Deck Panel Installation
Figure B-33: Closure Strip Details
Figure B-34: Link Slab Rebar

Figure B-35: Link Slab Panel
Connected by Mechanical Connectors
- 90 -
Figure B-36: Grouting of Shear Pockets After Studs Installed
Figure B-37: Hwy 401/Mull Road Underpass

- 91 -
CNR OVERHEAD @ RAINY LAKE, HWY 11

DESCRIPTION:
• Single span, semi-integral abutment structure, 24.38 m long and 11.75 m wide
(Figure B-49).
• Existing bridge rehabilitated with a new concrete deck using full-depth deck slab
panels.
• Prefabricated System B used with 20 precast full-depth deck panels spanning
across girders (Figures B-38 and B-39).
• Panels linked together by one main longitudinal closure pour located over central
girder and nine transverse closure pours (Figure B-44 and B-45).
• Panels reinforced with GFRP reinforcement (Figures B-43 and B-45).
• Composite action achieved through studs in shear pockets and closure strip over I-
girders (Figure B-44).
• Ultra High Performance concrete (Ductal) used in 200mm wide closure strips
(Figures B-46 and B-47).
• Exterior panels built with edge beam to support barrier system (Figure B-43)
Figure B-38: Deck Panels Layout

- 92 -
(a) Typical Deck Panel Details
(b) Deck Panel Detail @ Girder

(c) Transverse Closure Joint Detail
Locations
Figure B-39: Deck Panel and Joint Details
Figure B-40: Deck Panels Fabricated in

Figure B-41: Deck Panel Installation
CSA Certified Plant
- 93 -
Figure B-42: Deck Panels Assembled Figure B-43: Deck Panel Joint Details
Figure B-44: Longitudinal Joint and Shear Figure B-45: Transverse Closure Joint
Pocket Details Details
Figure B-46: Pouring Ductal Concrete Figure B-47: Finished Ductal Surface
Figure B-49: CNR Overhead @ Rainy

Figure B-48: Finished deck Surface
Lake, Hwy 11
- 94 -
BEAVER CREEK BRIDGE, HWY 12

DESCRIPTION:
• Single span, integral abutment structure, 28.2 m long and 13.6 m wide (Figure B-
56).
• Slab-on-girder type superstructure.
• Prefabricated System A used with six precast pre-tensioned concrete CPCI 1200
girders cast integrally with a full depth concrete deck, spaced at 2.45m centre-to-
centre spacing (Figures B-50 and B-54).
• Longitudinal cast-in-place concrete closure strips provide the connection between
the T-shaped girder deck sections (Figure B-53).
• Precast wingwalls used (Figure B-51).
• Sidewalk and barrier walls are precast with exterior girders (Figures B-52 and B-
54).
- 95 -
Figure B-50: Prefabricated Beams Details
Figure B-51: Prefabricated Wingwall Figure B-52: Prefabricated Beam

Installation Installation
Figure B-53: Longitudinal Closure Strip Figure B-54: Prefabricated Beams

with Straight Lapped Rebars Assembled
Figure B-55: Deck Top After Casting of

Figure B-56: Beaver Creek Bridge
Closure Strips
- 96 -
CPR OVERHEAD @ MORRISTON, HWY 6

BRIDGE DESCRIPTION / PREFABRICATION FEATURES:
• 3-span continuous structure, 51.5 m long and 14.775 m wide.

• Precast pier cap used (Figures B-57 and 65)
• Pier cap constructed in two parts and connected together on site by a 900mm wide
cast-in-place concrete closure pour (Figures B-57 and B-59).
Figure B-57: Prefabricated Pier Cap Details

- 97 -
Figure B-58: Abutments and Columns Figure B-59: Pier Cap Segments
Cast First Prefabricated Close to Bridge Site
Figure B-60: Cast-in-Place Columns with

Figure B-61: Bearing Pads on Column Top
Dowel Bars
Figure B-63: Pier Cap Connection with

Figure B-62: Pier Cap Lifted into Position
Column
Figure B-64: Column Dowels Inserted into

Figure B-65: Completed Pier Bent
Pier Cap Pockets and Grouted
- 98 -
Blank Page
- 99 -
Appendix C
TEXAS DOT’S PIERCAP DRAWINGS

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MTO-Guidelines For Prefabricated Bridges - September-2006

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GUIDELINES

Guidelines for Prefabricated

Title Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges

Author(s) Iqbal Husain and Clifford Lam

Originating Office Highway Standards Branch, Ontario Ministry of Transportation

Report Number BRO-021; ISBN 0-xxxx-xxxx-X

Publication Date September, 2006

Distribution Unrestricted technical audience.

Guidelines for Prefabricated

301 St. Paul Street,

Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges (BRO-021)

Maintaining Cross Slopes and Levelling Panels ......................................43

Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges (BRO-021)

Appendix C: Texas DOT’s Piercap Drawings ........................................................................... 99

Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges (BRO-021)

Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges (BRO-021)

Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges (BRO-021)

Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges (BRO-021)

Guidelines for Prefabricated Bridges (BRO-021)

This guideline is developed to:

It initiated an in-house research program in 2000 to investigate the feasibility of using

Steel plate girders Columns & piers

Full-depth deck slabs Culverts

Barrier walls Figure 1: Prefabricated Bridge Elements

Decks cast on Precast

PREFABRICATION BRIDGE TECHNOLOGY IN MTO

Examples of prefabricated bridge types used to date by the ministry are:

• CPCI and steel plate girders

MTO Prefabrication Projects

Table 1: MTO Applications of Prefabricated Bridge Technology (as of 2006)

Figure 3: Jordan Harbour/QEW Figure 4: Welland River/QEW

Figure 5: McKenzie Creek/Hwy 6 Figure 6: Twelve Mile Creek/Hwy 406

Figure 9: Little Savanne Bridge/Hwy 11 Figure 10: Passe-a-Fontaine Bridge

PREFABRICATION GOALS & CHALLENGES

The ministry is implementing bridge prefabrication technology to achieve the following

• Use precast systems

• Use precast elements in substructures

Totally Prefabricated Bridges

• Use Self Propelled Modular Transporters (SPMT) to move complete bridges

• Improve quality and performance of bridges

CONSIDERATION AND JUSTIFICATION FOR PREFABRICATION

To assist in the decision-making process on whether prefabrication might be an

RAILWAY RAILWAY RAILWAY RAILWAY

Figure 17: Flowchart Tool for Prefabricated Bridges

Decision Chart -- Prefabricated Bridge Components

BENEFITS Score * Comments

Is the bridge on Emerg Route or over rail or major navigation channel?

Will bridge closure or construction have adverse economic impact?

Will use of prefab mitigate long detours?

Does local weather affect construction season duration?

Will there be significant user costs due to construction?

Will prefabrication expedite bridge construction?

Are there structural or quality benefits from prefabrication?

Are there cost savings due to prefabrication?

Are there intangible benefits? E.g. Advancement of knowledge (explain)

Are there safety concerns with conventional construction?

RISKS Score * Comments

Are there significant cost premiums due to prefabrication?