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GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
L
General Psychology
S.K. MANGAL
STERLING PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD.

STERLING PUBLISHERS PVT. Crp,
L-10, Green Park Extension, New Delhi
-11001 6. 5
G-2, Cunningham Apartments, Cunningham Road,
Bangalore-560052.
Geñeral Psychology
© 1988, S.K. MANGAL
Lt K o Wee Heng. l
jata AL 23-37 MAN
Kec. xo H-2 C AA
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i-110064, ri i
CONTENTS
Preface xi
m. PSYCHOLOGY — MEANING, NATURE AND

SCOPE
Introduction; Defining Psychology; Conclusion regard-
ing definitions; Meaning of the term behaviour;
Nature of the Subject Psychology; Scope of Psycho-
logy; Branches and Fields of Psychology; Utility of
Psychology; Summary; References and Suggested
Readings.
N. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY—A HISTORI-

CAL PERSPECTIVE 13
Introduction; The Early age of Pre-Scientific Psycho-
logy; The Modern Age of Scientific Psychology—
Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism; Gestalt
Psychology; Psychoanalysis; The recent trends in Con-
temporary Psychology—Humanist Psychology, Trans-
personal Psychology, Cognitive Psychology; Summary,
References and Suggested Readings.
w. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY 28
Naturalistic ob-
Introduction; Introspection method;
;
servation; Experimental method; Differential method
; Psycho physic al metho ds—Th e metho d
Clinical method
of minimal changes or the methods of limits; The
method of constant Stimuli or the method of right and
sion
wrong cases; The method of average error; Conclu
regarding methods; Summa ry; Refere nces and Sugges ted
Readings.
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR 44

Introduction; Nervous system; The neuron; The neural
impulse; The central nervous system: The brain,
Localization of the brain functions, Spinal-cord; The
peripheral nervous system; The influence of nervous
system on human behaviour, The endocrine system.
Impact of the functioning of endocrine glands;
Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
vi
5. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

Introduction; What is heredity? The role of genes;
Determination of sex—boy or girl? The twins
mechanism; What is environment ? The role of
heredity
and environment in the development of personality
and
behaviour; Summary; References and Suggested
Read-
ings.
6. INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS 69
Introduction; Understanding and defining
instincts;
Instincts and Reflex actions; Classification
of instincts;
Defining emotion; Characteristics of emotions;
of Kinds
emotions; The identification and measurement
of emotions—Introspective reports; Observatio
facial expressions ;Measurement in n of
terms of physiologi-
cal changes; Physiology of emotions:
emotiom—The James-Lange theory, The Theories of
theory, Cognitive theory, Activation Cannon-Bard
theory; Conclusion
about theories; Summary; References
and Suggested
Readings.
= SENSES AND SENSITIVITY
Introduction; Meaning and type
84
s of Senses; Sensation
and Sensitivity; The detection
and discrimination of
stimuli; Absolute threshold; The
method of constant
stimuli; The method of forced choi
ce; Difference thres-
hold and Weber’s law, Sense
of vision; structure and
functioning of the eye; Visual
colour mixture; colour adap tation: Colour vision,
vision——Young Helmholtz
bli
theory; Hering’s opponent
Process theory; The Sense of
hearing—The characteris-
tics of sound, the structur
e
Or pressure; Sense
of tem
body senses—The Kin
est
Sense; Summary Reference
s and Suggested Readings.
8. PERCEPTION AND ILLUSION
Introduction; Meanin
g of perception; Law
104
tual organisation; Per s of percep-
ceptual constancy; Per
space—Visual monocu ception of
lar
tion. of distance; Percep cues; Binocular cues; Percep-
illusions; Summary; Referetion of direction; Perceptual
nces and Suggested Readin
gs,
9. c
THIN
u KIi
NG, REASONING AND
y F ROBLEM
Introduction; Define 125
thinkin
ments of thoughts—tools oft ; Nat ofthinking; Ele-
Bi Role of
thinking; Ri aty;
Rigidi
vii
Set; direction and interest in thinking; Types of

thinking; Reasoning—meaning and defintion; types of
reasoning; Problem Solving— meaning and definition,
Scientific method of problem-solving, Summary,
10. MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR 13"

What is motivation, Needs— Biological needs; Socio-
psychological needs; Drives; Drives and incentives;
Motives; Hunger motive; Thirst motive; Sex motive;
Maternal motive; Aggression motive; Application
motive; Achievement motive; Theories of motivation—
Freud’s instinctive theory; Adler’s social urges theory,
Goal oriented theory, Maslow’s _ Self-actualization
theory; Measurement of motives; Summary; References
and Suggested Readings.
11, ATTENTION 155

Meaning; Signs and Effects of Attention; Types of
attention; Factors or determinants ofattention; Span
of attention; Shifting or fluctuation of attention,
Division ofattention; Sustained attention; Distraction,
12. LEARNING 168

Meaning and Nature; Types of learning; Verbal learn-
ing; Motor learning; Concept learning; Problem-solving;
Serial learning; Paired associate learning, Theories of
learning —Trial and error theory of learning; Laws of
learning—Practical implications of Thorndike’s contri-
butions; Theory of classical conditioning; Principies of
classical conditioning, Implications ofclassical condi-
tioning; Operant conditioning; Shaping; Implications
of the theory of Operant conditioning; Theory of
insightful learning, Implications of theory ofinsightful
learning; Transfer of training or learning-meaning;
Types of transfer; Theories of transfer; Summary;
13, MEMORY-REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING 202

What is memory ? Mechanism of the process of
memorization; Remembering and memory; Types of
mory—I
me-
mmediate memory; Short term memory; Long-
term memory; The study of memory; Learning method;
Saving method; Economy in memorizing—Recitation
method, Whole and part methods; Methods of distri-
buted and massed practice; Training in memory; What
viii
is forgetting; Ebbinghaus’s curve of Forgetting, Types

of forgetting; Theories of forgetting—The trace decay
theory; The interference theory; The repression theory;
14, INTELLIGENCE 220

Introduction; Defining intelligence; Theories of intelli-
gence—Unitary theory, Multifactor theory; Two factor
theory; Group factor theory; Vernon’s hierarchical
theory; Guilford’s model of intellect; Conclu-
sion about theories of intelligence; Nature of
intelligence; Effect of heredity and environment on
intelligence; Distribution of ‘intelligence; Individual
differences in intelligence; Intelligence and changes in
age; Intelligence and sex differences; Intelligence and
racial or cultural differences; Assessment of intelligence;
Individual verbal tests; Individual performance tests;
Group verbal tests; Group Non-verbal tests; Concept of
Mental age and I.Q.; The constancy of I.Q.; The
Classification of I.Q.; Mentally retarded: Gifted;
15. APTITUDES 242

Meaning and nature of aptitudes; Aptitude-Ability and
achievement; Intelligence and aptitudes ; Aptitude and
interest; Measurement of aptitudes; Utility of aptitude;
tests; Summary; References and Suggested Readings.
16, PERSONALITY 253

Meaning and Nature; Definitions: Distinguished
features and characteristics of personality;
Theories of personality; Type approach—Hippocrates
Kretschmer; Sheldon; Jung; Ae Trait
Pp approa —
PRAllport
ch
Cattell; Type-cum-trait appreach—Eysenck’s theory;;
Developmental approach — Freud’s psychoanalytic
theory; Adlers theory Carl Roger’s Self-theory;
Dollard
Miller’s Learning theory of personality; Bandur
a &
Walters Social learning theory; Assessment
of persona-
lity—Difficulties in the measurement of persona
Observation,
lity
Situational tests; Questionnaire;
Personality inventory, Rating scale Interview, Pro-
jective techniques—The Rorschach Ink-blot
test; TAT;
CAT; Word association tests; Sentence-completion test;
Summary: References and Suggested Readings.
Glossary 285
Index 299
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 4.1 The Structure of a neuron. 45

Fig 4.2 The Structure of the Human Brain. 4]
Fig 4.3 The Human Cerebral Cortex. 50
Fig 4.4 The Location of Endocrine glands in the human
body. 53
Fig 5.1 Determination of Sex—boy or girl ? 62
Fig 7.1 Graphical determination of an absolute threshold. 87
Fig 7.2 The Structure of the human eye. 88
Fig 7.3 Wave cycle and amplitude. 94
Fig 7.4 The Structure of the Human ear. 95
Fig 7.5 The location of the receptors for smell. 97
Fig 8.1 Rubin’s Vase—An ambiguous figure that can be
perceived either as a base or as two faces. 107
8.2
Fig “|Illustration of the principle of closure. 108
8.4
Fig 8.5 Similarity. 109
Fig 8.6 Proximity. 109
Fig 8.7 Continuity. 110
Fig 8.8 An illusion based on contrast effects. 111
Fig 8.9 Shadow giving perception of the distance. 114
Fig 8.10 Perception of depth through shadowing. 115
Fig 8.11 Textural density gradient producing the appearance
of depth. 116
Fig 8.12 Another example of texture density gradients. 116
Fig 8.13 Illusion of size. 19
Fig 8.14 Illusion of length: Miiller-Lyer illusion. 120
Fig 8.15 Illusion of perspective: Ponzo illusion 120
Fig 8.16 Ilusion of curvature. 121
Fig 8.17 Horizontal vertical illusion.
121
Fig 10.1 Maslow’s Hierarchical Structure of needs. 147
Fig 11.1 Masson’s disc. 162
Fig 12.1 Thorndike’s cat is trying to come out. 174
Fig 12.2 Diagrammatic view of the experiment conducted
by Pavloy. 179
Fig 12.3 Diagrammatic presentation of the experiment.
180
Fig 12.4 Kohler’s experiment on chimpanzee.
193
Fig 13.1 Memory drum.
206
Fig 13.2 Ebbinghaus’s curve of forgetting.
214
Fig 14.1 Vernon’s hierarchical structure of human
intelli-
gence.
224
Fig 14.2 Guilford’s three dimensional model
of the struc-
ture of the intellect.
226
Fig 14.3 An item from C.LE. n on-ver
bal group test of
intelligence.
235
Fig 14.4 Hypothetical growth curves which give
a constant
LQ.
236
Fig 15.1 Which would be the
bett er shears for cutting
metal?
246
Fig 51.2 Which gear will make the most
turns in a minute ? 246
Fig 15.3 In this pair the subject is requi
red to select the
original and aesthetically Superior
work on the
basis of the shapes of the bowl
s. 248
Fig 16.1 Sheldon’s three basi
c somato-types. 258
Fig 16.2 Organisation of Ind
ividual Behaviour. 262
Fig 16.3 Relative Position of Id,
ego and Super ego. 264
Fig 16.4 An Ink-blot similar
to that used in Rorschach
est.
Fig 16.5 A sample pictur 275
e from TAT.
Glossary
278
Index 285
299
PREFACE
This book has been written for use asa basic text book in an
introductory course in General Psychology or as a book of general
and practical interest for those who venture to peep into the realm of
a most useful and fast growing subject, Psychology. The students and
people belonging to other fields and disciplines will also find the
book informative as well as stimulating.
Indeed it is a difficult task to present all the basic essential aspects
of such avast subject like Psychology into a limited number of
chapters and pages of a brief text. However, an attempt is being made
to present what is essential both from the angle ofthe scope of the
subject as well as the needs and demands of the under-graduate and
post-graduate courses of Indian Universities.
Throughout the text, I have tried to make the subject as readable
and stmulating as possible. The terms and concepts have been ade-
quately illustrated within their descriptions as well as through the
Glossary at the end of the text. Each chapter has been provided with
a compact and concise summary along with the relevant references
and suggested readings.
I express a deep sense of gratitude to the various Writers, the
views and opinions of whom I have freely incorporated in this book
I am also grateful to my colleagues and my students who have been
a source of constant inspiration to me. I also owe a debt of gratitude
to my wife Dr. (Mrs.) Uma Mangal and dear Deepak Gupta who
assisted me in the preparation of the manuscript and making the
drawings of the illustrations and figures.
I hope that the book will prove its worth and be of benefit to all
those for whom it has been specifically designed. Any suggestions
for its improvement will be gratefully acknowledged and appreciated.
SK. Mancan
ROHTAK
Ist January, 1988
ua”
a
PSYCHOLOGY—MEANING, NATURE
AND SCOPE
The subject Psychology is becoming more and more popular day

by day. The number of colleges and students opting for the study of
this subject, at the graduate and post-graduate levels, is yearly
increasing in almost all the Universities of our country. The reason
for this rapid progress is explained in detail in chapter two. Psycho-
logy is an offspring of the subject Philosophy. With the passage of
time, the subject of psychology has undergone a change from one of
sheer speculation to that of scientific procedure. The gradual diver-
gence of this subject from Philosophy to Science has been responsible
for the change in its meaning and concept from time to time as may
be evident from the following discussion.
Defining Psychology
J. In terms of the study of the soul: In order to define the subject
Psychology let us first trace its origin. It stems from the most
mysterious and philosophical concept, the soul. Etymologically, the
very word psychology means the study of the soul on account of its
derivation from the two Greek words, psyche (Soul) and logos (a
rational course or a study).
2. In terms of the study of the mind: What is soul? How can it be
studied? The inability to answer such questions led some ancient
Greek philosophers to define psychology as “‘study of the mind”.
Although the word mind was less mysterious and vague than soul, it
also faced the same questions such as: What is mind? How can it be
studied? etc., and consequently this definition was also rejected.
3. In terms of the study of the Consciousness. Failure to define the
terms sou! and mind persuaded the philosophers and psychologists
to search for some other suitable definitions.
o “William James in his book Principles of Psychology. published in
1890-defined psychology as “the description and explanation of state
of consciousness as such”. +
-William Wundt (1832-1920) who established the: first Psychology
jJaboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany and _ his disciple-
gdward Bradford Titchener also concluded to define psychology as
2 General Psychology
the science of consciousness. According to these psychologists, the

description and explanation of the states of consciousness is the task
ol psychology which is usually done by the instrument introspection
—process of looking within.
This definition was also rejected on the grounds that (i) it has a
very narrow vision on account of its not talking about the subcon-
scious and unconscious activities of the mind, (ii) the introspection
method for the study of the conscious activities of the mind proved
the most subjective and unscientific method, and (iii) it could not
include the study of the consciousness of animals.
4. In terms of the study of behaviour: From the 19th century on-
wards, with the advent of the modern era of scientific investigation
and thought, psychology began to be defined in terms of the study of
behaviour.
' i
The first man to define psychology as the Science of behaviour
was an English psychologist, -William „McDougall. - In his book
Physiological Psychology published in 1905 he wrote “psychology
may be best and most comprehensively defined as the positive Science
of the conduct of living creatures”. Later on in 1908;in his book
Introduction to Social Psychology-he added the word behaviour to his
definition and finally in his book An Outline of Psychology gave the
following meaningful definition:
“Psychology is a Science which aims to give us better
ing and control of the behaviour of the organ understand-
ism as a whole.”
(1949, p. 38).
In the same period, an American
Professor Walter Bowers
Pillsbury in his book Essen tials of Psych
ology published in 1911 gave
the same behavioural defin ition of
the term
“Psychology may be m ost satisfactorily psychology in the words:
defined as the Science of
human behaviour.’
However, in later years, in 1913,
J.B. Watson, the father of the
Behaviourist School proposed
to elaborate the concept of the
behaviour including in it both term
human and animal behaviour
consequently he «defined psyc and
(taking into account the human hology as “the Science of behaviour”
as well as animal behaviour),
Taking
i1 cues fromn the earlier works, p Conte
ang cme are Writers have mpo i
explained and defined ‘pay
peience ol behaviour using a somewhat choloce ee
different vocabulary as
* N.L. Munn says “‘Psy
psychologist is a Scientist, or at least
a pri
methods and infor:
Psychélogy= Meaning, Nature and Scope 3
‘Conclusion regarding definitions :

The above account of the definitions regarding the subject psychol-
ogy clearly reveals that the meaning and concept of this subject has
frequently changed its shape based on its dependence upon philoso-
phical or scientific thinking. Commenting over this aspect Woodworth
(1948):.says “First psychology lost its soul, then its mind, then it lost
its consciousness. It still has behaviour of sort.”
Although even at this final stage there seems no agreement over
universal definition of psychology, yet the definitions may generally
be viewed to centre around a common pivot of behaviour. Conse-
quently it may be concluded that psychology is a science of behaviour
or scientific study of the behavioural activities and experiences. The
questions which remain unanswered at this stage are:
(i) What do we actually mean by the term behaviour ?
(ii) What is the nature of the subject psychology? Is it a science?
If yes, then what kind of science is it?
Meaning of the term behaviour

The term behaviour is taken in its totality connoting a wide and
comprehensive meaning as detailed below:
(a) “Any manifestation of life is activity” says Woodworth (1948)
and behaviour is a collective name for these activities. Therefor
e, the
term behaviour includes all the motor or conative activitie
s (like
walking, swimming, dancing etc.), cognitive activities (like thinking,
reasoning, imagining, etc) and affective activities (like feeling, happy,
sad and angry, etc.).
(b) It includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of
the human mind but also the sub-conscious and unconscious. Conse-
quently it covers not only the overt behaviour but also the covert
behaviour involving all the inner experiences and mental processes,
(c) It is not limited to the study of the human behaviour, The
behaviour of the animals, insects, birds and even plants is also
covered in the subject psychology. Therefore, when we talk about the
study of the behaviour in psychology, We mean to study the behaviour
of all living organism in all walks of their life.
In a nutshell the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities
and experiences of all the living organisms.
Nature of the subject psychology

It is an accepted reality that the nature of the subject psychology
is quite scientific. This fact has been properly recognized by the
eminent psychologists and thinkers as may
definitions of psychology (in terms of the be inferred out of the
scientific study or science of
behaviour) given by them in the earlier pages
of this chapter. How-
ever, let us try to demonstrate why the subject psycholog
y should be
4 i General Psychology
called as a science. In general, we may call the nature of a subject

scientific, if it fulfils the following criteria:
(i) Possesses a body of facts and is able to support it through
universal laws and principles.
(ii) Emphasizes on search for truth.
(iii) Does not believe in hearsay, stereotypes or superstitions.
(iv) Believes in cause and effect relationships.
(v) Adopts the method of objective investigation, systematic and
controlled observation and scientific approach.
(vi) Stands for the generalization, verifiability and modifications
of the observed results or deduced phenomena.
(vii) Helps in predicting the future developments.
(viii) Is able to turn its theory into practice by having its applied
aspect.
Let us summarize the nature of psychology in the light of the
abovementioned criteria.
1. Psychology possesses a well organized theory which is support-
ed by the relevant psychological laws and principles.
2. It has its applied aspects in the form of various branches of
applied psychology like industrial, legal, clinical and educational
psychology.
3. It believes that every behaviour has its roots, the factors of its
causing, influencing or nurturing.
4. Subjective ideas and opinions have little weight in carrying out
the study of behaviour in the subject psychology. It emphasizes on
the search for truth by advocating objectivity, reliability and validity
in the assessment of the behaviour.
S; The methods and techniques employed in the study of the
behaviourin psychology are quite scientific. The steps like analysis of
the behaviour, formulation of hypothesis, objective observations or
controlled experimentation, deduction, verification and generalization
of the results etc., provide the solid base for scientific method and
approach in the subject psychology. °
.
6. The
.
results of the study of behaviour always 5 i
verification in similar
. . .
other conditions by other (eeta td ye
observers. These results may be accepted, modified or
light of the recently available data and findings. altered in the
7. The established facts, principles and laws of t
i i
the subject psychology enjoy universal applicability
ae E TE
other bodies of the knowledge and future researches in its own
fields.
8. The, appropriate description as well as
quantification of
behaviour is possible through the h elp of psychology. We may
trustworthy predictions about the organism in the light of the make
behaviour. studied
Psychology—Meaning, Nature and Scope 5
On the basis of the above characteristics, it may be established

beyond doubt that psychology is a science. Its nature is quite scienti-
fic and not philosophical or mysterious as was supposed to be in days
of yore.
What kind of science is psychology?

We can divide all the Sciences into two broad categories—Positive
and Normative Sciences. While physical and life sciences are termed
as positive sciences, the subjects like logic, philosophy and ethics are
included in the category of natural sciences.
In contrast to normative sciences, positive sciences study facts,
describe ‘what is’ and have least or no concern with ‘what ought to
be’.
Psychology in, this sense unquestionably falls in the category of
positive Sciences.
What kind of positive science is psychology ?

The question here is, can we equate psychology, the science of
behaviour with the positive sciences like Physics, Chemistry, Botany,
Zoology, Astronomy and Mathematics, etc.? The answer lies in the
negative. In comparison with these sciences, psychology is not so
perfect and developed a science. In fact, it is a behavioural science
which deals with the behaviour of an organism. This behaviour is
quite dynamic and unpredictable. Methods ofits studying are also not
so absolute and objective as adopted by the natural sciences. On thc
other hand physical or chemical reactions studied by the natural
sciences are always predictable on account of the nature of the
material and study processes. As a result, the studies in natural
sciences are bound to be more exact, accurate and objective than the
studies of behaviour in psychology.
Consequently, it is not proper to equate psychology with the
physical and natural sciences. Although psychology is striving hard
in its technique and approach to be as objective, exact and accurate
as possible, it has yet to attain the position and status of these
sciences. Thus in its true sense, it can be categorised as a developing
positive science rather than a developed one.
Hence, in the ultimate analysis for understanding the meaning and
nature of the subject psychology, we can define it as a developing
positive science of behaviour.
Scope of psychology
What do we mean by the scope of a subject? The scope of a
subject can usually be discussed under the following two heads:
1. The limits of its operations and applications.
2. The branches, topics and the subject matter with which it deals. -
General Psychology
` The field of operation and applications of the subject psychology
is too vast. It studies, describes and explains the behaviour of the
living organisms.» Here the terms ‘behaviour’ and ‘living organisms’
carry unusual wide meanings. - Behaviour is to be used to include all
types of life activities and experiences—whether conative, cognitive or
affective, implicit or explicit, conscious, unconscious or sub-conscious
of a living organism. On the other hand, the term living organism is
to be employed to all the living creatures created by the Almighty
irrespective of their species, caste, colour, age, sex, mental or physical
state. Thus normals, abnormals, children, adolescents, youths, adults,
old persons, criminals, patients, workers, Officials, students, teachers,
parents, consumers and producers belonging to different stock, spheres.
and walks of human life all are studied in the subject psychology.’
Moreover, the studies in psychology do not limit themselves to the
study of human behaviour only but also try to encircle the behaviour
of the animals, insects, birds and even plant life.
“In this way, where there seems some life and we have living
organisms, psychology may be needed for the study of the activities
and experiences of these living organisms.*We know that the living
organisms as well as their life activities are countless and conse-
quently, no limit can be imposed upon the fields of the operation
and applications of the subject psychology.
_Branches and fields of psychology

_The subject matter of the subject psychology can be groupe
different branches for the sake of convenience and specialized d into
First, we divide it into two broad study.
categories, namely, Pure
Psychol-
ogy and Applied Psychology.
`
Pure psychology provides the framework and theory..
deal with the formulation of psychological principles and. Its contents
suggests various methods and techniques for the analysi theories. It
s, assessment,
modification and improvement of behaviour.
~In applied psychology,-the theory generated or discussed
pure psychology finds its practical sha pe.: Here i t hrough
means we discuss ways and
of the applications of psychological rules, princi
and techniques with reference to the real ples, theories
practical life situations.
The abovementioned pure and appli
ed aspects of the subject
psychology can be further grouped into
mention some of the branches of pure various branches. Let us first
psychology.
A. BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY
~ 1. General Psychology: It is relat
psychology which deals with the ively a large area or field of
fundamental rules, Principles and
theories of psychology in relation
to the study of behaviour of
normal adult human beings.
2. Abnormal
which describes psychology: lt isthe
and explains thatbehaviour
branch orof field ot pave
abniemal oeeo
Psychology—Meaning, Nature and Scope 1.
relation to their own environment. ‘The causes, symptoms and syn-

dromes, description and treatment of the abnormalities of behaviour
form the subject matter of this branch.
+ 3. Social psychology: This branch of psychology deals with the
group behaviour and inter-relationships of people with other people. -
Group dynamics, likes and dislikes, interests and attitudes, social
distance and prejudices of the people in their personal and social
relationships form the subject matter of this branch. ays
*4. Experimental psychology : This branch of psycholog y describes
and explains the ways and means of carrying out psychological
experiments following scientific methods in controlled or laboratory
situations for the study of mental processes and behaviour..It picks
up animals, birds and human beings as subjects for these experi-
ments. ú
_ +5. Physiological psychology: This branch of psychology describes

and explains the biological and physiological basis of behaviour. The
study of the internal environment and physiological structure of the
body, particularly brain, nervous system and functioning of the glands
in relation to the conative, cognitive and affective behaviour of the
human being form part of the subject matter of this branch.
* 6. Para-psychology: Deals with extra sensory perceptions, cases of
re-birth, telepathy and allied problems.
7. Geo-psychology: This branch or field of psychology describes
and explains the relation of physical environment particularly
weather, climate, soil and landscape with behaviour.
8. Development psychology: This branch of psychology describes
and explains the processes and products of the process of growth and
development in relation to the behaviour of an individual from birth
to old age.» For convenience, it is further sub-divided into branches
or. fields like Child psychology, Adolescent psychology and Adult
psychology.
B, BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

’ 1, Educational psychology: It is: that branch of applied psychol-
ogy which tries to apply the psychological principles, theories and
techniques to human behaviour in educational situations.: The subject
matter of this branch covers psychological ways and means ofimproy-
ing all aspects of the teaching/learning process including the learner,
learning process, learning material, learning environment and the
teacher.
- 2. Clinical psychology: This branch of applied psychology describes
and explains the causes of mental illness or abnormal behaviour’of a
patient attending the clinic or hospital and suggests individual or
group ‘therapy for the treatment and effective adjustment’ of the
affected person in society. .
General Psychology
“3. Industrial psychology: This branch:
of applied psychology: tries
to seek application of the psychological principles, theories
techniques for the study of human behaviour in relation and
to industrial
environment: It includes the topics or contents that are
improving
useful for
the ways and means of knowing the taste and interest
the consumers, advertising and sale of products, selectio
s of
n training and
placing of personnel, solving labour problems, establi
shing harmoni-
ous relationship between the employee and employer,
morals of the workers and increasing production strengthening
etc.
~ 4. Legal psychology: It-is that branch of applied psych
ology which
triesto study the behaviour of the persons like clients
witnesses etc; in their respective surroundings with , criminals,
the
application of psychological principles and techniques. help of the
It contains the
subject matter for improving the ways and means
crimes, false witnes of detection of
ses and other complex phenomena. The root
causes of the crime, offence, dispute or any
legal case can be properly
understood through the use of this branch of psych
quently proper teformatory and rehabilitation ology and subse-
measures may be
employed.
`| 5. Military psychology: This branch of psychology
with the use of psychological principles and techni is concerned
ques in the world
of military science. How to keep the morale of the
soldiers and
citizens high during war time, how to fight war of
propaganda and
intelligence services, how to secure better recruitment of the person
nel for the armed forces and how to improve -
and organi the fighting capacities
sational climate and leadership etc., are
that are dealt with in this branch the various topics
of psychology.
6. Political psychology: This branch of psych
with the use of ology relates itself
psychological principles and techniques
in studying
the politics and deriving political gains..~The knowledge of the,
dynamics of the group behaviour, ‘judgment of the public opinion,
qualities of the leadership, psychology of the propaganda
tions, the „art of diplomacy, tc., are some .and sugges-
of the key concepts that
find place in the subject matter of the branch political psychology. .
In the preceding pages,,a
the limits and boundaries ofn theatte mpt has been made to demarcat
subj ect psychology. by pointing oute
its fields of operations and applicat
branches or fields of psychology. -How ions
as well as enlisting its
by no means complete. Psychology ever the account submitted is
of knowledge in its application tohas surpassed all other branches
providing the maximum output with the fields of human endeavour in
the least input.-
Utility of psychology
I
s of learning, motivation and
nality, etc., have been responsible for sha: erso- |
:
educational systems according to the needs and requirements of the

students. The application of psychology in the field of education has
helped the learners to learn, teachers to teach, administrators to
administer and educational planners to plan efficiently and effectively.
2. In the field of Medicine: Psychology has proved its worth in the
field of medicine and cure. A doctor, nurse or any person who attends
the patient needs to know the science of behaviour to achieve good
results. Behaviour counts much more than the medicines and this
behaviour can only be learnt through psychology. The belief that
sickness whether physical or mental may be caused by psychological
factors has necessitated the use of psychology. It has removed a lot
of superstitions in the diagnosis as well as cure of mental and physi-
cal sickness. Psychology has contributed valuable therapeutic
measures like behaviour therapy, play therapy, group therapy, shock
therapy, psychoanalysis, etc., for the diagnosis and cure of patients
suffering from psychosomatic as well as mental diseases.
3. In the field of Business and Industry: The use of psychology is
increasing day by day in the field of business management and indus-
try. Whether it may be in the field of salesmanship, manufacturing
policy, or advertisement one has to study the psychology of the con-
sumers by applying the psychological principles of needs, motivation,
interest, suggestion and individual differences, etc. Psychological
researches and their uses have yielded good results in all the areas
related to business and industry. They have provided the most suit-
able ways for the selection, training and placement of the persons
working in the world of business. It has increased working capacity
and efficiency of both man and machine, helped in the establishment
of harmonious relationship between the employer and employee,
manufacturer and consumers resulting in the maximum economy and
output.
4. Jn the field of Criminology: Detection of crimes and dealing
with criminals have been greatly influenced by psychology. The old
adage, tooth for a tooth and eye for an eye, holds no ground today
in dealing with offenders and criminals. No criminal is such by nature
but circumstances lead him to the maladaptive and criminal beha-
viour. He may be reformed, rehabilitated and made a useful organ of
society if handled properly by making use of psychological knowledge
and researches. The use of psychology has thus resulted in a change
of attitude in the general public as well as civil and judicial authori-
ties in dealing with so-called bad elements and criminals.
5. In the field of Politics: Politics and politicians have benefited
much from the use ofpsychology. Psychology of group behaviour,
group dynamics. social distance, propaganda and leadership etc., have
provided various techniques for gaining popularity, leading masses
and achieving political gains in terms of proving a successful politi-
cian, efficient administrator and providing a functionable government.
6. In the field of Guidance and Counselling: Knowledge of psychol-
ogy helps in providing Valuable guidance and counselling to persons’
10 _ General Psychology
seeking solutions to their Problems of adju
education, employment and personal stment in the field of
life. A guidance personnel,
counsellor, tries to assess all the essen
and potentiality of the person concerne tial aspects of the behaviour
d through various psychologi-
cal measures and techniques and then
Suggests as well as tries possible
ways and means to solve his diffi
culties.
7. In the field of Military Science: Mili
of the principles and techniques of psyc tary Science also makes use
selection, training, promotion and
holo gy. Psychology helps in the
classification of defence personne
Cold war diplomacy is maintained l.
with the help of psychological
paganda, rumours and conversing. pro-
In fighting the enemy, the morale
the defence personnel and of Citiz of
ens must at all costs be high and
can only be achieved with the help this
sight and confidence. It is no exaggera of psychology of suggestion, in-
ought, continued and won not only tion to say that today wars are
great extent through psycholo
with men and material but to a
gy.
8. In the field of Adjustment and
to adjust one’s self, with other peop Mental Health: Psychology helps
and thus paves the way for securing le and things in the environment
good mental health.
9. In the field of Human relationships
and World peace: By trying.
understand human nature and the need
beings with the help of psychology, s and interests of our fellow-
one is able to maintain harmoni-
ous relationship with others. The
maintenance of relationships and
Social adjustment, further helps in not only
achieving national
d solidarity and internatiointe-
gration but also the objectives of worl
peace. nal
10. In the field of Self-development: Psyc
to know his assets and limitations, hology helps the individual
abilities and shortcomings, habit
and temperament, etc. The s.
understanding
to set the level of his aspiration, of oneself may lead one
change his habits, seek self
-control
making abilities, and

self-actualization leading
and integrated person to a well balanced
ality.
„In this way, it can be visualiz
ed that psychology
re is no profession in the has a wide field of
application and utility. The
world where we
: knowingly or unknowingly, do make use of psy-

gh gaining proper train-
life which cannot be
towardrd:s social Progress

a
any living organism, envand development. In a
ironment and behaviournutshell > where there is.
al response, the need.
for study of the behaviour and the subject competent to perform

this study will always be felt and where there is any craving or desire
for self-improvement, adjustment, happiness and social progress, we
will have to call for the available or otherwise discovered services of
the subject psychology.
SUMMARY
Psychology is the legitimate child of his mother philosophy. How-

ever, with the passage of time its nature has undergone a change
from sheer speculation to the scientific procedure. Defined first as the
study of soul in its history of evolution, it has been known gradually
as ‘the study of mind, study of consciousness and finally study of”
behaviour. Today it is considered as the Science of behaviour (when
behaviour is taken in its comprehensive meaning involving all types
of behaviour of all living organisms).
. Nature of psychology is quite scientific and not philosophical or
mysterious as supposed to be considered in days gone by. Like sciences,
it believes in cause and effect relationship, utilizes observation, experi-
mentation and other scientific methods for its study, possesses a
universally accepted body of facts and believes in the modification and
alterations in its principles through future researches and findings.
However, it is not so perfect and developed ‘a science as the other
natural and physical sciences. In fact it is a developing behavioural
science that is trying hard to become as much objective, exact and
accurate as possible to be on a par with the developed sciences.
Therefore,it is termed as a developing positive science (and not asa
science) of behaviour. w
Scope of psychology is too wide. It studies, describes and explains-
the behaviour of all the living organisms. Living organisms and their-
life activities are countless. Therefore no limit can be imposed upon
the scope of the subject psychology. It has many branches and fields
of studies. For convenience, it may broadly be divided as pure and
i
applied psychology.
` In pure psychology we generate theories and discuss principles
which find their practical shape in applied psychology. Where in pure
psychology we study the branches like general psychology, abnormal
psychology, social psychology, experimental psychology, physiological
psychology, para-psychology, geo-psychology, developmental psychol-
ogy, clinical psychology, industry psychology, legal psychology,
military psychology, political psychology, etc., are included in the
broad field of applied psychology. we
i ology as a subject of studying, explaining and understanding
of bt A proved quite useful in many walks of life. Its main
contributions may be summarised as below:
—It has contributed much to the improvement of the processes.
and products of education.
—It has high-lighted the importance of good behaviour to tho

patients, removed a lot of superstitions and provided valuable
therapies in the field of medicines.
—It has high-lighted the importance of the knowledge of con-
sumer’s psychology and harmonious inter-personal relation-
ship in the field of commerce and Industry.
—It has hel ped in detection of crimes and dealing with
criminals.
—It has proved useful to the politicians and leaders to learn the
qualities of leadership for leading the masses.
—It has provided valuable help in relation
to Guidance and
Counselling, educational, personal as well as
vocational,
—It has contributed much to the
field of military science for
improving the resources and operations.
—Finally it has helped human beings to
learn the art of under-
standing their own behaviour, seeking adjustment with their
self andd others
otl and enhancing as well as actualizing
potentialities to the utmost possible. their
References and Suggested Rea

dings
Desiderato Otells, Howieson D.B, & Jackson, J.H.; Investigat
Principles of Psychology, New
York: Harper & Row, 1976,
ing Behaviour—
p. 5.
“Guilford, J.B. (Ed.); Fields of
Psychology, New York: Van Nost
-James W; Principles of Psycholo rand, 1966.
gy, (2 Vols) New York: Henry
James, W; Psycholo
Holt & Co, 1890.
gy (Briefer coi urse), New York
: Collier, 1962.
Keller, F.S.; The Definitions of
Psychol ogy, New York: Appleton
“McDougall, W; Psychology—t Century, 1937.
he Study of Behaviou r, New York: Henry Holt, 1912
peal, W; An Outline of .
Psychology , London: Methuen
p. 38. (13th Ed.), 1949,
‘Munn, N.L.; Introduction to Psycholo
p. 4.
gy, Delhi: Oxford & IBH, (Indian Ed.) 1967,
Pilsbury, W.B.; Essentials of
Psychology, New York: The
“Watson, J B.; Psychology Macmillan Co. 1911.
as a Behaviourist Views It,
Psyche. rev. 1913 Vol. 20.
Watson, J.B.; Psychology from
Lippine Otta Co. 1919, the Standpoint haviouri:
of ehibetitiTourist;Philadelphia: J.B.
“Watson J.B.; Behaviorism, London:
Kegan Paul, 1930,
“Woodworth, R.S.; Psychology,
London: Methuen, 1945.
“Woodworth, R-S.; Contemporary
Schools of Psychology, London: Methu
en, 1948.
2
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY—
A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
Historical background of a subject not only presents a fascinating

story of its gradual development but also throws light on different
ideologies pointing out different meanings, concepts, approaches and
objectives of the subject from time to time as advocated by the
with the
eminent scholars individually or collectively. The same is trueis made
also. In the following pages an attempt to
subject psychology
have a glimpse at the history of the subject psychology under some
major heads as given below:
A. The Early age of pre-scientific psychology.
B. The Modern age of Scientific psychology.
C. The Recent trends in contemporary psychology,
GY
A. Tue EARLY AGE OF PRE-SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLO
have
How we behave and why we behave so, are questions that of
aroused curiosi ty from time immemo rial. In the earliest period
they were answer ed quite unscientifically
the history of psychology, as follows: i:
merely on the basis of superstitions and speculations
of his
1. It was believed that a person’s behaviour was the result of the
fate which was bound to be influe nced by the movem ents
of planet s at any particular
planets. In case we knew the position
moment, we could tell and predic t the behaviour of the person by
s, spirits,
evaluating his horoscope. Besides the role of planets, demon sible for
ghosts and other supern atural forces were aiso held respon
varying human actions. In this way, the cause and forms of human
outside the human being.
behaviour were being located in something
2. The Greek philosophers are credited to look inside the human
peings for clues to behaviour. Socrates believed that inquiry into the
nature of the cosmos is futile. As a result he tried to adopt a question-
answer method for peeping into the nature of man. Plato drewa shar;
distinction between mind and body, assigning the former by far the
key role for generating behaviour. Aristotle’s concept of the soul
proved a corner stone in psychology for centuries. He viewed the
écoul’ OF the ‘psyche’ as meaning “‘life’’ and considered the mind as a
General Psychology
the precepts of the Catho-

a result of evil spirits behaviour once again as
and demons. Later on as a result of
the Renais-
e 1 as they are; they

appear in experien
Neither the worl ce , de termined by thecan be known only as they
d nor th forms of our th
ought.
ind i
Herbert Spencer amilton, James Mill, John Stuart

are known as the Mill and:
to this doctrine, i
there isa i
idea. If sensation
has often bee
ing ideas will tend
to occur together:
j
Development of Psychology—A Historical Perspective 15
C and D in sensory experience, the sensory experience A, occurring

alone will tend to arouse the ideas of B, C and D which accompanied
it. (Heidbreder, Edna, 1971). ;
6. Along with the views of empiricists and associationists in the
eighteenth century, there sprang a new wave of psychological thought
propagated by naturalists like, Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel.
They tried to revolt against too much intellectualization brought
about by rationalists and empiricists. They insisted on the role of
feelings and emotions and rejected the notion that man is essentially
a creature of ideas and reason.
7. Quite contrary to the doctrines propagated by empiricists and
naturalists, there came the conception of Faculty Psychology (the
theory which holds that soul or psyche is endowed with a number of
powers like reasoning, thinking, remembering, etc.) propagated by the
German thinkers like Christian Wolff in the first half of the eighteenth
century. The faculty psychology was opposed and replaced by Her-
bartian psychology propagated by a nineteenth century German pro-
fessor Johann Friedrich Herbart: One of the most important contri-
butions of this psychology was the doctrine of apperception. Accord-
ing to this doctrine, new ideas may thrust the old or unimportant ones
below the threshold of consciousness. In this way, ideas once derived
from experience are never destroyed. The accumulation of such inhi-
bited ideas is called the apperceptive mass. In acquiring new ideas we
have to relate them to those in the apperceptive mass. Mental life or
behaviour of the individual is, thus, according to Hertart, a struggle
between ideas, each of which is active, each of which tries to remain
jn consciousness, and each of which tends to repel all ideas except
those with which it is compatible or gets introduced. The doctrine of
apperception made Herbart to think of mental phenomena in terms of
mental mechanics, and also in quantitative terms. He wrote mathe-
matical formulae to state the laws of the mind for the explanation of
behaviour.
In this way during the pre-scientific era, psychology was gradually
developed from~the Superstitions and Cosmos level to the Herbarts’
conception of a quantitative psychology passing through the doctrines
of speculation, rationalism, empiricism, naturalism and associa-
tionism.
The middle of the nineteenth century thus witnessed the end of
the period of unscientific psychology and placed psychology on the
same footing as Other sciences to be called as a science of behaviour.
B. THE Modern AGE OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, with the i f
the great studies in the field of Physics, Chemistry, ag ae 4
nd. other natural sciences, it was being felt that human dehaviont
should now be studied through scientific methods instead of specula-
tion which could not be tested under laboratory conditions. While
16 A General Psychology
explaining how the study of human behaviour should be performed,

the thinkers of this age presented their independent views giving birth
to different systems or schools of psychology. Let us have a glimpse
o! these different schools with respect to their viewpoints and history
of evolution.
Structuralism: The man most responsible for the evolution of
psychology into a scientific discipline is Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920),
a German professor, who opened the worlds’ first psychological labo-
ratory in Leipzig in 1879 with the sole purpose of the systemati
c
study of the mind. For this purpose he focussed his experime
nts on
conscious experience involving one’s thoughts, feelings,
sensations,
perceptions and ideas. As he emphasized on the analysis of
the com-
ponents of consciousness (supposed structure of the mind)
his
approach to psychology is named as Structuralism. Wundt
students performed experiments in the laboratories by using
and his.
the art of
introspection or self-observation. The subjects were usually
report exactly what they were experiencing at the moment,
asked to-
they
exposed to the stimulus like light, colour, sound or the feel were
object. The psychologists performing experiments also
of an.
worked as the
subjects for the observations and recording of their own perceptio
ns.
and feelings and then presenting the analysis of the activities of the
mind.
Leipzig lab produced most of the leading psychologists. One of
well known the
products was Edward Bradford Titchene
aBritish
r, by
birth, who became professor of psychology at Cornell
University in
America. According to him, psychology may
be regarded as the
science of consciousness or the study of experie
nce. The conscious-
ness or experience can be broken or analyse
d into three basic
elements; physical sensations, feelings and
images (such as memories
and dreams). For example, when we report
perception experiences of
a banana, we try to combine physical sensation (what we
feelings (our likes or dislikes for banana) and with
see) with
experiences with
images (past
other bananas).
In this way, Wundt and his followers like Titche
ner, tried to pro-
vide a systematic study of the mind through
the study o fits structure
(identifying the basic units of consciousness or
experienc e along with
the combinations in which they occur). Thus
they all ar e said to be
belonging to the school of structuralism.
Meanwhile, in the coming years, this
in for a lot of criticism because of the school of structuralism came
intr
to adopt. This method ultimately faile ospection method it chose
d to provide objective and’
reliable information for scientific study.
Functionalism : Through the efforts
of structuralists, psychology
began to be recognised as an independ
ent science capable of carry-
ing out a systematic study of the mind. It
paved
useful scientific ideas regarding the study of huma the way for other
quently, there emerged a new school
n behaviour. Conse-
of thought known as Function-
alism.
William James (1842-1910), the father of American psychology, is

regarded as one of the first members of the functional school of
psychology. Strongly influenced by the Darwinian theory and his own
interest in anatomy, physiology and medicine he adopted a biological
approach to the study of mind and led the field away from structural-
ism. He declared that there was definitely something wrong in
Wundt’s and Titchener’s approach. Consciousness or experience can-
not be broken up into elements, there is no way to separate ideas,
thoughts, sensations or perceptions. Structuralism does not reveal
anything about what the mind really does or how it goes about doing
it. Knowing the composition or structure of the mind is not nearly as
important as understanding its activities or functions. Therefore,
James, through his doctrine of functionalism, advocated the theory of
mental life and behaviour. He considered the mind to be a recent
development in the evolutionary process, the function of which was
to aid man’s adjustment to his environment The consciousness or
mental life, according to him, is a coatinuous and flowing unity, a
stream that carries the organism in its adaption to the environment.
Our minds are constantly weaving associations, revising experience,
starting, stopping, jumping back and forth in time for adding to our
functional abilities to adapt to our environment. Elaborating his view-
points, he further concluded that habits are nothing but the functions
of the nervous system. When we repeat an activity a number of times,
our nervous systems are altered so that the nexttime we do it
automatically without much thought involved.
In the subsequent years of the 19th and 20th centuries. ideas
propagated by William James were strengthened on more scientific
footings by functionalists like John Dewey (1859-1951) James Row-
land Angell (1869-1949), J.M. Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike and R.S.
Woodworth.
Behaviourism : John B. Watson put forward an entirely new
doctrine named as behaviourism quite contrary to the views propa-
gated by structuralism and functionalism. In his book Psychology As
the Behaviourist Views It (1913) he concluded that the whole idea of
consciousness is absurd. Consciousness cannot be proved by any
scientific test, for consciousness cannot be seen, nor touched, nor
exhibited in a test tube. Even if it exists it cannot be studied scienti-
fically, because admittedly it is subjected only to private inspection.
Therefore, if we intend to make psychology a science of behaviour
we should concentrate only on the observable and measurable behavi-
our. W e have to discard altogether not only the concept of con-
sciousness but also all the mentalistic notions like soul, mind, mental
life, images an d ideas, etc.
uently, behaviourism as a method of studying the beha-
tous enei its attention totally on the overt or dbservable pies
viour. For this purpose it ae fereduce all of man’s activity, includ-
ing his thinking: feeling an peste the level of that behaviour
which could be observed and. objectively recorded. In this way, a
(1849-1936) the propagator gsof of the Russian psychologist Ivan Palvov

the theory of classical condit
ioning.
stimulus response, auioma

mental influences mad
e Watson to assert tizan y
boldly in 194
“Give me a dozen
Specified world to healthy infants,
bring them up in an well informed and my own
one at random and d I will guarantee
tra to
select—doctor, lawyer in him to become any type of specialis take any
man and thief, reg
, artist, merchant
chief and yes, eve
t I might
ardless of his talent n beggar-
ties, vocations and s,
race of his ancestors penchants, tendencies, abili
.”
Behaviourism of Wats
era in the field on and his disci
of
mechanistic, determini
natural
st;
sciences. Ho
Gestalt Psychology
The reaction agains
fined to America. In t Structuralism and functionalism Was not
Germany it gave bir con-
as Gestalt psycholo
gy quite distin th to a new school
ct from behaviourism.named
The most
prominent members of this school where Max Wertheimer (1880-
1943), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) and
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947).
The Word Gestalt is a German noun. The nearest English trans-
lation of Gestalt is “Configuration” or more simply “an organised
whole” in contrast to a collection of parts. Therefore Gestalt psycho-
logy is opposed to the atomistic and molecular approach to behav-
iour. According to it, an individual perceives the thing as a whole and
not as a mere collection ofits constituents or elements. To a Gestalt
psychologist, the meaning of sensation or perception is always related
to the total situation. According to them, perception always involves
a problem of organisation. A thing is perceived as a relationship
within a field which includes the thing, the viewer and a complex
background incorporating the viewer's purpose and previous experi-
ences. Gestalists also rejected the mechanistic approach to behaviour
as advocated by the behaviourist through a simple stimulus-response
connection. They asserted that there lies definitely a sort of organi-
-sation between the stimulus and response which helps in forming a
new gestalt (an organised whole). For example, when looking at a
tree, what is seen is a tree. It may be that a tree consists of colour,
brightness and a form but when perceived by the mind all these
components become a pattern, or a gestalt. The Gestalists further
claim that when the components of a thing are brought together by
the mind something new even more valuable and comprehensive
the original components may emerge consolidating the statement
than
that
the “whole is different from the sum of its parts”. As
a result the
human behaviour is characterized as an intelligent behaviour
rather
than a simple stimulus-response mechanization. An individual
ceives the situation as a whole and
per-
after seeing and evaluating the
different relationships in relation to the available environment takes
the proper decision in an intelligent way although quite often all of a
sudden. Gestalt psychology used the term ‘insight’ to. describe this
type of human behaviour and summarized the behavioural process
under the following three steps:
(a) Perception of the situation as a whole.
(6) Seeing and judging the relationships between various factors
involved in the situation. t
(c) Taking an immediate decision and behave accordingly.
Gestalt psychology, in this way, stood strongly in opposition of
the traditional psychology comprising structuralism, functionalism and
behaviourism. Specifically they deplored the “brick and mortar” con-
cept of structuralism— meaning elements “‘bricks” bound “by associa-
tion “mortar” and were equally dissatisfied
with the stimulus-response
conditioning or machine like explanation of human behaviour.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis as a system or school of psychology was the brain-
child of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese physician. This
= General Psychology
movement put forward altogether different views quite contrary Bs
Structuralism, functionalism, behaviourism or Gestalt psychology o
explaining human behaviour. Let us have an idea of these views:
1. The World of Unconscious. Freud claimed that there
mental life than consciousness. The conscious part occupi is more to
one-tenth portion of es only the
the total mental life. In fact, there is an even
stronger force underlying behaviour, the unconscious.
This vast part
of the mental life of human beings remain hidden and
usually inacces-
sible. It contains all the repressed wishes,
desires, feelings, drives and
motives many of which relate to sex and aggression.
This hidden
treasure of the human mental life is responsible
behaviour. The key to the solution of most of behavifor most of his
oural problems
lies in bringing the unconscious to the
conscious level.
2. Psychoanalytic method: Freud gave
the long forgotten or repressed child tremendous importance to
hood experiences for the determi-
nation of many problems of adu
unusual method known as the psych
It behaviour. He put forward an
oanalytic method for the solution
of the behavioural problems. Thi
s method involves the process of
analysing the unconscious behaviou r.
cated the following techniques. For this purpose, Freud advo-
(a) Free Associat ion: By this technique
made to lie on a co uch and say anyth
the affected individual is
mind no matter ho’ W trivial or
ing that comes into his or her
ridiculous it may seem.
lically in dreams. The analysis

of th
scious mind and thus may take
to t
of the pen, forgotten names and forgotten appointments, lost

and mislaid possessions. gifts
3. Structure of Psyche: Freud
Id, Ego and Super ego for explai further, invented three concepts, the
ning thestructure of psyche and
them in providing a basi
c structure’ to the human used
basis of his behaviour. personality and
j
j x
and violence or destructi n or pleasure seeking act
on. It ivities
considers only the satisfaction knows no reality, follows no rules and
of its needs and drives,
The ego develops out of
the id and acts
r instinctual demandas
between three sets of forces i.e., an intermediary
s o f the realities
of the external world and ethical mor
al demands of the super ego.
—A Historical Perspective
Development of Psychology 21
The super ego is the ethical moral aspect of the psyche. It is idea-
listic and does not care for realities. Perfection is its goal rather than
pleasure seeking or destruction.
All behaviour, according to Freud, can be understood in terms of
the dynamic equilibrium between id, ego and super ego. The id
demands to satisfy its needs and appetites while the ego tries both,
to control the id in terms of reality and to appease the super ego.
The well adjusted person is governed by his ego, the anxious neurotic
by guilt stemming from his super ego; the psychopath by his id. The
aim of psychoanalysis is to restore the balance : ‘Where id was’, ther
shall ego be’ (Freud, 1935). :
4. Psycho Sexual Development: According to Freud sex is the life
urge or fundamental motive in life. All physical pleasures arising
from any of the organs or any of the functions are ultimately sexual
in nature. Sexuality is not the characteristic of only the grown-up.
Children from the very beginning also have sexual desires. This, he
termed as infantile sexuality. A child passes through the following
different stages with respect to his psycho sexual development:
(a) The oral stage: According to Freud, mouth represents the
first sex organ for providing pleasure to the child. The beginning is
made with the pleasure received from the mother’s nipple or the
bottle. Thereafter it is used to derive pleasure by putting anything
candy, stick, his own thumb, etc. S,
(b) The Anal Stage: At this stage, the interest of the child shifts
from the mouth (as the erotogenic zone) to the organs of elimination
i.e. anus or the urethra. He derives pleasure by holding back or
letting go of the body’s waste material through the anus or urethra.
This stage, generally, ranges from two to three years.
(c) Genital Stage: This phase starts from the age of four years
with the shifting of the child’s interest from the eliminating organs to
the genitals. At this stage children come to note the biological differ-
ences between the sexes and derive pleasure by playing and manipu-
lating the genital organs. This stage, according to Freud, may give
birth to a number of complexes like Deprivation and Electracom-
plexes in girls and Castration and Oedipus complexes in boys. Depri-
vation complex is the result of the feeling generated into the minds of
the little girls that they have been deprived of the male organs by
their mothers. Castration complex is generated in. boys through the
fear of being deprived of the male organs certainly as a result of the
threat received from the elders in the form of cutting off the organ if
they did not leave the habit of playing with it. About oedipus and
Electra phases Freud says that they are the results of the sexual
attraction or pleasure the children receive in the company of the
opposite sex parent. In case the like sex parent frustrate the desire,
expresses his or her resentment and-is not friendly to the boy or girl,
the child may be likely to develop oedipus or electra complex by
loving, more the opposite sex parent and rather hating ike sex
parents +. @ ee R.Y,, West songa
| 50 n Dte H - 3 E Se
te General Psychology
(d) The Latency stage: This
case of girls and seven to eight period starts from six years in m
upto the onset of puberty. At years in the case of boys and gs
in the company of their
this Stage, boys and girls prefer
own sex and even neglect to
bers of opposite sex. or hate the mem-
(e) The Phallic Stage: Pubert
stage. The adolescent boy y is the Starting point of
the phallic
and
his stage they may feel pleasure
by self-stimula-
In this way;'Freud through

ward quite new dimensio his Psycho-analysis doctrine
ns į put for-
of the self-assertion or
p
individuality of the man
The other mentionab

““neo-Adlerians) of the le,
Karen Horney, Harry
mo de rn age have been Fre
ud’
and Heinz Hartmann Stack Sullivan, Erich Fromm, Erik Fri
there have been mod
, etc. With th ckson
ifications in th se personalities,
approach, parti iti
and stress on the role
of Society.
C. THE RECENT TRENDS

IN CONTEMPORARY Ps
ycHOLOGy
or tradition on the Part
Structuralism, Functiona
of
the foll
lism, Behavi
Development of Psychology
—A Historical Perspective 23
good deal of energy trying to prove a contrary point. Quite opposite,

to this trend, the contemporary psychology of today witnesses an,
electric approach in dealing with human behaviour by accepting the
fact that the different viewpoints or schools help in one way or the
other in studying the complex human behaviour by throwing light on
some of the other aspects.
However as a matter of pin-pointing some most influensive forces
working in the field of contemporary psychology we can name beha-
viourism and psychoanalysis as the two major forces. The other major
forces in the field may be further named as Humanist psychology,,
Transpersonal psychology and Cognitive psychology. We have already
talked about the former two forces, now let us discuss the remaining,
ones.
Humanist Psychology
This new school of psychology reflects the recent trends of human-
ism in psychology. The personalities like Abraham: Maslow, Cavlar
Rogers, Rollo May, Arthur Combs, Gordon Allport and others have
contributed towards its growth. Humanist psychology gives more
value to the human being by not considering him merely as a sophisti-
cated machine or the victim of conflict between the ego and id. It
considers him as a purposeful being, capable of adapting himself to.
his environment and choosing his own course of action in order to.
achieve the goals which he has selected for himself. These goals may
be as simple as mere satisfaction of acommon physical need or as |
lofty as the attainment of self-actualization or self-realization.
In this way, humanist psychology lays stress on such distinctive
human aspects of personality as the existence of his free will and
freedom of choice and his search for unique goals and values to guide
his behaviour and to give a personal meaning to his existence.
Transpersonal psychology
Transpersonal psychology is one of the latest approaches prevalent
in contemporary psychology. The work of Abraham Maslow in terms
of the realization of self-actualization, one’s fullest poteniial may be
said to be the corner stone of this school of Psychology. It focusses
its attention on the study of personal experiences that seem to trans-
cend ordinary existence. In other words, what do we think and how
do we feel in our altered states of awareness may be the subject area
of the transpersonal psychology. These states may be reached during
the states of severe stress and distress or in the moments of great
excitement and happiness. They may be aroused during periods of
sleep or deep concentration. Experimentally they may be induced with
the help of the influences brought about by some specific drugs,
religious conservations, Yoga and transcendental meditation, etc.
Cognitive psychology
This new school of contemporary psychology is the result of the
wave of intellectualism demonstrating faith in the higher cognitive
24 ; General Psychology
abilities and capacities of human beings for
his adaptation to his
environment and struggle for perfection. The
roots of this psychology
may be discovered in the Cognitive outlo
ok
advocated an overall mental functioning by of the gestalists who
Gestait and insight in place of amolecular and
bringing the idea of
mechanistic approach
for the study of human behaviour.
Cognitive Psychology studies all about man’s

language, development, Perception, image thinking, memory,
ry and other mental pro-
cesses in order to peer through the highe
r
like insight, creativity and problem-solving human mental functions
. Cognitive psychologists
are totally opposed to the stimulus-response
Ourists. They maintain that there is somet approach of the behavi-
hing more to learning and
behaving than just single responses to stimuli. The
not accept an information from human mind does
its environment in exactly the same
form and Style as it is conveyed to him.
The conveyed information is
compared with the already stored infor
mation in the mind, it is then
analysed and often enlarged upor: for
giving it a quite new form.
Finally, it is subjected to interpretation
and use or Storage according
to the needs of the situation.
Cognitive Psychology thus presents
plaining the behaviour mechanism. a system’s viewpoint in ex-
In this system whatever is conveyed
through stimuli in the environment
tive functioning of the human may work as INPUT. The cogn
i-
mind as PROCESS and the resul
the cognitive function ing as OUTPUT or PRODUCT. t of
The cognitive psychologyis gaining Popularity day by

day.
tributed much in the field of lear er Cognitive Psychologists has con-
ning, thinking and creative func
ing. While explaining the prob tion-
lem-solving behaviour of the
organisms he expressed that orga higher
theses about ways to solv nism tries to set up mental
e problems and then set Out hypo
hypotheses through purposeful beha to test these
viour.
SUMMARY
Historically, the evolution

niently studied by breaking of the subject Psychology
the period, arbitrarily, te can be conve-
Pre-scientific, Scientific and Pre three heads:
sent Contemporary age.
The age of pre-scientific psycho
log
the 19th century) witnesses the fol y (stretched upto the middi
lowing trends: 2 (i
ae S
Development of Psychology
—A Historical Prespective 25
(i) In the earliest age of superstitions causes and forms of human

behaviour were being located in something outside the human
beings i.e., planets or demons, spirits, and other Supernatural
powers.
(ii) Subsequently, philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

etc.. with their philosophical viewpoints tried to do away
with the evils of superstition. Specially after the renaissance
dn the 17th century there emerged quite a dominating philoso-
phical basis of behaviour in the philosophies like dualism
propagated by Descartes and empiricism advocated by John
Locke and Kant.
(iii) In the 19th Century the viewpoints of Locke, Kant and their
successors gave birth to associationism the first school of
psychology—in Great ssritain, emphasizing a direct connec-
tion between sensation and idea.
(iv) As a reaction towards too much intellectualization brought
about by associationism and empiricism there arose a wave of
naturalism propagated by Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel
and the idea of Faculty psychology propagated by German
thinkers like Christian Wolff.
by Herbar=
(G = The faculty psychology was opposed and threplaced
century German
tian psychology propagat ed by a nineteen
professor Johann Friedrich Herbart. It particularly empha-
sized the doctrine of apperception.
hology
The modern age of scientific psyc
the era of Modern
Beginning from the middle of the 19th century, instead of specu-
Tec hno log y ado pt ed scientifi c methods
Science and
lation for the study of behav: iour.
The following schools of thought
duri ng this peri od:
were generated
propagated by Wilhelm Wundt (1832 -1920), a
(i) Siructuralism sor empha s
sized on the analy sis of ; the compo-
German profes , of the mind) through
nents of consciousness (i.e. structure
introspection.
m initiated by William James (1842-1910), the
(ii) Functionalis mind to be a
father of American psychology, considered the the function
the evol utio nary proce ss,
recent development in ent. It
f whic h was to4 aid man’s adju 5 stment to : his environm
further emphasized emthat habits were nothing but the functions
rv ou s sy st .
of the ne
si) Beh aviourism propagated by John B. Watson focussed its
(iii) ntion totally ‘on the overt or observable behaviour for its
atte!
ation.
‘objective observ
(iv) In Germany, a group of psychologists gave birth to a new
school named as Gestalt psychology quite distinct from beha-
viourism. It emphasized the role of configuration or organisa-
tion in the perceptual field and high-lighted the importance
of insight and understanding in learning or problem-solving.
©) Psychoanalysis propagated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
put forward many new ideas like unconscious and sub-con-
scious mind, the concept of repression and catharsis, psycho-
sexual development and sex as an urge responsible for all
types of behaviour, and psychoanalysis as a method of study-
ing behaviour etc.
(vi) In the later years, Alfred Adler (1870-1937) and J. Carl Jung
(1875-1961), both students of Freud, as a reaction to Freud's
over-emphasis on sex gave birth to their own schools of
thought, Individual Psychology and Analytical Psychology.
Recent trends in contemporary psychology

- The present World of psychology is dominated by a mixed
trend
involving so many schools of thought. Some schools worth mentio
n-
ing are; behaviourism, psychoanalysis, humanist psycho
logy. trans-
personal psychology and cognitive psychology.
~ Humanist psychology advocated by the contempora
gists like Maslow, Rogers, Arthur Combs, Gordon ry psycholo-
recent human trends in Allport reflects the
psychology.
Transp ersonal psychology deals with what do’we think and
how do:
we feel in our altered states of awareness.
Cognitive psychology has its roots in the Cognitive
gestaltists. The names of psychologists like outlook of the
Edward Tolman and Jean
Piaget are associated with the further propagation
of the ideas of this
psychology. It high lights the role of highe
r cognitive abilities and’
Capacities of human beings for his adaptation
lays emphasis on studying cognitive deve to his environment and
lopment and functioning of
a man to peer through his behaviour.
References and Suggested Readings
Chaplin, J.P. & Krawiec. T.S.; System

and Theories of Pyschol. 3
York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1974, New
ACES SERAGEAEES J
Freud, S.; A General Introduction to Psych
Heidbreder, eens Seven Psychologies oanal ysis, New York: Liveri
(Ist Indian ed.) Ludhiana, ght, 1935.
lishers, 1971. Kalyani Pub-
Herrnsteen, R.J. & Boring, E.G.; A Source Boi
Cambridge Mass : Harvard University Press, ok1965.
on the Hist y
ory of Psychology»
ż
Marks, R.W. (Ed.); Great Ideas in Psych

ology. New York: Bantam, 1966.
Perspective 2T
Development of Psychology—A Historical
ed.) New York:
duction to Modern Psychology (4th
Murphy, G.; An Historical Intro 1975.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
A Guide to Psychologists and their Concepts, San
Nordby. VJ. & Hall. C.S.;
Francis Co.; W.H. Free man and Company, 1974.
, New York: Alfred knopf .1974.
Skinner, B.F.; About Behaviourism
ed.), Philadel-
gists: from Aristotle to Freud (3rd
Watson, R.I ; The Great Psycholo
phia: Lippincott, 1971.
Holt, Rinehart &
ory of Psychology, New York:
Wertheimer. M.; A Brief Hist
Winston, 1970.
Methuen, 1948..
Schools of Psychology, London:
Woodworth. R.S.; Contemporary
3
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
` Psychology is termed as the Scientific study of behaviour. The

behaviour in all its aspects can be studied scientifically through a
single technique or approach known as observation. It leads us to a
simple conclusion that observation may be regarded as the only
method or technique for carrying out studies regarding behaviour. In
fact it is true to a great extent. However, this single technique:or ap~-
proach ‘may give birth to a number of methods, techniques: or
approaches depending upon the types and nature of the conditions in
which observations have been recorded, the procedure adopted and
tools used.» Let us see how this happens.
—Observation of one’s own behaviour by. looking within or
looking inward ma y be adopted as one of the approaches. Such ap-
proach is known by method of Introspection..
—Sometimes the behavioural events are observed and recorded
under very natural conditions by some person or persons. Such obser-
vation approach is termed as Naturalistic observation.
~Observation and recording of behavioural events under con-
trolled conditions known as experimentation is classified as Experi-
mental method.or approach.
—When these observations are performed outside the laboratories
in the real setting by adopting survey technique, the method
is named
as: Normative survey method or the-Field survey method.-
*—In case the observation is made through a case
struction of an individual’s biography)
history (recon-
» the
as Case study or Case history method and if we
approach may be termed
use psychoanalysis for
interpreting the behaviour of a person through the expression
unconscious behaviour then the method may be termed as of his
Psycho-
analytic method. In case we use the case history
material and process
of psychoanalysis for the
à diagnosis an d treatment of the behavioural
problems, the method is termed as Clinical method.
—In situations where physical devices are used to observe and
measure psychological experiences the approach may be termed as
Psycho-physical method.
29
Methods of Psychology
may give birth to a
In this way the various modes of observations
Introspection method,
number of methods and approaches such as
Exper iment el method, Normative
Naturalistic observation method, Clinic al and Psycho-
metho d, Psych oanal ytic,
Survey or Field Survey appro aches that help
physical methods. Let us discuss each of these
us to investigate the behaviour.
Introspection method
of behaviour. In the
It is the oldest method known for the study
ct psych ology, the behaviour
earlier days of the evolution of the subje ion or inner obser-
of self exam inat
was studied only through a kind look into the meaning of
called introspection. Let us try to
vation
this method.
the word introspection to understand
s—‘‘intro” and “‘spection’’.
Introspection is composed of two word
tion means ‘looking’. Hence
Intro means ‘within or inward’ and spec looking inward. It is inner
introspection means looking within or one is required to get inside
perception. Therefore in introspection,
ervation in which one per-
one’s own mind. It isa sort of self-obs feelings and in fact, every
own
ceives, analyses and reports one’s
during the course of a mental
thing that takes place in one’s mind of anxiety, fear or anger, one
act. For example when in the state observation what he sensed,
own
may be asked to discover by one’s
ght or felt at the time of expe riencing that sort of emotion.
thou own
tion and reporting of one’s
Introspection—the self-observa ins
ing in some respects still rema and
mental processes—although lack unique nature. It is a simp le
important on account of its us
od. Our mental processes are always with
readily available meth moment. Thereby, introspe ctio n is
and can be introspected at any of our own ment al
immediate knowledge
able to give us a direct and extra expenditure fur the mate
rial or
lving any
processes without invointr knowledge
appa ratu s. Mor eov er ospection provides us an adequateviou r of an
and thus the inne r beha
of the inner or covert experiences king or feeling something can be
individual in, the form of thin
ospection. Hee ee eee
revealed thro)ugh intr ion, behaviour, suffers
introspect as a method o studying
However, introsp wbac `ķs and limitations such as.s i
seri dra
ousctio $ ;
from some intr ospe n One needs to observe or examine care rully one’s
(ia beet cn the form of thoughts, feelings or sensations. The
ye r hir mental process is continuously changing. Therefore when
z e O centrate to introspect a particular phase of our mental activity
ye con ge passes off. For example when we get angry with a person
that p!a 0 Feds sit down calmly to, introspect or self examine, the state
and after a gure 10 be passed on and so what one tries to observe is
E
3oR ATR s 2 hap pen ing at that time with oneself but what has hap-5
pened some time before-

ection as a method of study seriously lacks reliabilit:
„2 nd objectivity 0 the following grounds: "
vali ie
(i) The results lack in reliable communicability and repeatability.
Here one investigator can never be sure that what he feels or
senses is the same as what other investigators do. For
example, if we invite the introspection reports on the nature
of the sensation of “green”, these reports are bound to differ.
Some will insist that green is a unitary sensation, where others
will say that green is a mixed sensation involving yellow and
blue. We have no arrangement for the objective observation
of the introspection phenomenon. Moreover in introspection
one studies one’s own behaviour or mental process. It is not
possible to verify the individual’s self-observation as there is
no provision for studying one’s mind by others in intros-
pection.
(ii) Isis next to impossible to acquire validity and exactness in

self-observation or examination of one’s mental process. The
mind in perceiving its own functions tries to divide itself into
two halves—the subject and the object. The object of obser-
vation and the instrument of observation are just one and the
same. It automatically affects the validity and exactness of
| the observational process and the derived results. A man who
: is angry or afraid cannot exactly observe what is going on in
his mind and remains unchanged in his emotional state of
anger or fear. The consciousness on his part is sure to affect
his mental or emotional state which is the object Of
observation,
(3) Introspection as a method of studying behaviour has a vee
limited scope. It can only be applied satisfactorily in the case of
‘adult normal human beings. The behaviour of children, abnorma
‘human beings, animals etc., cannot be studied by this method.
: In this way, if we try to evaluate the introspection method me
‚would find that this method is based on self speculation, lacks re rat
:communicability, repeatability and reasonable exactness or certainty.
It is neither sufficiently scientific nor so practicable or simple to
handle. Therefore, it cannot be taken as an adequate
sufficient or
single method for psychological studies, The conclusions arrived at
by this method need to be supported on specific scientific grounds
by taking the help of some other objective and reliable method.
‘Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation as a method of studying behaviour
‘consists of the perception of an individuals behaviour under
“natural conditions by the other individuals and the interpre-
tation and analysis of this perceived behaviour by them. It T thus
essentially a way of “perceiving the behaviour like it is”. By this
method we can infer the mental processes of other persons through
the observation of their external behaviour. In fact it is an indirect
approach for the study of the mental process. If some ona rown:
howls, grinds his teeth, closes his fists, by observing external signs of
“Methods of Psychology 31
his behaviour, we can say that he is angry. But to study this behav-
jour concerning anger in naturalistic conditions, one has to wait for
the phenomenon to take place. Similarly to study the behaviour of
a
the students in a crowd or at the time of strike, and behaviour of
delinquent or problem child the psychologist has to wait till the
to
particular behaviour occurs and then use all of his resources
observe, record, analyse and interpret the behaviour from what is
perceived by him in naturalistic conditions.
in the
Naturalistic observation method occupies a leading role
study of human behaviour. It is economical, natural as well as
Its results can be verified and relied upon. Particularly in
flexible.
studying the developmental characteristics of children’s habits, inter-
ests and other similar personality characteristics of individuals the
naturalistic observation method proves quite suitable. For example
the effect of the absence of a mother, or father or both on the child’s
be determined properly through observing the
development can
-
development of such deprived children. Similarly a clinical psycho
collect the require d data about abnorm al
logist may be able to under
behaviour of an individual by observing him in day-to-day life
natural conditions.
as sufficiently objec-
_ However, this method also cannot be termed
ing observations and
tive, reliable and valid on account of the follow .
limitations:
d useful only by
(i) Naturalistic observation method can be prove of an individual.
iour
collecting data and observing the behav ening in the
is happ
It is impossible for us to know what this through external
minds of others; we can only obser ve
person may be expert in
behaviour. It is possible that a
others and can disguise
hiding his feelings and emotions from sobriety. In cases of
his evil nature in the garb of artificial
n proves a failure in
hypocrisy the method of observatio concerned.
idual
judging the true nature of the indiv
ii ubjectivity factors on the part of the investigator as well 4s
of obser-
o ie Proe of observation also affect the results facts
vation. There may arise distortions of observable
depending on the degree of care in observation. His interest,
values, vias and prejudices may also distort the contents and
results of observation. One may give over-emphasis on some
particular part of one’s behaviour and may altogether neglect
some very important aspect of one’s behaviour. The inter-
pretations of the recorded events may also be sufficiently
coloured. One may read one’s own thoughts, feelings and
tendencies in the minds of others. Pitfalls on account of such
subjectivity may however be avoided to a certain extent by
having as many observers as possible or observing the samo
phenomenon and employing scientific instruments,- such as
tape recorder, video films etc., for the recording of events.
3. Another serious limitation of the naturalistic
lies in the fact that the behaviour observed isobser vation method
dependent on the
particular time and place and on the particular
of individuals involved. Jt lacks repeatability indivi dual or groups
as each natural situa-
tion can occur only once.
4. Another important limitation of the observatio
not being able to establish a Proper n method lies in
cause
case we observe that two phenomena, Say and effect relationship. In
poverty and delinquency
behaviour, invariably occur together, we canno
t infer from this that
poverty is the sufficient and necessary cause of
delinquent behaviour
or vice versa.
Experimental method
Experimental method is Considered
as the most scientific and
objective method of Studying behaviour. It lays emphasis on perform-
ing experiments. The word experiment comes from a Latin word
Meaning “to try”, “put to the test”
. Therefore, in experimentation
We try or put to the test the material
or phenomenon the character-
friction on motion, the effect of sunli

ght on the growth of the plants.
ctc. In psychology also, we perf
orm such experiments in our
logical laboratory or outside laboratory psycho-
in the Physical or social
Stresses on the human behaviour, effec

cipation in cocurricular activities t of intelligence or the parti-
on the academic performance of
Students. In performing all such the
experiments we try to establish
certain cause and effect rela tionships through the objective obser-
(i) Psychological experiments

performed in this method essenti-
ally require two persons, the
experimenter and the subj
or the person whose behaviour ect
is observed.
(ii) Psychological experiments are always conducted on living
organisms in contrast to experiments
which are generally conducted on inorg in physical
sciences
anic or dead subjects.
(iii) The key factor in this
method is the controlling
ditions or variables. By this of the con-
control we can eliminate irre-
lev
thisantway
conditions or variables and isol
we become able to obs ate Televant ones. In
between two phenomena erve the causal relations
keeping all othcr condit hip
ions almost
Methods of Psychology
33
constant. For example, if we try to study the effect of intelli-
gence on academic achievement by experimental method, we
will need to discover the causative relation between the two
phenomena (variables)—intelligence and academic achieve-
ment. One of these variables, the effect of which we want
to study, will be called independent variable and the other
as dependent variable. Thus independent variable stands for
the cause and dependent variable is characterised as the
effect of that cause. The other conditions like study habits,
sex, socio-economic conditions, parental education, home
environment, health, past learning, memory, etc., which exer-
cise desirable impact upon one’s achievement besides his
intelligence are termed as intervening variables. In experi-
mentation all such intervening variables are to be controlled
i.e., made constant or equalized and the effect of only one
“independent variable, like intelligence in the present case,
is studied on one or more dependent variables. For this we
try to change and vary the independent variable. It brings
concomitant changes in the dependent variable or variables.
These changes are objectively observed and measured and
on the basis of this observation and measurement certain
conclusions are drawn.
Experimental Designs: There are various experimental designs
used In experimental method for controlling the variables and
measur-
Ing their effects. A mentionable few of them are as follows:
A. THE CONTROL-TEST OR SINGLE GROUP DESIGN

In such designs there is no need of having two different indivi-
duals or groups of subjects for the experiment. Here a single indivi-
dual or group of individuals can work as subject for the experiment.
The subject whether an individual or a group of individ uals is first
objectively observed under normal conditions and then under change d
varying conditions. The conclusions are then, drawn by comparing
the differences. Suppose we wish to study the effect of fear stimuli.
In the psychological laboratory, all necessary
struments and material necessary for the study arrangements of in-
of the fear responses
of the subject in the form of changes in respiration,
beat, blood pressure, functioning of the digestive
pulse and heart
and other internal
systems, facial expression etc., will be made.
The initial readings
regarding all these functions under
no fear stimuli present) will be taken normal conditions (when there is
from the related instruments.
After that the subject will be exposed
to
snake, loud noise, darkness etc., and then thesudden fear stimuli like a
changes in the readings
as a result of the intensity of
fear responses will be recorded from
the various instruments. The differe
nce in the second and initial
readings will then indicate the differen
that could be aroused on account
t degrees of the fear intensit
of the different types of fear sti
jn a particular individual. : ii
—
For another illustration let us have an experiment in which we
want to ascertain whether a group of students can do better on an
intelligence test under the infiuence of a specific drug (liky benzedrine
sulphate, caffeine or Brahmi).
For the desired findings we will take only one group of some
students preferably of the same age, sex, health conditions etc. The
process of experimentation, will then run in the following order:—
(i) These students can be given sugar capsules. After giving the
capsules they can be tested on some intelligence test. This
will make the initial testing under normal conditions.
(ii) Some time later, they can be given drug capsules and tested
on the same intelligence test. This will make a test under
changed conditions.
(iii) The I.Q. scores under these two situations are noted down
and the difference is calculated. If any significant difference
is found, it is attributed to the influence of the drug.
B. CONTROL-GRouP DESIGN
Control test or single group method possesses a serious drawback
known as positive practice effect. If an individual is subjected to
certain kind of fear stimuli it will surely effect the responses
ON
account of his further exposure to fear stimuli. If a group is subjected
to acertain drug, then it will automatically carry its effect
or in-
fluence at the time of introduction of some other drugs at the latter
stage. Control group designs help in minimising such practice effect.
In control group design two separate groups—known
as experi-
mental group and control group—are taken. They are equate d or
matched on various traits like age, sex, intelligence and
other per-
sonality characteristics. There is one to one corresponden
two equated groups. Now the one group—control group ce in the
—is given
sugar capsules and tested on some intelligence test. At the
time the experimental group is given drug capsules and same
tested on the
same intelligence test. Then the differences in the
intelligence scores
of the groups are calcul
a ated. In case we find some significant differ-
ences, they are attributed to the effect of drug.
C. MULTIPLE-GrouP DESIGN
Sometimes, we have to experiment with more than two groups
arriving at the appropriate conclusion. F or) exa mple,
study the effect of having learned Engl ish
if we want to
people subsequently learn French.
at the speed with which
We decide to teach Englis
group of students and then see whether they learn French to 4
easily. But more easily than whom? Certainly we will need hanoth
more
er
group—or groups—for comparison. Group A, consis ting of the Eng-
lish language learnt students is called the experimental group-
Group B may function „as a control group for comparison
, since it
did not study English earlier. If group A learns French faster than
Methods of Psychology 35
group B, can we attribute the difference in speed to studying English

earlier? Certainly not. It may be possible that practice on account of
learning any subject or language may have the same positive transfer
effect. To rule out these possibilities it is essential to add some more
control groups like C and D. Now if group A demonstrates a clear
Superiority over the other three groups, then and only then we may
infer that learning English facilitates learning French. For purpose of
illustration the working of multiple group design for the collection of
data in the present case may run as follows:
Group Subject for test held Test held in the
in the month of August month of February
A English French
B No test French
C Any subject (say Maths) French
D Russian French
D. DESIGNS INVOLVING ROTATION

. This design consists in presenting two or more stimulating situa-
tions to the experimental subjects in as many sequences as necessary
to control the serial effects of fatigue or practice. For example if we
Want to determine the relative influence of two specified conditions
A and B (say praise and blame) on a group of subjects, we will not
measure all the subjects under condition A and then under condi-
tion B. Condition A might so cause fatigue or train the subjects
that the measures under condition B would not be independent of
the fatigue or training effects. Here two alternatives can be adopted:
(i) We may obtain half the measures for condition A, all the
measures for condition B, and then the other half of the
measures for condition A. This technique is sometimes
called the A B B A order.
(ii) Another alternative is to separate the subjects into two
equated groups, one of which receives treatment A and then
B, whereas the other group receives treatment B and then A.
Both sets of A results and both sets of B results may then be
combined and the difference between them calculated.
Limitations of experimental method

l. Experimental method advocates the study of behaviour under
completely controlled rigid conditions. These conditions demand the
Creation of artificial situations or environment and the behaviour
Studied under these conditions may be or is usually different from
Spontaneous or natural behaviour. Therefore experimental method
fails to study the behaviour in naturalistic conditions as otherwise
May be studied through naturalistic observation.
2. The second limitation or difficulty lies in exercising actual
Control or handling of the independent variable and the intervening
variables. It is quite difficult to know and control all of the inter-

vening variables. Similarly we cannot, always, control the indepen-
dent variable. Therefore it is not always possible to create conditions
in the laboratory as we would like to and consequently in the
absence of the desired controlled conditions. the success of this
method becomes quite unpredictable.
3. In experimental method we often make use of the animals or
birds as subjects for the experimentation. It is also debatable whether
experimental results obtained from such sources are applicable to
human beings or not.
4. Experimental method has a limited scope. All problems of psy~
chology cannot be studied by this method as we cannot perform
experiments for all the problems that may be raised in the hetero-
geneous subject matter of psychology.
5. The dynamic nature of human behaviour, does not always
allow the independent variable leading to the change in the dependent
variable. Human behaviour is not like a machine-like behaviour-
The anger or fear producing stimuli or variables may or may not
yield the required responses as desired under experiment and hence
it is not possible to get the uniform responses or changes in the
dependent variables on account of the concomitant changes in the
independent variable.
6. Experimental method is a costly and time-consuming method.
Moreover handling of this method demands specialized knowledge
and skill. In the absence of such expertise this method is not
functionable.
Differential method
Differential method is based on individual differences. Therefore»
all the measures applied to the calculation of individual differences
are included in this method. Differential method is also known as
Normative Survey method or the Field Survey method as the investi-
gator has to go to the field to investigate. It is sometimes called
Statistical method for the reason that statistical techniques become 4
major factor for studying the individual differences.
It differs from experimental approach in the sense that here the
investigator cannot intentionally manipulate the variables. Each is
studied as an independent variable. For example, in the case of
studying the relationship of achievement with intelligence, it is not
possible to manipulate the intelligence. Therefore, we have to take
each individual and study his achievement with respect to his intelli-
gence. After that with the help of statistical techniques we can try
to arrive at certain conclusions.
There are two types of main approaches or designs, which are
used in differential method. They are:
(i) Correlation approach.
(ii) The Longitudinal and Cross-sectional approach.
In correlation studies the psychologist takes people as they are

and studies what they do usually without changing the conditions
under which they respond to the tests or perform the desired tasks.
For example, in the above case of finding relationship of achievement
with intelligence, the intelligence as well as achievement, say acade-
mic achievement of each individual (in study) can be found with the
help of intelligence as well as achievement tests. The subjects will
naturally differ from one another and by using the statistical tech-
nique of correlation, the desired relationship can be concluded.
By the longitudinal approach we mean an approach that is spread
over a long period of time. It is most used in Developmental Psy-
chology. Here one particular individual is taken and is studied for
a long span of time.
In cross-sectional we take many individuals and study
approach
them simultaneously. :
In all these approaches, the help of statistical analysis is taken
for calculating and analysing the individual differences and then
relevant conclusions are arrived at by the interpretation of these
‘Measures.
Clinical method
ly used
Whereas experimental and differential methods are general
to investigate general behaviour facts, the clinical method is directed
towards the study of individual behaviour. The clinica l set-up or
environment is associated with the health care and treatm ent of the
l and
individuals who come for advice and treatment of their physica
the same sense, clinical method s remind us
mental disorders. In the
s which deal with the task of investi gating
about all those method
behaviour and suggesting
Toot causes of a problem or exceptional
and possible treatment:
as well as providing proper environment
The concept of a clinical method is well contained in the concept
of clinical Psychology itself which can be descr ibed as: Clinical Psy-
chology is the art and techn ology of dealin g. with the adjustment
definition may help us to
Problems of the individual. Analysis of this stics regarding nature and
‘observe some of the following chara cteri
a”
‘working of the clinical method;
le to an indi vidual case.
(i) Clinical method is applicab
problems.
(ii) The individual has some
loyed in
(iii) Both methods of diagnosis and treatment i are emp
dealing with thes e prob lems .
no-
(iv) Clinical approach is an art as well as a science and tech
logy which means that everybody cannot treat every patient
and it derives pleasure in making mankind healthier and
better. N N
© Thus, the basic elements 1n this method of psychological investi-
“gation are the diagnosis and treatment of the problem or mental
illness of an individual.
Method of Diagnosis: Diagnosis in a clinical method calls for a

symptomatic picture of the total situation for finding out the root
cause of illness or behavioural problem. For such diagnosis one has
to look for the past events or experiences of the individuals. their
impact and reactions, the present environment and adjustm
ent pro-
blems and the total personality make-up, etc. For ascertaining
these aspects the following techniques are generally employe all
d:
(a) Adequate Physical Check-up: The individual
suffering from
some behavioural problem must be made to go
through adequate
physical check up for ascertaining whether the behaviour exhibited
is of a functional or an organic basis. In case
there are
cal somatic causes for the underlying behaviour, then and no physi-
should then only
it be made a subject for the diagnosis of psychological treat-
ment.
(b) Making out the case history: For finding out the clues
digging out the events from the earlier experiences of the or
responsible
individual
for the present behaviour, the psychologist, then, tries to
make use of the case history technique.
In this technique information is collected from
the memory of
the individual, his parents, members of his family, relati
dians, ves, guar-
neighbours, friends, teachers, doctors and from all other avail-
able records and reports concerning the individual’s past. For collect-
ing the relevant information the following heads
may be used:
1. Identifying Data: This comprises the name of the individual,
father’s name, residential address, date of birth, caste/re
ligion, nature
of exceptional or abnormal behaviour, etc.
2. Environmental background: Information about the member
s of
the family, parents, their mutual relationships and behaviour with the
individual under study, educational and socio-economic
status of the
family, the accidents and incidents that have occurred in the family,
types of neighbours, friends and socio-cultural environment,
school education and school or job situation environment
types of
etc.
3. Developmental History: History of the growth and develop
mental process of the individual in relation to the treatment, behav-
iour and environmental facilities available from birth
onwards, his-
tory of his mental and physical health, educational and occupational
history, social and emotional adjustment history,
sex-life history etc.
4. History of his exceptionallabnormal behaviour. All the relevant
information regarding the subsequent development of the
behaviour
in question upto the present stage.
(c) The Clinical {nterview: Additional but very very
important in-
formation may be collected by the investigator by arrang
ing clinical
interviews with individuals. For this purpose he may carefully
plan appropriate questions and persuade the individual
to give free
and frank answers by establishing necessary rapport. For under-
standing the inner working of the mind of the individual, he. may. be
Methods of Psj chology 39
given the opportunity to talk about himself in this interview session.

From these responses, the investigator, may then draw his own con-
clusions for the diagnosis of the root cause of the behaviour.
(d) Direct observation of the behaviour: Direct observation of the
behaviour of the individual by the investigator in the real natural
set-up, living and working conditions may serve a quite useful pur-
pose for getting to know the nature and causes of the behaviour. In
the case of children, directly observing them at play, may serve the
useful purpose of learning all about the child, his behaviour and
problems.
(e) Using tests and measuring devices: Help may also be taken
from certain testing and measuring devices to ascertain the interests,
abilities, attitudes, aptitudes and total personality make up of the
individual and thus gather the relevant information for understanding
the individual and his behaviour.
Method and treatment

Diagnosis is to be followed by treatment in order to serve the wel-
fare of the individual. In case of the behavioural problem treatment,
efforts are to be made to bring about a change in the behaviour of
the individual in order to get him adjusted to his environment and
thus ultimately restore him to his normal mental health. Usually it
can be accomplished in two ways:
1. Modifying the environmental forces.
2. Modifying the client's attitude.
The physical and socio-cultural environment surrounding the indi-
may
vidual needs to be modified in such a way that the individualRather
not be subjected to further disharmo ny and maladjust ment.
he should be able to get a pleasant and encouraging environment
characterized by wholesome and harmonious relationships with other
social beings and he should be given enough opportunity to enable
him fulfil his basic needs. Fer this purpose the following measures
may be adopted:
one situation and
(i) The client may be physically removed from
ing houses , foster homes or with
placed in another like board
guard ians and adopt ed parent s.
the
(ii) The attitude of parents, teachers and others toward
client may be changed.
(ii?) More adequate recreational facilities, living conditions, work
placement and working conditions may be provided or some
suitable measure s for the sublima tion and catharsis of
repressed desires and wishes may be taken.
For bringing a change in the behaviour a complete modification
of the client’s philosophy of life is required. He must be made to
harmonise his thinking. feeling and doing. For this purpose a number
of measures like the following may be adopted:
40
General Psychology
(i) Guidance and counselling.
(ii) Psychoanalysis.
(iii) Techniques like auto-suggestion, hypn
osis, psychodrama and
role playing.
(iv) Therapies like psychotherapy, group thera
py, play therapy,
occupation therapy, attitude thera
py, etc.
Psycho physical method
s
The branch of Psychology which is conc
relationship between physical erned with the study of
and psychological phenomenon
-called psycho-physics. In this sense, the is
term psycho-physical methods
may be referred to all those methods
employ physical devices for the in which attempts are made to
scientific measurement of some
psychological experiences like
sens
loudness and other such magnitudes. ation of weight, brightness,
logical phenomena like sleep or The other complicated psycho-
span of memory etc., can also be
studied through the use of such
psycho-physical methods.
Three classical psycho-physical
physiologist and physicist Gustav methods devised by the German
Fechner (1801-1887), the father
psycho-physics are still in
vogue. of
They are:
(i) The method of minimal cha
nges or methods of limits.
(ii) The method of constant stim
uli or the method of right and
wrong responses,
(iii) The method of average or
mean error.
These methods are Primarily empl
-threshold and the difference threshold. oyed to measure absolute
Both the absolute threshold
and the difference threshold are
statistical concepts and both are
measured in much the same way.
The absolute threshold may be defin
physical stimulus that teliably prod ed as the minimum value of a
uces sensation. Absolute threshold,
odors we can smell from those we cannot,
the brightness of the light
` The method of minimal changes

or the methods of limits
This method may be used for finding out
‘and difference threshold. The procedur the absolute threshold
e is outlined as follows:
1. The subject is exposed to experience
“he a sensation. For example
may be asked whether he is able to
particular See the object lying at a
distance (say 80 cms) or not.
Methods of Psychology 4l
2. If he says no then the value of the -distance is gradually

decreased until the subject reports that he is able to see it. Suppose
at the distance of 77 cms he says no but at the distance of 76 cms he
says yes, then both these values at which the subject's judgement
changed from saying no to yes about the visibility of the object will
be noted down by the experimenter.
3. In the next round, the object may be placed at the distance
much nearer than the absolute threshold say 70 cms in the present
case. This distance may, then be gradually increased till the subject
reports that he does not see the object. The successive values at which
the subject’s response changes from yes to no is noted down. Let
these values be 75 and 76 cms in the present case.
value of
4. All these values pertaining to minimal changes in the
ld or differe nce thresho ld in both the descen ding
the absolute thresho
ascend ing series of trials are then noted down. The process is
and ing and
ascend
repeated many times. After the completion of several
the experi menter , may then, comple te the average
descending series;
of the intensi ty of the sensory
of all these minimal values. (The limits cent in terms of
stimuli which produc es a change from 0 to 100 per
may thus compute
the feeling of sensation). In the present exmaple, we g the value
the average of the values, 77, 76, 75 and 76 etc. Yieldin
| 6 76 cm. as a minimal value of the distance
75 + 76 1.€.
7 4+
+ 76 =
object.
at which the subject may be able to see the experimental
ry intensity
In a similar way, absolute threshold concerning audito
ing series of trials, the experi-
may also be determined. In an ascend value, may
ing with a clearly sub-th reshol d
menter while beginn subjec t report s
until the
progressively raise the intensity of the sound series of trials, he
that he hears the sound. In the descen ding
till the subject reports
may gradually decrease the intensity of sound all these values in the
that he hears no sound. The average of
descen ding series at which the subject’s response
several ascending and about the hearing of the
is changed from yes to no Or vice versa
the absolute threshold.
sound is then calculated for designating
(the method of right and
stimuli
The method of constant
“wrong cases)
of the sensory stimulus
In this method the value of the intensity the
is neither gradually increased nor, decreased as in the caseareof pre-
stimuli of varying intensity
method of limits but the sensory
‘sented at random before the subject. The stimuli include at least one
that. is well above the probable threshold value and another
sample
sample that is well below it. The subject is then asked to indicate
Awhether or not he detects each of these randomly presented stimuli.
then noted
The responses in the form of yes or no of the subject are
of yes response
by the experimenter and ultimately the probabilityrelated with the
js related to intensity of the stimuli. All the values
. yes responses ares then, averaged to give the required threshold.
The Method of average error
This method is also call
method. In performing experime U
is presented with some stim nt by this method, the subject
ulus of a st
then be asked to adjust a vari
able stimu
the standard value (depen

din
computed average error) for g upon the --ive or —ive sign of the
giving the Subjec?’s absolut thresho
of sensitivity to the stimul e ld
us
T, a wise investigator must kee

p in mind
alidity for the solution of
deep insight into the nature
, i ental surroundings and the
i a proper method or methods
ive as possible for deriving the
SUMMARY
Study of behaviour in psycho
vation of behaviour. Thi logy can be made through
s observation may be carr the obser-
forms giving birth to a vari ied out in various
ety of methods, discussed
below:
Naturalistic observation
pro
vides a way of stud yin
of an individual, by som g the behaviour
conditions. e oth er individual, in the
Valuable data for stu most natural
collected through this dying human behaviour
met can be
sufficiently objective, reli hod. However, it can not also be termed as
able and valid for studyi
ng human behaviour.
variable stands for the cause and dependent for the effect of that
effect
cause. The other conditions or factors that influence the cause and
relationship are called intervening variables. In an experiment all such
variables are needed to be controlled. For exercising such control
test or
we may make use of various experimental designs like control
design, control group design, matching group design and
single group
the demands of the experi-
design involving rotation depending upon
ment and availability of the resources athand.
also
Differential method is based on individual differences. It isof the
we study the behavi our
called normative survey method. Here
Correlation, longi-
individuals to find out the relative differences. included
logy are
tudinal and cross sectional studies made in psycho
es is also taken
in the realm of this method. Help of statistical measur etation of
in this method for the necessa ry analysi s and interpr
techniq ues.
collected data through the normative survey
ent of the
Clinical method helps in the diagnosis and treatm
ional behavi our of an individ ual. Diagno sis may
problem or except buildi ng up a
al check up,
be carried out through an adequate physic out the
(digging out the events or finding
comprehensive history
l interview, using
clues for the present behaviour), arranging clinica ing the client’s
devices and observ
relevant tests and measuring
usually of two kinds
behaviour in natural surroundings. Treatment is
ing the clients.
(i) modifying the environmental forces and (ii) modify
attitude to help him adjust to his enviro nment.
the scientific
Psycho-physical methods employ physical devices for
like sensation of
measurement of some psychological experiences udes. The popular
weight, brightness, loudness and other such magnit
of minimal changes or the
psycho-physical methods are (i) the method stimuli or the method of
method of limits, (ii) the metho d of consta nt
e or mean
right and wrong responses and (iii) the method of averag
error. 3
All these psychophysical methods are primarily employed to
measure absolute threshold (minimum value of a physical stimulus
that reliably produces sensation) and the difference threshold (mini-
mum diffe rence in value betwe en two stimuli that can be perceived
by the subject).
dings
York: John Wiley, 1960.
hods of Psychology, New
Andrews. T.G. (Ed.); Met chology (2nd ed.) New
York:
ing , E.G . A His tor y of Experimental Psy
Bor , 1950.
‘Appleton-Century-Crofts k: W.W. Norton & Co,
1939.
, K; New Way s in Psychoanalysis. New Yor
Horney s, 1960.
Reszarch, New York: Basic Book
Sidman, M.; Tactics of Scientific
Wilson. E B, Jr. ; An Introduction to Scientific Research, New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1952 (Revised:
New York: Holt, 1938
Woodworth, R.S.; Experimental Psychology,
edition 1954).
4
PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS
OF BEHAVIOUR
___Attempts have been made to expl

ain why and how we behave in a
Particular way in a given situation from different standpoints. Here-
dity endowment or environm ental
as Deen made responsible for the infl uence or the interaction of both
causation and occurrence of human
behaviour í - A :
ying behaviour. Psycholo-
emotions and sentiments,
been recognised as major influensable
attributes. Apart from all these
ehaviour in all its forms
ysiological base.
and distinct mechanism

s, Namely, the nervo
glands that have been us system and ductless
adjudged to Carry stro
behaviour. Let us try to ng influence over human
get an idea of these body
mechanisms.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
‘The neuron-basic unit of
the nervous system
The human body is composed
cells, muscle cells, body cell of different t ypes of cells
s, ete. Each type, consistin like bone
tiny cells, forms a sing
le unit which has a Specia
g of millions of
duty of carrying electrical lized function. The
messages from one part of
other has been assigned the body to the
to nerve cells. Our nervou
s system is made up
its branches is called a
nd functional unit
of
Ons in a human nervou
s
on. They are basica
r eren t lly
‘designed for specializ lengths, sizes and sha
ed functions. Within pes
«millions of RNA molecules, each carrying: each neuron there are
genetic instructions from
,-hCS<«TC
45
Physiological Basis of Behaviour
to
A neuron has a nucleus, a cell body, and a cell membrane the
enclose the whole cell. There are tiny fibres extendi ng out from
s through
cell body called dendrites. Their role is to receive message and
organs Or adjacent neurons
electrical impulses from the sense
cell body further,
carry them to the cell body. The messages from the A group of
travel the length of a nerve fibre known as the axon.
an electric al cable, is
axon, bundled together like parallel wires in is sur-
(but certainl y not all of them)
referred to as nerve. The axon
function is to
rounded by a fatty covering called a myelin sheath. Its s thus trans-
up the transmission of the messages. The message
speed
gland or a neighbouring
mitted are further carried to a muscle or a
nerve fibre.
nevron through the terminal branches of the
Dendrites
Myelinsheath
Terminal
branches
neuron
Fig. 4.1 The structure of o
ues are spread all over the body. There

These neurons or nerve tiss neurons collect messages from
are three types of neurons. The sensory and
inside and outside the body and carry them to the spinal cord
percep-
es of sensati on and
brain. These neurons help in the process spinal
from the brain andphys
tion. The motor neurons carry messages
glands. They are responsible
for ical
cord to the muscles and the association
movements and ‘act ivation of glands. The inter neurons or
es from
!1 one neuron to i another. Their specific
neurons carry messages ts and to
role is to car ry sig nal s in the form of memories and though
lex Or aut oma tic activities.
add ref
have seen are the receivers
The Neural Impulse: Neurons as we
of
and transmitters of messages. This message 1s always in the form
work is carrie¢ on by
electro-chemical impulses. Let us see how this
the neurons. abe.
in a sort of
A neuron in its resting position is supposed to maintabecause inside
i.e., state of polari zation . It is
electrical equilibrium negatively charged ions
the cel] membrane of the neuron, there are
and outside charged ions.
the neuron membrane there are positively of
This state of polarization may be disturbed on account the effect
General Psychology
nothing will happen. The incoming message must

be above a certain
In this way, a
the extent it is being exci
ted by the messa
it will not be disturbed at 4
all releasing no neural impuls
ple is known as the all
-or-none law. The law may e. This princi-
as under: be stated formally
is independent of the magnitude of the

_ Only that the stimulating energy exciting it, provided
energy is sufficiently Strong
neuron at all.” to excite the
into the synapse, one neuron

is capable of sending its mes
many other neurons. It
makes
sage on to
Teceive messages from thousa possible for a single neuron
nds of other neurons. to
The division of the human

nervous system
The human nervous sys
tem can be divided into
central nervous system and two parts: the
the peripheral nervous sys
tem.
The brain: It is the control

room of the hu ge Com
phone system of the body. It is plicated tele-
compos
the forebrain, the midbrain and the hind ed of three main divisions:
brain.
Theforebrain: The forebrain is at the
important structures are the very top of the brain. Its
cerebrum. The thalamus consiststhal amus, the hypothalamus and
of two egg shaped structures situathe
ed in the central core of the forebrain just Over the brai
t-
sensory impulses pass through it nstem. All
to the higher centres, Therefore,
it
Physiological Basis of Behaviour 47
seems
is usually known as the relay station. In addition, the thalamus also
and
to exercise some control over the automatic nervous system
plays a role in the control of sleep and alertness.
key influence
Hypothalamus lies below the thalamus. It exerts a our. Centres
well as motiva tional behavi
on ail kinds of emotional as
tant body pro-
in the hypothalamus exercise control over the impor l and sex. It
cesses like eating, drinking, sleeping, tempe ratur e contro
activit ies of the pituit ary gland which is
also exerts control over the
located just below it.
It is the most com-
The cerebrum lies at the very top of the brain.
from the eyebrows to
plex and largest part of the brain. It extends two hemispheres; the left
the middie of the skull. It is divid ed into
in the right and left
brain and right brain which controls behaviour matter called the
body sides respectively. A great mass of white
hemis phere s to each other and to
corpus callosum connects these two . The cerebrum is covered by a
the other parts of the nervous system
the cerebral cortex.
thick layer of tightly packed neurons—called
al cortex like senso ry projection areas,
Different areas of the cerebr
areas, etc., have been found to
motor projection areas and association In this way, the cerebral cortex,
be responsible for different functi ons.
to perform the functions
also known as the new brain has the ability i-
olling body movements, coord
of storing sensory information, contrto
nating all information that comes the brain and regulating highly
reasoning and problem-solving.
cognitive functions such as thinking,
cerebral
hemisphere
Thalamus
Forebrain
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Fig. 4.2. The structure of thehuman brain

48 General Psychology:
The Midbrain: The midbrain is a sort of bridge connecting
forebrain (at the top) and hindbrain (at the base). It is particu the
concerned with the relaying of messages, particularly those
larly
related to:
hearing and sight to higher brain centres. One of its import
ant
structures is known as recticular activating system (RAS). With the
help of this structure an individual is able to decide which impulse
s:
should register consciously and which should be
repressed or rejected.
Co nsequently, it helps him to concentrate on studying
even with the
radio set on and sleep soundly with a noisy enviro
nment.
The Hindbrain: The Hindbrain is situated behind
the Forebrain.
and beneath
It rests within the brainstem, a structure
nects the upper that con-
part of the spinal cord with the lowest part of the
brain. It is composed of three structures,
the medulla, the pons and
the cerebellum.
Medulla lies nearest to the spinal cord. It
controls breathing and
many important reflexes such as those that help
right postures. It also regulates the highl us maintain our up-
y complex processes like
digestion, respiration and circulation which are
necessary for the
preservation of life.
The pons connects the cerebrum at the
top of the brain to the
topmost section of the hindbrain, the Cerebellum.
breathing, transmitting impulses from It assists the
the
brain regions and coordinating the activicerebellum to the higher
ties of both sides of the
brain.
. The Cerebellum is composed of two
circular hemispheres. It helps
in performing many bodily functions.
It is responsible for body
balance and the coordination of body
movements. Behaviours like
Localization of the brain functions

As we know, there are a numb
er
performed by our brain. Whether a speci of mental functions that are
fic function is performed by
a specific part of the brain or not; and how
are dependent on several different far our mental functions
concerning localizati
area s of the brain; this problem
on of psycho functions in the brai
matter of considerable research and n has been a
experimentation.
Lashley’s laws on localization
On the basis of their experiments, Franz and
Lashley have pro-
vided two distinct laws on cerebral locali
zation, namely, the law of
mass action and the law of equi-potentiality.
Where the law of mass action means that the learned habits disin-
tegrate in the ratio in which the cortex nerve
fibres are destroyed, the
law of equi-potentiality asserts that every
point of cortex has equal
potential. The potentiality of cortex destroys in
ality destroys. theI ratio the potenti-
These two laws, thus, may lead us to conclude that localization of

brain functions is not possible. However, further studies and exten-
sive research in this area have given enough evidence to prove that in
human beings, while simple reflex actions are localized in sub-cortical
parts of the central nervous system, all other acts of simple or higher
mental functioning are carried out by the different areas of the cere-
bral cortex. Let us describe the localization in brief:
1. Motor Area: Motor areas of the cerebral cortex lie in the form
of narrow strips just in front of the Central fissure (a large fold that
extends from the top of the head to the ears). These areas belonging
to each hemisphere control the movements of the body of its opposite
side by telling the muscles and glands what to do. While movements
of the toes, feet and legs are controlled by the centres lying at the
are
top of this motor region the movement of the mouth and tongue
controlled by the centres located ın the lower region. Movement of
these parts of the body get paralysed when due to one or the other
destruction.
reasons, the associated motor area suffer extirpation or
brain are con-
2. Bodily Sensory Area: The parietal lobes of the
nected with body sensations such as temperature, pain and the feel
area is
of objects. The functioning of the centres located in this
the motor areas i.e., the centres located in the
similar to that of
parts of the body
upper region controls the sensations of the lower
the sensations of
and the centres located in the lower region control
the upper parts of the body.
3. Visual Area: The visual centres responsible for vision are loca-
ted in the occipital lobes at the very back of each hemisphere. These
centres help the individual in the matter of discriminating and identi-
fying shape, size, distance and colour of the environmental objects.
Destruction of this area in an individual may cause complete blind-
ness in him.
of
centres are located at the forsidepro-
4. Auditory Areas: Auditory
oral lobe s. They are resp onsi ble
each hemisphere in the temp
in terms of identification and
viding various auditory experiences
the environment,
discrimination of various sounds stimuli present 1n|‘Cort
ion or oper atio n may cause ical deafness’,
Their loss by destruct
state of partial deafness. and
responsiible
b j
for the controlli ing
ech Area: : Thisi area,
in the frontal lobe.
Pan speech lies a bit below the motor area cause speech
The destruction oF damage of this area may
hindrance. nA
The largest of the associat ion areas is located
6. Association Area:
3 1 lobe of the brain, just under the forehead. Rather
is tbe influencing sensory or motor responses (which is Ate
other sensory eee otor areas) they are chiefly con-
ed with ofhigher cognitive functions like thinking and problem-
the function
cerni A man’s ability to order his behaviour and direct it toward
>
asolva depends especially on these areas.
General Psychology
Central
fissure
Lateral fissure
Fig. 4.3. The human cerebral cortex
Spinal cord
It is that part of the central nervous system which
backbone. It is a rope-like lies within the
structure made up of bundles of long,
nearly round nerve fibres. The inside
grayish colour; while outside the coveringsofofthe spinal cord has 4
myeli
a whitish appearance. Spinal n sheaths gives it
cord’s function is two-fold. In the
first place, it works a channel of communication
brain. Secondly it works as an organ for effective reflex fromto the and
action. Let
us see how it helps in performing reflex or automatic reacti
ons.
The action like closing of the eyelid when something threatens
the eye and the withdrawal of the hand when
something hot oF
cold touches it are known as reflex actions. Such reflex acts are
almost automatic in nature. They are controlled by our spinal cord.
Normally the messages (sense impressions or impulses
caught through
the sensory nerves) are conveyed to the brain by the spinal cord
itis the brain that takes the decision. But there and
are times, when an
immediate action is needed. Then the spinal cord gets
the emergen
signal and instead of receiving orders from the brain, itself directs cy
the
motor nerves to run the muscles for Necessary movement. In this
way, the spinal cord helps in exercising reflex movemen
ts.
In the preceding pages, we have discussed the brain and
spinal cord under two separate heads as two distinct
the
structures. But
in the real sense, there is no definite point of division between them.
The spinal cord, at its upper end gets enlarged as to merge with the
lower part of the brain. The point or portion of the nervous system
which functions as a joint or connecting line between the spinal cord
and brain is known as brainstem. Inits actual f unctioning it serves
like a stalk that supports the whole structure of the brain.
B. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Thenerve tissues lying outside the bony case of the central
nervous system come in the region of the pheripheral nervous system.
It consists of a net-work of nerves which helps in passing the sense
impressions to the Central nervous system as well as in conveying
the orders of the central nervous system to the muscles. Because of
these two functions, the pheripheral nervous system is sub-divided
into two parts—the Somatic system and the autonomic system.
The Somatic system is both sensory and motor. In this system,
Sensory and motor nerves, both are found running to and from the
Sense receptors, muscles and the surface of the body. The autonomic
System, on the other hand, is only a motor system. It consists of a
number of motor nerves leading from the central nervous system for
Serving the blood vessels, heart glands and other internal organs of
the body and regulating processes such as respiration, digestion,
gland functioning and emotion.
The autonomic nervous system consists of two divisions—the
sympathetic system and the para-sympathetic system.
_ The sympathetic system is connected to the spinal cord on either
Side and carries messages to the muscles and glands particularly in
Stress situations to prepare for an emergency, to get ready to act
quickly and strenuously. In such situations it is the sympathetic system
that causes adrenal glands to start producing hormones. As a result,’
our blood pressure and heart rate is suddenly increased, pupils are
enlarged, digestion is stopped and several bodily changes are marked.
The para-sympathetic system is connected to the brain and the
lower portion of the spinal cord. It tends to be active when we are
calm and relaxed. The messages conveyed by the nerve fibres of this
System direct the organs to do just the opposite of what the sympa-
thetic system had asked. In other words it directs the body organs to
return to a normal state after an emergency has passed. As a result,
our breathing slows down, heart goes back to beating at its normal
Tate, the stomach muscles relax, digestion begins again, the pupils of
the eyes constrict and the blood pressure is lowered: In this way
Para-sympathetic system does many things, that taken together build
up and conserve the body’s store of energy. In spite of their opposite
nature, sympathetic and para-sympathetic divisions of the autonomic
nervous system work in close co-operation for maintaining the equili-
brium of the body functioning.
The influence of the nervous system on human behaviour
The nervous system, which has reached its highest point of
evolutionary development in human beings plays a significant and
dominant role in coordinating the activities of every structure in the
body. Every bit of our behaviour, to a great extent, is controlled by
our nervous system. How we will behave in a particular situation
depends upon the judgement of our brain (or our spinal cord in the
case of reflex behaviour). The sense impressions, which we receive
x General Psychology
through our sense organs, do not bear any
significance unless, they
are given meaning by our nervous system. Therefore,
our observa-
tions and perceptions are, by all means, controlled by the nervou
s
system.
Our learning also, to a great extent,
is cont
system. How intelligently we react or makeroll ed by the nervous
use of our mental
powers are again decided by our nervous
brain apparatus. The proper growth system, particularly the
tissues and nervous system as a whole and development of nerve
intellectual development. Any defect in helps in the task of proper
the spinal cord or brain
apparatus seriously affects the intel
lectual growth.
, Similarly, physical as well as emotional development
influenced by our nervous is also
system. Our autonomic nervous
plays a leading role in this direction. It controls the activisystem
involuntary processes like circulation ties of
of
and action of the glands. The equilibriumblood , digestion, respiration
of the body functioning is
almost maintained by the sympathetic and para-sympa
thetic divisions
of our autonomic nervous system. During emotional
specially at the time of anger, fear and other
behaviour,
emotional outburst
nerve tıssues also cause the change
in the
some glands and consequently influence thesecretion of hormones by
emotional behaviour of
an indiyidual. Moreover, the nervous system acts as
a coordinating
agency for many Operations inside the body and harmonizes
the activities and functions of the body part s—internal as well as
external.
In a nutshell, an intricate net-work of
nerve cells and an elabo-
rate brain work together Coordinate the
functioning of all our body
systems and control all the cognitive, conat
ive and affective aspects
of our behaviour. The process of growth and developm
directly and indirectly controlled ent is also
by the funct
ioning of the nervous
system and in this way, the personalit
y of an individual is greatly
influenced as well as structured through
mechanisms of the nervous
system.
The endocrine system

Besides the nervous system, the human body
also possesses 2
second major coordinating and controlling system for
regulating its
internal mechanisms in the name of Endocrine System
.
works quite automatically by means of some Specific body This system
structures
called endocrine glands. These glands are quite different from the
duct glands like salivary glands which pour their secretion through
ducts (little tubes) to the body surface directly.
On the other hand,
the endocrine glands do not need ducts to pour the
secretion. Their
secretions, known as hormones, are poured Straight into the blood
stream, which in turn carries them to the body tissues. It explains
the reason of naming the endocrine glands as ductless glands.
The endocrine glands lie in different areas of the body as may be
seen from the figure shown on the next page.
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
Ovaries (in the

female)
Fig. 4.4. The location of endocrine glands in the human body
Let us now try to understand the mechanism of these glands:

1. The Pineal Gland: This gland is situated within the brain.
Whereas in lower animals, it is supposed to serve as a warning
-device, in the case of human beings it regulates the timing of
biological functions like walking and sleeping, reproductive activities,
the appearance of secondary sex characteristics and the female’s
mensus cycles, etc.
2. The Pituitary Gland: The pituitary gland is situated at the
base of the brain and is connected toa brain centre called the
‘hypothalamus. It is also nimed as master gland because it produces
a General Psychology
the largest number of different hormones,
at Jeast
affects the functioning of all other glands. This six in number, and
gland has a two
Part structure: the anterior lobe and the
posterior lobe.
The anterior lobe is situated towards the front
of the gland. It
is controlled by the chemical messages from the
affects the functioning of the body blood stream. It
through the secretion of different
hormones as below:
:
(i) It secretes thyrotropin, a thyroid stimulatin
g hormone that
controls metabolic rate or the abilit
y of the body to adjust
to temperature changes.
(ii) It produces Somatotrophic hormones
which exercises great
influence on the growth of bones. The under
production of
this hormone causes incomplete development
a dwarf, and we have
whereas the over production results in gigantic
growth and we have a giant.
(iii) It also produces adrenocorticotrophic hormone
in supplementing
which helps
the activities of other glands like adrenal
and sex glands.
The posterior lobe situated towards the back of the gland is
controlled by the nervous system. One of its hormones, Vesopressin
regulates the body’s blood pressure and the
body’s cells. Oxytocin, another posterior amoun t of water: in the
pituitary hormone helps
the uterus to contract during child-birth and
mary glands to start also causes the mam-
producing milk.
3. The Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland is
located
of the neck just below the larynx or voice box (in front atof the
the base
wind
pipe). It produces one primary hormone-thyroxin; the -main consti”
tuent of which is iodine. Thyroxin plays a leading role in controlling
the process of oxidation of food. It regulates
the body’
consumption and the rate of metabolism. The deficiency ofs thyro
oxygen
xin
causes under-activity of the thyroid gland which not
only retards the
growth of the body but also causes mental retardation and
disorders.
Over secretion of this hormone is equally harmful as
it can produce
hypothyroi dism, a condition characterized by nervousness, high blood
pressure, and fatigue.
4. The Parathyroid glands : These glands look like tiny pea-sh
organs and aped!
are located in the back surface of the thyroid and are,
generally, four in number. They secrete a hormone
known. as para-
thormone which controls the level of calcium and phosph
blood and tissues and thus helps in counterbalancing theateexcitin
in the
g.
activities of thyroxin, the thyroid hormone. The parathyroid glands
remove the toxic products from the body and restore the nervous-
system to relative calm. Their under activity may result in muscle
spasms and excitability whereas over activity can lead to muscle
weakness, fatigue, lethargy and poor physical coordination.
5. The Thymus Gland : Thymus gland is located within the chest.
It secretes some important hormones which help us to regulate the-
55
Physiological Basis of Behaviour
reactions of the body
lymphoid system and to develop the immune
for fighting against diseases.
two in number, surround
6. The Adrenal Glands : These glands,
two parts, an inner core
two kidneys separately. Each gland hascovering called the adrenal
called the adrenal medulla and an outer
cortex.
n and noradrenalin hormones
The adrenal medulla secretes adrenali emer gency situations especially
that assist the body in its react ion to
at the time of intense fear and anger. ,
secrete at least twenty hormones
The adrenal cortex is known to d to cont rol meta boli sm
itary glan
some of which help the pitu Adrenal cortex along with the
particularly in stress situations. ent
androgen, a male hormone, pres
Gonads (the sex glands) produces the hor mon e andr ogen may
n of
in both sexes. The over secretio acteristics which in the case 0
result in increased masculine char characterist ics like the
women may produce extremely masculine
e.
growth of beard and moustach
great in-
of the adrenal cortex also castfunctioning.
A few other hormones ary sex char acte rist ics and sex
fluence in terms of second getic.
individual highly active and ener
Their over secretion makes an at an earl y age. A littl e girl or boy
It may also cause sexual maturity or
of a mature man
sex characteristics
may acquire secondary }
woman. betw een the
gland is situated
7. The Pancreas: The pancreas It secretes two hormones insulin
stomach and the small intestine. each other to maintain a balanced
nst
and glucogon which work agai the balance is disturbed by
level of sugar in our blood. In case leads
of these two hormones, it
the over secretion or under secretion excess of
of sugar in the blood. While
to the excess or. deficiency the panc reas , the defi cien cy of
of
sugar causes diabetes, & disease fatig ue.
condition of chronic
sugar results in hypoglycemia a t
are the sex glands which are differen
8. The Gonads : The gonads males and ovaries in females. These
in different sexes called testes in develop-
nal glands to control sexual
sex glands work with the adre male the prim ary sex
viour. In the
ment as well as sex-role beha es are known as androgens. The
hormones produced by the test ndary
the development of the males seco
androgens are responsible for d and mou sta che , matu rity of
bear
sex characteristics like growth of inguished male voic e. In the
dist
genitals and change in terms of duced by the ovaries are known
female the prim ary sex hor mon es pro
nt of female
as estrogens. They are responsible for the developme
secondary sex characteristics like development of breasts, maturity
of the genitals and the repr oduc tive apparatus. In addition to this
estrogens e and help in pregnancy, child-birth
also affect the sex driv
and nursing the new-born infant.
ones—androgens
In addition to their respective primary sexs horm
are found to secrete
and estrogens; the male and femal e sex gland
some amount of estrogens and androgens. In other words both men
Z General Psychology
and women produce both male
and female sex hormones. This
every male has some female in is why
him and every female has some
in her. However, an excess amo male
unt of estrogens in the males may
result in their feminization. Similarl
y, an
gens in the females can develop masculin excess amount of andro-
and dominant sex role beha e tendencies and aggressive
viour in the females. The
may arise as to what makes a man question
absence of female hormones masculine ? Is it the relanow
tive
? The
level of the male hormone, test answer lies in the relative higher
osterone in the males. Itis that
hormone which counteracts the effec
makes him more masculine. ts of his female hormones an
The functioning of all the
above, exercise a great influe endocrine or ductless glands, discussed
nce
development of human personali on various aspects of the growth and
ty. The und er activity or over activity
physical strength, moral, thinking and reasoning

decision-making ability all depend powers and
“These hormones” as upon the health of the glands .
Gardner Murphy puts, “may
bathing the nervous system,
including the brain, and
be regarded as
of the body in their Own all the organs
appropriate chemical juices.”
(1968 p. 52
In this way, endocrine system besides
through the secretion of hor perf ormi ng its own functions
mones by the different glan
be found to work in clos ds, may also
e
the development of the typical cooperation with the nervous system for
personality
vidual. In short, the biological make-upcharof
acteristics in an indi-
determined, to a great extent, an individual (which is
by
System and endocrine glands) is respthe functioning of his nervous
onsible for all his characteristics
and ‘why’ as well as ‘how’ of his entire behaviour.
SUMMARY
Behaviour in all its forms and
shapes have definitely a biologic
or physiological base. There al
are two important and distinct
mechanisms namely the nervous Syst body
em and the endocrine system that
bear strong influence over human beha
viour.
The human nervous system can be divided into two
central nervous system comprisi parts—(i) the
ng the brain and the spinal cord
(ii) the peripheral nervous system. and
The brain has three main divisions—(a
)
thalamus, hypothalamus and the cerebrumthe forebrain consisting of
, (b) the midbrain, a sort
of bridge connecting the forebrain and hindbrai
n and (c) the hind-
brain composed of the medulla, pons
and the cerebellum. Our
brain as a whole with all its different structures, helps, in perf
orming
a number of mental functions. However, cert
ain Specific mental
functions are performed specifically by some or other Part
s of the brain.
This characteristic is named as localization of the brain function
s.
Spinal Cord lies within the backbone. It has two functions—(i)

Works as a channel of communication from the brain and to the
brain and (ii) works as an organ for controlling and performing
Teflex acts.
_ The peripheral nervous system consisting of a network of nerves,
lying outside the bony case of central nervous system, is sub-divided
into two parts—the somatic system and the autonomic system.
In the somatic system sensory and motor nerves both are found
Tunning to and from the sense receptors muscles and the surface of
the body. The autonomic nervous system (with its two divisions, the
sympathetic system and the para-sympathetic system) consists of only
motor nerves leading from the central nervous system to regulate the
body's internal processes.
The Endocrine system works quite automatically as a coordinating
and controlling agency of the body’s internal mechanisms by means
of some specific body structures called endocrine or ductless glands.
These glands are known to secrete specific chemical substances named
as hormones. The under activity or over activity of these glands,
Caused by the deficiency or excess of the hormones secreted, affects
the entire personality make-up of an individual. The location and
functioning of these glands may be summarized as under:
ee
ee eee ss
Gland Location Area Hormone Main Function

Secreted
a
Peneal. Within Brain. Serotoninr and regula:

To regulate r
the timing
Melatonin. of biological functions.
Pituitary Base of the Brain. Six types of hor- Affects the functioning
Master mones like oxy- ofall other glands.
Gland). tocin, vasopressin,
etc.
Thyroxin. Controls body's oxida-
Thyroid. Base of the neck
in front of the tation process.
iii
wind pipe.
Back surface of Parathormone. Counterbalances activity
Parathyroid of the thyroid.
(Four in thyroid.
number).
Within the chest. Disease defend- Regulates lymphoid
Thymus: ing hormones. system,
Surrounds kidneys. Adrenaline and Meets emergency situa-
Aena Adrenocortical. tions and regulates
number). specific sex-roles.
Between the Insulin and Balances sugar 1 i
Panes stomach and small glucagon. blood. gar level in
intestine.
Testes in males and Androgens and Control: i
‘Gonads: ovaries in females, Estrogens (sex S sex behaviour.
hormones).
———— OÁ-
58 ; General Psychology
Pernan L; The Glands Regulating Personality, New York: The MacMillian Co.
Bode, E.C., Longfield, H.S. & Weld. H.P., (Ed,);

Foundations of Psychology,
New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1948.
Carlson, B.R; Physiology of Behaviour, Boston: Allyn
and Bacon, 1977.
Desiderato, Otello, er al; Investigating Behaviour—Principl
York: Harper & Row, 1976. es of Psychology, New
Deutsch, J.A. & Deutsch, D; Psysiological Psychology, Homewood, Illinois:
Dorsey Press, 1973.
Gardner, E; Fundamentals of Neurology (6th Ed.), Philade
lphia: Saunders, 1975.
ag The Biological Basis of Human Nature, London; Faber and Faber
td., k
Kimble, D.P.; Psychology as a Biological Science (2nd ed.) Santa Monica Calif:
Goodyear, 1977.
Levin, M.J.; Psychology: A Biographical Approach, New York: Mc-Graw Hill,
1 5
Lewin, R; The Nervous System, New York; Anchor, 1974,
Lubar, J.F.; Readings on the Biological Foundations of Behaviour, Columbus.
Ohio: Collegiate, 1975.
Milner, P.M.; Physiological Psychology, New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston»
1970.
Murphy, G; An Introduction to Psychology (2nd Indian reprint), New Delhi:
Oxford IBH, 1968.
Schneider, A M. & Tarshis, B; An Introduction to Physiological Psychology,
New
York: Random House, 1975.
Thompson, R.F.: Introduction to Bio-psychology, San Francisco,
Albion, 1973. ies
Wittrock, M.C. et al; The Human Brain, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prenti
Hall, 1977. .
HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
. There are countless species on this earth. Every species is unique

in itself and can be easily distinguished through some specific char-
acteristics. We can, thus safely identify a rabbit, peacock, cow, crow,
antelope and a tiger. The members of one species detinitely resemble
each other but do not bear semblance to other species and possess
unique characteristics that are common to their own species.
It is true that all cows appear alike on account of their species
—specific characteristics—yet we are able to distinguish our own cow
rom so many other cows and our own brother and sister from a
group of children. This is because of the fact that, besides the species
—specific characteristics,—individual members of the species display
. a family resemblance. A child, resembles his/her brothers, sisters
Parents, grandparents and other members of his/her family much
more than he/she would to others not related to him/her and hence
Can easily be distinguished from other children. "
However, the offspring of one set of parents may not necessarily
Tesemble their brothers or sisters or for that matter even their
Parents. They may be unlike each other in so many ways. Although
each organism has so many similarities on account of the species—
differ widely
Specific characteristics and family resemblance—it may a unique
every organism
On so many grounds and this is what makes
creation in itself.
The question is, what makes an individual a unique creation in
itself? Why does or doesn’t he resemble the members of his species,
his parent organisms and the organisms produced by his parents?
The answers for such similarities and variations pertaining to the
2 contained ti terms heredity and
in in the
individuality of an organism are tion s they have made.
see what cont ribu
environment. Let us try to
What is heredity?
result of which a
Heredity refers to a biological mechanism as a
child obtains something in terms of specific species yor fromancestral
his
characteristics by which he can trace his individualit
parents.
ancestral stock through ; his eai
Heredity, thu:s contributes something in the form of inheritance
just as we inherit land, money and other assets or liabilities from our.
so General Psychology
parents and forefathers. Now the question may
arise, when does a
child inherit the specific ancestral
characteristics. Let us try to
answer this from the Science of geneti
cs.
The science of genetics is concerned with the way certain
charac-
teristics are transmitted through the species
and throug h
individual organism. From a genetic angle this transmissiona family to an
definitely
occurs at the time of the conception of the child in the womb of the
mother. Conception of child is in fact a beginn ing of a new life.
The mechanism of conception is explain
ed below.
The male and female reproductive organs produce
the male their testes produce the male germ germ cells. In
cells, the spermatozoa,
while in the female, their ovaries produce the
female germ cells, the
ova. Normally one ovum or egg is produced
(about 28 days) by the ovaries of a normal woman in each menstrual cycle
. The production
of the sperm by the testes in the male is not
so confined and limited.
Normally, they produ
ce 10 million sperms per day per gram
cular tissue from the onset of pubert of testi-
y till death.
Conception is the result of the union of these male and
cells and in the natural way this union occugs at the time of female
copulating
between a man and a woman. Here asa
result of coitus, the male
germ cells (millions in number) usually come in contact
germ cells. The male germ cells are deposited with the female
uterus and try to make contact with the at the mouth of the
single ovum. Out of so many
spermatozoa, in a normal case, only one
sperm (single male cell) is
able to establish contact with the oyum (single female cell) situated
in the ovarian duct of the mother and makes it fertile.
The
ovum is technically known as zygote the starting single cell fertilized
structure
of a new life.
Human life thus starts from a single cell produced by the union
two germ cells, one from each parent and gradually of
‘complicated composition of trillions of body cells and
develop s into 4
yet containing
the same genetic material as was inherited at the
time of conception.
The zygote i.e., fertilized ovum consists of
a semi-f
‘called Cytop lasm and within the cytoplasm there is a nucleluid mass
us which
‘contains the chromosomes. Chromosomes always
exist
human zygote there are 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 pairs. In in
-chronosomes)* 23 of which are contributed
individual
by the father and 23 by
the mother and this is why for the transmission of herditary charac
istics ter-
both mother and father are said to be equal
partners.
Chromosomes possess a thread like structure and
of very small units called genes. It is estimated are made up
that there are more
than 1000 genes in each human chromosome cell.
Consequently the
possibility regarding the combination of 30,000 characterist
from
ics each
mother and father, may help us to understand well the uni-
queness of each individual.
*The number of chromosomes varies from species to species. For

example.
dogs have 78 chromosomes, horses 64, cows 60, fruitflies 8. and peas 7.
Heredity and Environment 6t
Regardless of their very minute size, the composition of genes

has been determined in terms of “DNA” and “RNA”. DNA stands
for deoxyribonucleic acid and is said to be a basic chemical substance
primarily responsible for genetic inheritance. RNA stands for ribo-
nucleic acid and it acts as an active assistant to DNA for carrying
out the genetic code message from parent to offspring.
Thus, what we get from our ancestral stock through our parents
at the time of fertilization of the ovum of the mother by the sperm
of the father is in the form of chromosomes, genes and their respec-
tive classical constituents. This inheritance at the time of conception
makes up the native capital and endowment of an individual that is
Present with him in the form of the sum total of the traits potentially
as the
Present in the fertilized ovum and it is this that is known
heredity of an individual.
The role of genes
experiments
In search of hereditary functions of genes, through his
fruitflies, Gregor Mendel hypothesized that some
on garden peas and chrom osome s, the
genes are dominant and others recess ive. Like
genes Each of the pairs is donated by one of the
also occur in pairs.
pair in one
parents. An offspring thus may be found to derive a gene
of the following forms
of the parents and recessive gene
—a dominant gene from one
from the other.
—dominant genes from both the parents.
nts-
—recessive genes from both the pare
exhibit his dominance over
In simple meaning 2 dominant gene must
ple if one parent furnishes a gene for
the recessive ones. For examnant ) and the other provides a gene
brown eyes (known to be domi
ring will have brown eyes (charac-
for blue (a recessive gene), the offsp
teristic of the dominant gene).
However the fact that a particularan ar trait is recessive in one genera-
tion in no way rules out its appe ce in the future. For example
and blue genes
le of the mutation between brown in wait. If that
wn eyes, a rece ssiv e blue gene lies
e with another gene for blue eyes
possess blue eyes) their offspring, the third
Support (bes
genes from the egg
and dissimilarities
colou
colour, and the charac
ot he r im po rt an t
withi
springs as well as
Determination of E se* (boy of.girl)
irs of chromosomes are calleeddautosomes.
twenty-two pairs, e
The first moso
These chro mes determin the development of most of our body
62.
General Psychology
structures and characteristics. The remainin
consists of the sex chromosomes. These sex g twenty-third pair
chromosomes decide the
individual’s sex and other sex-linked
characteristics.
` There are two different types of sex chromosome
s X chromo-
some (usually big in size) and Y chromosome (comparative
than X). In the male child one member of the ly smaller
sex
chromosome (contributed by the mother). In the chrom osome is X
female child both of
these sex chromosomes, one from each parent, are
X chromosomes.
All eggs have X chromosomes, but sperm
cells may contain
either type. Therefore, the mother’s
role in the determination of sex
is quite neutral. At the time of conception she
type of sex chromosome i.e. X chrom can contribute only one
osome. Much depends upon the
possibility of the type of sex chromosomes X
or Y that may be trans-
mitted by the sperm cell of the
father. If X chromosome is _trans
mitted the child will be female and if Y chro -
mosome is transmitted it
will result in a male child. In this wa: » itis not the mothe
father who is biologically r but the
more countable for determination of the
sex of the child.
l
Mother
Father
ie ~L
we -
Oa ae fs)
Daughter
Son
Fig. 5.1. Determination of sex—boy or girl?
The twins mechanism

Life is the result of the union of two cells—male
and
anormal case when a single ovum is fertilized by sperm female . In
cell of the
male, it results in the birth of a single offspring. However, in some
cases, this normal function is disturbed and there are cases of multi-
ple births —the birth of two or more offsprings at a time. The
birth of
twins falls in such a category of multiple births. There are two
distinct types of twins namely identical twins and fraternal twins.
Identical Twins : In the process of the fertilization of the ovum by
the sperm, the ovum is made tosplit into two parts. In a normal
process these parts are again united. Sometimes, however it so
Heredity and Environment 63-
happens that these two split parts fail to unite together. The
result is that each part is developed into a complete individual in
the form of the pair of identical twins. The twins produced, are thus,
termed identical on account of the identical nature of the genetic
material (exactly the same chromosomes and genes etc.). They are
found to possess almost the same somatic structure and character-
istics and are definitely of the same sex. From the hereditary angle,
they are supposed to be the nearest ones as far as the equal transmis-
sion of hereditary stock to the offsprings is concerned.
Fraternal Twins; Normally in each menstrual cycle the female
ovaries produce a single ovum that can be fertilized by a sperm cell.
In an exceptional case, two ova may be produced simultaneously and
then
be fertilized at the same time by two different sperms. It may
result in the conception of two individuals who may be grown simul-
taneously in the womb of the mother. These individuals are known as
fraternal twins. They have a different combination of chromosomes
and genes as both ova are fertilized by different sperms. Fraternal
twins, therefore are sure to differ in many traits. From the hereditary
but
point of view, they are not as near as the identical twins are,
cousins
definitely nearer than the siblings (real brothers and sisters),
to belong to the
and other relatives. Also it is not essential for them
same sex. They may have similar or opposite sex.
What is environment ?
(1948, p. 156), “covers
“Environment”, according to Woodworth
outside factors that the individual since he
have acted on
all the
began life.” on Re a
At the time of beginning of one’s life i.e. fertilization of the ovum
what happens to the child , is the transmission of ances-
by th
thr
isticsheredi ety, h chro moso r
mes, genes and their
trais a and character
l trasper
trapale its The
hroug
thus plays its l game only at the
i es.
after conception
ateA a It does not contribute any thing
re at all befor e the ferti lization of the
and does not come into the pictu, after the conception, 1s the game
ovum. What happens afterwards
of environment. It affects the indiv idual, his bodily structure, and all
-up eae ee e See
of his personality make ajor heads—
i orces can be categorised
Wo and External environment. The environment
conception till his" birth in the
received by the individual from his
womb of the mother (a peri od of about 9 months in the case of
environment,
human beings) is called an internal environment. In this am of his
the embryo receives the nutri tion rou t oe blood Stre
mother. The physical and mental healt of the mother including his
s nne the inner surroundings
habits, attitudes ‘and interests etc., a peon
or internal environment that affects t s govih and development of
the indiv idual along with his emer ging behaviour in future. After his
birth what the| in child gets in terms of environmenta l influences is
a natur e. Thes
: e influ ences can be Í er divided into
furth
tern
pare a physical and social or cultural. The physical surroundings
s General Psychology
and the stimuli like the earth, rivers, mountains,
weather and climatic conditions, the food we eat, the waterthe type of
we drink
etc., fall into the category of physical environment while the paren
ts,
members of the family, friends and classmates, neighbours, teach
the members of the community and society, the ers,
means
munication and recreation, religious places, clubs, of mass com-
included libraries etc., are
in those forces that provide the individual his social
and cultural environment for the shaping of his personalit
behaviour. y and
=
The role of heredity or environment in the development of
personality and behaviour
What part heredity or environment plays in influencing the growth
and development of the individual, his behaviour and other persona
lity characteristics has been the subject of great controversy an
extensive research all through the ages for psychologists. For tender-
ing explanations regarding the individuality and existing variations
among the individuals, they quite often resort to the studies
as under-
Selective Breeding: In this method of studying inheritance, mem-
bers of some specific species high or low in a particular trait copulate
with other members of the species in the same position and then the
genetic character of the so-produced offspring is made the
subject of
study.
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884) was the first to use the method of
selective breeding in the investigation of the inherited traits by
crossing different types of peas, a fast growing, sexually reproducing
plant.
The method of selective breeding has been very useful to agricul-
turists, tree planters, and commercial breeders of live-stock for
improving the varieties and yields. In performing such experiments,
they usually arrange selective breeding through the copulating of the
members of the species that excel in the desired trait such as size. The
difference between the average sizes of the males and females in the
parental generation and the average sizes of the males and females of
offspring (the selection gain) are noted and then the largest offspring
are bred and so on. In these experiments care is taken for maintain-
ang the environmental factors as constant as possible. Therefore any
isignificant difference between the traits of the parental generation an
their subsequent offspring can be safely attributed to heredity.
The method of selective breeding for studying inheritance,
although found quite useful in the case of lower plants and animals;
has not been found practicable in the case of human beings. This is
because, human copulating cannot be used for experimental purposes
and one human generation lasts for, so many years. However, the
naturally available results of (the selective breeding in the form of
inbred population the tribes or isolated places where marriage and
copulating is permitted within the same blood) provide many impor-
tant clues for the hereditary transmission of so many traits. With thè
Heredity and Environment 65
development in Genetic Science regarding artificial insemination, test

tube babies and the possibility of producing a body directly from the
body of a human being without sex or fertilization, etc., we may
placo high hopes for experimental results of the selective breedings in
umans.
Twin and Family Studies

For studying the impact of heredity or environment on the deve-
lopment and personality characteristics of individuals, psychologists
have also tried to take the help of twin and family studies.
Twins, especially identical twins, are supposed to be identical in
hereditary potential. Fraternal twins, siblings, cousins, family mem-
bers and other blood relations are also supposed to form a group of
individuals who show a gradual diminishing resemblance about here-
dity characteristics but are definitely nearer to the people not
related at all. Generally these studies of twins and other types of
family relations often use concordance or coefficient of correlation,
to ascertain whether a certain characteristic is the result of heredity
or environment.
s have
In carrying out studies of twins and family, psychologist
adopted the following approach:
apart
(1) A pair of identical twins have been separated and reared
in different environmental surroundings. The results of such experi-
ments have sprung in favour of both heredity and environment as
exist in
significant or non-significant differences have been found to
One or the other case.
fraternal twins, sib-
(2) Identical twins have been compared to having any blood
lings, cousi ns other relati ves and indiv idual s not
relationship to ascertain whether or not the affinity in terms of blood
relationship causes affinity in terms of physical and other character-
istics.
ions past from the
(3) Families have b een studied for generat
point of the unique pr esence or absence of some personality attri-
descendants
butes. It has been found that family members and their
For exampl e, a family known to be
show a remarkable resemblance.
and of repute may consist ently display healthy signs of wealth
rich
of
and intelligence while a family of ill-repute may exhibit a record
and defame d persons . Similar ly many of the
the characterless, poor
abnormalities and diseases have been found to perpetuate from gene-
ration to generation and consequently heredity has been made res-
ponsible for the subsequent development and behaviour of an indivi-
dual.
However, from all types of experiments going on to support the
role of heredity or environment, it may be easily concluded that the
way. In the
findings of these experiments can be interpreted either
real sense, it is very difficult to have proper experimentation for
studying hereditary OF environmental influences as shown as follows:
66
General Psychology
. mental influences right from the

time of their conception. Hence
difficult to make the here
dity factor as constant. it is
On the other hand, it is also impossib
factors as constant because le to get the environmental
same environment for different it is very diffi cult to provide exactly the
individuals. Even a mother cannot
show equal amount of love
and affection to her own children
.
What then is contributed by
heredity and what by enviro
ment? n-
It is difficult to find an appropriate
due to the following reasons: answer to the above question
(1) After the conception ofa i
with accuracy whether a particula child we are unable to pin-point
r behaviour or trait emanates from
our heredity or from our
environment.
(2) With all the available resources
ducted we still cannot say with at hand and experiments con-
cert aint y what type of beha
heredity and what by environm viour or
trait is influenced most by
In human beings, hereditary fact ent.
able for the behaviour and ors are predominantly accoun
characte t-
ristics as under:
Reflex and instinctive beh
aviour, characteristics like
finger prints, eye colour, the colour blood
and texture of the skin and type ,
hair,
defective genes and chromosomal abn
ormalities, Schizophrenia, tuber-
culosis, cancer, hemophilia, etc.
Similarly, we can say that the ;
environmental factors are pre
nantly accountable for the domi-
interests, attitudes, aptitude
temperaments, etiquettes and s, habits,
manners, social and culture norm
However, for most of the char s, etc.
acteristics and traits includin
somatic structure, and physical g our
,‘ mental, Social and emotio
up, it is the interaction betwee nal make-
n the individual’s genetically det
ed characteristics and its env ermin-
ponsible for making ironment which is said to be
the individual more res-
Speaking in a true sense, both herewhat he is at a Particular time.
be jointly responsible for the acqu dity and environment are said to
isition of any type of behavi
and development of any pers our
onality characteristics in hum
The respective roles of heredity an beings.
when we compare the individu and environment bec
al’s growth and development ome clear
of a tree. Whereas the maximu with that
m and minimum growth of
tree is determined by its gen a healthy
in this range can only bees det
but exactly how tall it will gro
ermined by the environment— w with-
water, manure and sunlight it gets. soil,
Heredity and Environment 67
In a similar way our heredity endowments provide us the native

capital to start the Journey of life. How successful we will be in life
‘depends both on the potential value of our native capital and the
Opportunities and circumstances favourable or unfavourable we get
from our environment for reaching the maximum out of our starting
Capital. The future outcome as a result of interaction with one’s
environment are thus perfectly hidden in one’s inherited genetic
character. Genetic factors, although influenced, directed and even
surpassed in some cases by the environmental forces, play quite a
substantial role in providing an approximate range for the minimum
and maximum height reached in terms of the personality traits but
how much height one will achieve along this range again depends
upon the cooperation one receives from one’s environment.
Therefore, it is always advisable to take into account the sources
like one’s heredity, his environment and the inseparable interaction
between one’s heredity and environmental factors for determining the
‘etiology of one’s behaviour or development of some specific perso-
nality traits.
SUMMARY
Species—specific characteristics, family resemblance and similari-

ties as well as variations pertaining to the individuality of an orga-
nism can be explained in terms of the contributions of heredity and
environment.
Heredity refers to a biological mechanism that is responsible for
the transfer of the species—specific and ancestral characteristics from
generation to generation with the help of immediate parents at the
time of one’s conception in the mother’s womb.
Human life starts from a single cell produced by the union of two
germ cells, one from each parent and gradually develops into a
‘complicated composition of trillions of body cells. Within each cell
there are 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs, except for the repro-
ductive cells which have only 23 chromosomes, in each. A human
being receives 23 chromosomes from each parent. Within each
chromosome are about 1000 genes. These genes contain two chemi-
cal substances. named DNA and RNA which are said to be respon-
sible for carrying out the genetic code message from parent to off-
Spring. Š Patt
rence of the traits was first scientifically studied b
Gece ental an Austrian Monk, through his experiments H
garden peas. His works led to the knowledge
of dominant and reces-
sive genes in explaining the hereditary transmission of traits and the
related facts about mutation inheritance.
Sex is. determined
:
by the X an d Y sex chro:
mosomes. All female
eggs have only one type of sex chromosomes (i.e. X) but sperm cells
ofthe male may contain both types X and Y. At the time of concep-
tion, therefore, the mother can contribute the same X chromosome
68
General Psychology
while the father can contribute either X or Y. If he is trans
X chromosome, mitting
then it results in a girl or if he transmits Y
chromosomes, a boy is produced.
Environment consists of all those factors that
influence the growth
and development of the individual from
his conception onwards.
These factors can be categorized as intern
al factors (operative in the
womb of the mother from conception till birth)
and external factors
in the form of physical, social and cultur
rounds the individual from his al environment that sur-
birth till death.
The role of heredity and environm
ent in the development of
personality and behaviour have been
of twin exte nsively searched in the form
s and family studies (comparisons of gene
viduals) and experiments on selective breeding tically similar indi-
with particular traits to females with (copulating of males
study the same traits, in order to
the offspring).
pment of a specific personality trait

S > ction
the genetically inherited characteristics. of the environmental forces on

dings
Craig, G.J., Human Development, Englewood Cliffs,
1976. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Gordon, I.J., Human Development,
Glenview, Illinois: Scott & Co. 1965.
Halacy, D.S. Jr., Genetic Revolution,
New York: New American Library, 1974.
Kallman, F.J., Heredity in Health
and Mental Disorder, New York:
Norton, 195 3.
Kaplan, A.R., (Ed bi Human Behaviour
Genetics, Springfield Illinois: Thomas,
1976.
McClearn, G.E. & De Fries, J.C., Intro
Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co: 1973
duction to Behavioural Genetics, Sa?
McGraw, M.B., Growth, New York:
Appleton-Century, 1935.
Money, J. & Ehshadt, A., Man and
Woman, Boy and Girl, Waltimore:
Hopkins University Press, 1972. Joh
Newman, H.H., Freeman, F.N. and Holzinger, K.J.,
and Environment, Chicag Twins: A study of Heredity
o University Press, 1937.
Stern, C., Principles of Human Genetics,
San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co-
1973.
Stockard, C.R., The Ph sical Basis of Personality,
Unwin, 1931. London: George Allen &
Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G., Psychology
Holt & Co., 1948. , (5th Ed.) New York: Henry
6
INSTINCTS AND EMOTIONS
in a specific way in a speci-

What causes the organisms to behave
of serio us study for psychologists.
fic situation, has been a subject
heredity and environment has
From this point of view, the role of found that there are certain
also been fully explored. It has been beha viou r that may be exhibited
specific innate and inborn mode s of
training or experience: Baby
by the organisms without any toprior learn to peck at seeds. A mother
chicks, for example, do not have
for food, and
sparrow instinctively builds a nest, lays eggs, searches n
horses and buffaloes begi
returns to the nest to feed her young, the
their birth , an infant cries for milk an
to swim just a few days after nt is attracted towards the
sucks the nipple of the mother, an adolesce
with out learn ing or experiencing
members of the opposite sex usually In psyc hology, behaviour
or envi ronm ent.
such acts from his parents viou r and the innate
nctive beha
of this type has been named as insti and predisposition responsible
city
or inherited tendencies or the capa n as instincts.
know
for such behaviour patterns are
incts
Understanding and defining inst
term instinct has been used for an
_ From time immemorial, the that makes an organism to respond
innate disposition or characteristic
him in his adjustment or adapta-
or to act in such a way that helps his species. Consequently instinctive
tion including the survival of d species—specific
unlearne
been understood as an
behaviour has
behaviour patterns.
when Charles Darwin presented
_ During the nineteent h century other species, it was also con-
his theory that humans ar e linked to r of human beings is
cluded that like their relatives, the behaviou of Charles Darwin in
motivated by instincts. Inspired by the views tried to provide a long
psych ologi st
1890, William James, a Harvard nct in the follow-
list of the human instincts and defined the term insti
ing way:
in such a way
“Instinct is usually defined as the faculty of acting ends, and
as to produce certain ends, without foresight of the
without previous education in the performance.”
(James, 1969, p. 392)
In 1906, the great American Soci
o-psychologist, William Mc-
Dougall noted that all behaviour is the resul
t of instincts. He added.
five more instincts to the list of Will
iam James making the total as-
14. He tried to define the term instinct
as “an inherited or innate
psycho-physical disposition which
determines its possessor to per-
ceive, and to pay attention to objects
of
an emotional excitement of a particular a certain class, to experience
an object and to act in regard to itin
quality upon perceiving such
a particular manner or at least,
to experience an impu lse to such action” (McDougall, 1946, p. 25).
The definitions given by William Jame
s and McDougall may lead
us to conclude that:
(i) Instincts are innate and inbo
rn tendencies or psychological
dispositions.
(ii) They do not require any sort of previous exper
ience or train-
ing for their expression.
(iii) A particular instinct as an inborn tendency
makes the
organism:
(a) to notice or to perceive and to
pay attention to certain specific
kinds of things; (b) to arouse some feeling of excitement and specific
interest after taking notice or perceiving
have an impulse to action which find such things; and (c) to act or
s expression in a specific mode
of behaviour in relation to that speci
fic thing.
From theabove we may deduce
sess three aspects—cognitive (perceivingthat an instinct is found to pos-
ing) and conative or knowing), affective (feel-
(doing or acting). 5
(i) Every instinct leads toward certain ends as it serves some
specific purpose or purposes. For example,
instinct of escape
helps to escape danger, fight or combat
to get rid of the
enemies, instinct of sex to Preserve the species and
so on. In
this way instinctive behaviour safeguards and ensures the
welfare of the organism.
(ii) Although the instinctive behaviour, as point
ed above leads to
an useful end, yet, it does not necessarily involve any fore-
sight of that useful end.
In the coming times, Sigmund Freud and
his followers like Adler
and Jung hypothesized that the instincts are
the ultimate causes of all
activities. They brought in the field some new
life instinct), the thanatos (the death instin
instincts like Eros (the
ct), the will to power, self-
actualization and herd instinct.
With the adoption of the instinctive theory for explaining behavi-
our by more and more psychologists, the number of
instinct
ly grew to more than thousands. It led to a great confusion s ingradual -
terms:
of the meaning and types of the instincts and with the adyent
behaviourism in 1920, there emerged an anti-instinct revolt. of
Opposition to the concept of instinct was based on two: points.
First, patterns of instinctive behaviour must be common to members.
Instincts and Emotions 71
acti-
of species. Second, the behaviour must be complex and include
our like an
vity of the entire organism, not just a single reflex behavi
eye blink or knee jerk.
for finding
In recent times there have been quite a lot of research
tive behavi our pattern s of human
out the facts about the instinc
beings. It has been found that contrary to the behaviour of lower
behaviour
organisms, it is very difficult to distinguish between learned urs
ones in humans . There are no behavio
patterns and instinctive infants
to every membe r of the human species. Human
common rela-
cannot walk, feed themselves and perform other basic functions
tively independent of any prior learning ortraining. Sex behaviour,
sex and
involves a natural urge in terms of attraction for the opposite
ed as a quite comple x behavi our pattern
sex appetite is describ
specific skills and learnin g experie nces. In this
requiring a set of
ed as purely instinctive or
way, human behaviour cannot be adjudg
sly, it is the result of the interaction
purely learned behaviour. Obviou biological structure and
between one’s individual environment and his
mechan ism of instinctive
the
dispositions. The instincts alongwith
capacity and predispositions
behaviour may thus provide an essential specific behaviour
to acquire
(in terms of a specific level of maturity)
adequa te trainin g and experiences.
patterns as a result of some
Instincts and reflex actions

n like the closing of the eye-
_ What are reflex actions? The actio the contraction of the pupils
lid when something threatens the eye;
the jerki ng of the hand when it touches
when there is bright light; are known as reflex actions.
something very hot or very cold etc., and mechanical in nature. They
c
Such reflex acts are almost automati out by the organism with-
be carried
are innate or inborn as they can in
prior train ing or exper ience. | As emphasized earlier
out any cal basis of our
dealing with physiologi
Chapter four of this text while are directly operated by our spin
al
behaviour, these reflex actions into the picture. Asa resul t they
cord without bringing our brain fixed response to a specific
always bring a prompt and immediate
stimulus.
ence! s with instinctive behaviour
Similarities and differ c t and reflex actions can be sum-
lance between instin
The resemb ;
marised as under:
and inb orn,
(i) Both are innate uation,
of behaviour in a specified sit
(ii) Both involve fixed type li-
dual traits but racial characteristics app
(iii) They are not indiviorg ani sms .
cable to all living
e-
(iv) Both are directed to the attainment of useful ends and saf
anism.
guard as well as ensure the welfare of the org
the abo ilarities
ve simwing , they are oft en confused witih
On acc oun t of
ver: the follo point s of diffe rence ma
ch other. Howe y help in
pee a line of demarcation between them..
a General Pyschology
Instinctive acts
Reflex actions
(i) An instinctive behavi
our
all the cognitive, affectivinvolves (i) Ina reflex action onl
y
conative aspect of the beh
e and aspect of the behaviourconative
aviour. is in-
(ii) An instinctive act in volved.
com
with reflex act isa very parison (i) Reflex
complex acts represent quite
mode of reaction of an simple automatic res ponses of
to stimulus received organism an organism.
environment. from the
(iii) Instinctive acts are

guided by the (iii) Reflex
rain. actions are
operated by the spinaldirectly
cord
(iv) Instinctive without consulting the brain.
behaviour is not so (iv) Reflex acts are most prompt and
prompt and immediate as
acts. They may be prolonge reflex immediate. They are not pro-
d. longed.
(v) Instinctive behaviour can be im- (v) The reflex acts like
proved or modified by exper sneseibiy
ience blinking of eyes, etc., remai
and training. n t
same.
Classification of instincts
Instincts have been classified in a varie
psychologists. The list supplied ty of ways by different
instincts still holds its groun by McDougall in terms of the 14
d.
instinctive behaviour is associated McDougall also insisted that an
with
experience. some emotional
Below, we reproduce this list alongwith
emotion accompanied with the inherent meaning and the
each of these instincts.
Sr. Instinct Meaning

No. Emotion accompanying
1. Instinct of Flight Innate tendency to run away

or Escape. Emotion of Fear.
from danger or possibility of
danger to a place of shelter
and safety.
2. Instinct of Com- Innate tendency to fight and
bat or Pugnacity. Emotion of Anger.
struggle in order to secure
what an organism wants, or
to secure progress or success
in any direction.
3. Instinct of Repul- Innate tendency to respond to
` sion, a distasteful or nasty object Emotion of Disgust.
by going away from it or re-
moving it from the field of
one’s sensation and percep-
tion.
i io- Innate urge to know about
4. ee Of ent new things and phenomena. Emotion of Won-
der.
5. inct.
Parental Instinct Innate urge their
a protect in the young
organisms
oi Emotion
Earme. of Love and
spring. to love them or to
SEPSI them with food. 3
Instincts and Emotions 73
6. Instinct of appeal. Innate urge in the organisms Emotion of dis-
to protect itself by raising its tress.
voice for help from its fellow
beings.
7. Instinct of con- Innate urge or natural tend- Emotion of creati-
struction. ency to construct something. vity.
8. Instinct of acquisi- Innate urge to collect or hoard Emotion of owner-
tion. articles of one’s own interest ship.
and needs.
9. Instinct of gregari- Innate urge that compels Emotion of fone-
ousness. human beings to live in liness.
groups, form societies or clubs
and enjoy family and social
life.
10. Instinct of sex or Innate urge to have sex rela- Emotion of lust,
copulating . tionship with a suitable part-
ner.
l1. Instinct of self- Innate egoistic tendency iin Emotion of elation
assertion. the individual to show in or positive self-feel-
one way or the other that ing.
he is better than others.
12. Instinct of self Innate urge compelling an in- Negative self feel-
abasement or sub- dividual to remain’ submissive ing.
mission. and to follow others.
13, Instinct of food Innate urge compelling an or- Emotion of appe-
seeking. ganism to make attempt tor tite,
getting food and to devour it.
14. Instinct of Innate urge found in human Emotion of amuse-
laughter. beings for maintaining their ment.
health and vigour by counter-
acting the evil influence of
anger and similar other nega-
tive emotions.
ee
EMOTIONS
Defining Emotion
Latin word
Etymologically the word emotion is derived from the
“emovere’ which means ‘to stir up’, ‘to akeagitate’ Sepaor ‘to >exite’. ; Accord- >
sadly, ofMonawonte
state clarifies
an organism. It that
is a “Emotion
stirred up isstate
a ‘moved’
of
or stirred-up
feeling that is the
way it appears to the individual himself. It is a disturbed muscular
and glandular activity that ge the. Wey Je AppRaTS: to en external
Observer” (1945, p. 410). Seles‘‘is
and Crow conveys that an emoti tion
an affective experi-
peri
anes accompanies generalized inner adjustment and mental and
itself
physiological stirred-up states in the individual, and that shows
in his overt behaviour.” (1973 p. 83).
idering instinct as$ an innate tend
endency
all (1949) considering ins
y emotion is an affective experience that one under-
oes during(hotan instinctive excitement. For example
E
when a child
TerceNeS a bull coming towards him (cognition) he experiences an
affective experience in the form of the arousal of accompanied emo-
tion of fear and consequently tries to run away (Conative aspect
one’s behaviour). McDougall discovered 14 basic instincts and con-
of
cluded that each and every emotion, whatever
it may be is, the
duct of some instinctive behaviour. The type of emotion experie pro-
nced
by the individual through a particular instinctive behavio
ur can be
understood through the Table 6.1 provided earlier in this
chapter.
Taking an eclectic view of the nature of
Charles G. Morris defines emotion as “a complex emotion al experience
affective experience
that involves diffuse physiological changes and can be expressed
overtly in characteristics behaviour patterns.” (1979
p. 386).
_ Thus, whatever, may be the terminology used by all these different
writers and psychologists, their definitions tend to describe emotions
as some sort of fezlings or affective experiences which are character-
ized by some physiological changes that generally lead them to pet
form some or the other types of behavioural acts.
Characteristics of emotions
Emotions have certain characteristics which can be described aS
under:
1. Emotions are universal—prevalent in every living organism at
all stages of development from infancy to old age.
2. Emotions are personal and thus differ from individual to indi-
vidual.
3. Same emotions can be aroused by a number of different stimuli
—objects and situations.
A ‘ ; -
4. Emotions rise abruptly but subside slowly. An emotion one e
aroused, tends to persist and leave behind emotional hang over.
5. Emotions have the quality of displacement. For example ae
angry reaction caused by a rebuke by the boss can find expression
the beating of the children at home.
a a 5 ane
6. An emotion can give birth to a number of other similar em g”
tions.
7. There is a negative correlation between the upsurge of Er
tions and intelligence. Reasoning and sharp intellect restrain t a
sudden upsurge of emotions. On the other hand, emotional upsurs'
adversely affects the process of reasoning and thinking powers.
8. The emotional experiences are associated with one or the other
instincts or biological drives. mn
9. The core of an emotion is feeling, which is aroused on accoun
of the cognition of a perceived stimulus, giving birth to a sort
impulsive act or urge to do.
10. Every emotional experience involves many physical and physio-
logical changes in the organism. Some of the changes which express
themselves in overt behaviour are easily observable. Examples of such,
changes are the bulge of the eyes, the flush of the face, the flow ©
tears, the pulse rate, the beating of the heart, the choke in the voice»
Instincts and Emotions
75
Increased perspiration, the butterflies in the stomach, the goose flesh
Sensations as the body’s hair stand on end, the fleeing from the
Situation or the attack on the emotion arousing stimulus. In addition
to these easily observable changes there are internal physiological
changes. Examples of such changes are changes in circulation of
blood, the impact on digestive system and the changes in the function-
Ing of some glands like adrenal glands etc. :
Kinds of emotions
Emotions in general, can be categorized as positive emotions and:
Negative emotions. .
Unpleasant emotions like fear, anger, jealousy which are harmful
to the well-being and development of an individual are termed as
negative emotions while the pleasant emotions like amusement, love,
curiosity, joy and happiness which are helpful and essential to the
normal development are termed as positive emotions.
However, by their nature of positiveness or negativeness it should
not be concluded that experiencing of positive emotions is always good:
and that of negative emotions is always bad. While weighing this im-
Pact we should also keep in mind the other factors like (7) the frequency
and intensity of emotional experience and (ji) the situation, occasion
and the nature of the stimulus which arouses the emotion. Excess of
everything is bad. Emotions with too much intensity and frequency.
whether positive or negative bring harmful effects. On the other hand
the so-called negative emotions may prove very essential for humap
Welfare. For example, the emotion of fear prepares an individual to:
face the danger ahead. The child who has no emotion of fear is sure
to get injured because he has not learnt to save himself against a
Possible danger.
of emotions ‘
The identification and measurement
There are a number of positive and negative emotions that may
be exhibited by individuals from time to, time. What type of specific
emotion, at a particular moment 1s being exhibited ‘by an individual
a subject of
and the nature or intensity of that emotion has been our can be
extensive researc h. Since the effects of emotio n on behavi
measured, but emotion itself is not easy to analyse objectively, the
has proved a
Proper identification and measurement of emotions
tough and challenging task. However, some signifi cant clues in this.
direction may be provid ed by the use of the follow ing method s.
Introsp' ective Reports: It is possible to identif y and even quantify
ding to an individ ual's own introsp ective reports. He:
€motions accor
may be able to label the changes—internal or external—he undergoes.
as joy, fear, sorrow, etc., and also describe what he was feeling,
thinking or doing at the time of experiencing one or the other onemo-
of
scripti
tion. In search of some better device for the self-de
emotions, Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) developed a tri-dimensional
mödel of introspective approach. He argued that emotions may vary
si General Psychology
along the three dimensions: pleasantness-unpleasantness, excitement-
depression, and strain-relaxation and any given feeling could be
located through introspection somewhere within the space defined by
these three dimensions. However, this approach also suffered from
‘serious problems as other psychologists did not agree on the dimen-
sions defining feelings and criticised it on the basis of its dependence
‘on Introspection i.e., a highly unreliable and subjective approach.
However whatever may be the validity of this approach, it carries a
unique advantage. Since emotion is regarded as a highly subjective
experience i.e., emotional responses are often based on internal
processes that can’t be objectively studied, the self-reporting intros-
pective reports can play a major role in the identification an
measurement of emotions.
~ Observations of Facial Expressions: The non-verbal communication
in the form of looks, gestures and bodily positions may provide @
meaningful clue for identifying various emotional states. Face, to
Some extent,issaid to be the index of human behaviour and facia
expressions in the real sense may provide readily observable identifi-
cation signs of various emotions. By looking at one’s facial expres“
sion, we can judge one’s intended emotion and level it as ange!
laughter, fear, disgust, contempt, love. happiness or surprise. The
basis for the correlation between facial expressions and emotions may
be discovered both in one’s innate dispositions and socio-cultural
‘environment. Where the way of expressing emotions may vary from
culture to culture, it may also represent innate responses to particular
situations like jumping at the time of hearing a sudden noise an
‘baring teeth at the time of anger.
Behavioural expressions in the form of facial expressions and
non-verbal communications, however. cannot be understood as
sufficiently objective, reliable and valid instrument for the identifica-
tion and measurement of one’s emotions. One can easily hide his
feelings in the garb of an apparent mask of false facial expressions
and other non-verbal communications and thus may make the task
of identification quite difficult and most unreliable.
Measurement in terms of physiological change

Emotions, as we have already emphasized, are always accompa”
nied with many physical and physiological changes in an organism-
‘Some of these changes expressed in overt behaviour are easily observ-
able while the others in terms of internal physiological changes
require some special devices for their proper measurement. With the
advancement of the knowledge and research in this area to-day We
have sophisticated instruments which can measure these physiologi-
cal changes in terms of blood pressure, blood volume, respiration,
pulse rate, muscle tension, skin temperature and sensitivity, brain
‘waves as well as the pilometer reaction involving erection of body
thair often associated with chilling of the skin.
Besides the common instruments available with the medical
‘personnel, some more specialized instruments like galvanic skin reflex
Instincts and Emotions ag
instrument, electroencephalograph (EEG) and syphygmomanometer
and polygraph (lie detector) have been devised to detect and measure’
these physiological changes. Galvanic skin reflex instruments measure
the skin’s level of electrical conductivity (as it has been found that
intense emotion can lead to sweating and increased conductivity), the
EEG can record safely the electrical activity in the brain and with
the help of Syphygmomanometer changes in blood pressure can be
properly recorded.
The function of the machine called polygraph (lie detector) is to
record autonomic nervous system changes brought on by emotion
Provoking stimuli. It is equipped with pens that automatically
register changes in respiration, blood pressure, heart rate and skin
temperature on rolling graph paper. An individual is tested through.
this machine for ascertaining his telling the truth or a lie on the
assumption that even the thought of taking such a test can initiate
marked physiological changes and thus yield responses that sharply
differ from an individual’s normal responses. To begin with, the
guilty person may be asked for his name, father’s name, his age and
his address, etc., the truth of which can be easily verified. The conse-
quent readings on the graph paper for setting the base line of the
normal physiological make-up of the individual are thus taken. In
the next step, the person may be asked for the crime or guilty act. If
he is truthful, then the machine will not show a significant shift from
the earlier base line position. In case he lies, then he is liable to
face a stressful emotional situation involving significant physiological
changes that can be successfully interpreted through the polygraph.
However the results of these sophisticated instruments including
lie detectors have been found wanting in determining and measuring
the emotions. Individuals are found to show quite varied physiologi-
cal responses while experiencing the same emotion. In case of
pleasure and joy for example one person might be tense with expec-
tation while another is relaxed and physically calm. Similarly in the,
lio detection case, a guilty person who is cool and calm can pass the
test without any difficulty while the truthful person who is nervous
may fall into trouble. Therefore, the measurement of physiological
a very,
changes through the available sophisticated instruments need
on the part of
cautious approach. There is a need for great expertiseadequate know-
the experimenter. On the one hand he must have an
ledge of the naturo and potentials of the emotions of his clients, on
the other hand the subjects are required to PE him maximum coope-
ration for the detection and measurement of their emotions.
Physiology of Emotions
- i d changes that are associated
Sit logical reactions an watt sociated wi
with
r e their roots in our body chemistry. They are controlled’
by the endocrine glands, the autonomous
nervous system and our
brain. i i
be understoo d while going
talemay 7adocr through1 Chapt
apter four of thisis
ine glands ‘affect the emotional
behaviour of an
individual by the undersecretion or over secretion of the respective

hormones.
Our autonomic nervous system plays a significant role in control-
ling and regulating our emotional behaviour. It has two divisions,
the sympathetic and para-sympathetic, that work in close coopera-
tion at the time of an emotional experience. In fear and anger situa-
tions, for example, the sympathetic division stimulates the adrenal
glands to secrete the hormones adrenaline and noradrenalin resulting
in the increase of blood pressure and sugar level of the body. The
sympathetic division also causes an enlargement of the pupils, 2
slowing of the salivary glands (leading to dry mouth) and a contrac-
tion of the digestive muscles. The para-sympathetic system, on the
other hand, activates itself for the rescue operation. It lowers down
the blood pressure and heart rate, starts up stomach and intestine
mechanisms and finally helps the organism to return to its normal
state of behaviour.
The sympathetic and para-sympathetic divisions of the autono-
mic nervous system are supposed to have centres in the hypothala-
mus, an important constitute of our brain. While the stimulation of
the posterior area of the hypothalamus increases sympathetic activi-
ties leading to excitement and tension etc., stimulation of the anterior
area causes increase in para-sympathetic activities leading to relaxa-
tion and depression etc.
The hypothalamus, in every way, tries to coordinate the activi-
ties of the internal organs associated with our emotional behaviour-
Impulses that come from the hypothalamus increase both smooth
muscle (involuntary) and skeletal muscle (voluntary) activities-
Various experiments have been performed to study the results of the
electrical stimulation of the different areas of hypothalamus result
into different types of emotional behaviour e.g., while stimulation at
one point produces aggressive behaviour the electrodes applied to
another area lead to fear, pleasure or pain. Limbic system, the group
of inter-related structures deep within the core of the brain (often
called the ‘‘old brain”) has also been found in union with emotional
behaviour of an individual. Jose Delgado, a Spanish psychologist
(1969) on the basis of his studies has concluded that stimulation of
various areas of our limbic system may produce a variety of emotio-
nal reactions and it is easy to locate and identify fear, pain an
killing sites in the limbic system, the stimulation of which will pro-
duce the concerned emotional reactions.
The connection between the emotional behaviour and stimulation
of the various parts of the brain has brought the electric stimulation
of the brain as a method for treating violent behaviour in human
beings, particularly epileptics whose brain mal-function causes un-
usual aggressive behaviour. The method of electric stimulation has
also been proved successful in relieving the individuals from. severe
pain and stressful or depressed situations. : a
79
Theories of Emotions
For providing explanation about emotions, psychologists have
propagated a number of theories. A few important one’s are describ-
ed below:
The James-Lange Theory: One of the first psychologists to attempt
a scientific explanation of emotion was a Harvard professor, William
James. Incidentally a few years later in 1885, a Danish physiologist
Carl Jang also arrived at the same conclusions as propagated by
James and consequently the theory is jointly named as the James-
Lange Theory.
The James-Lange theory advocates that emotions spring from,
Physiological reactions. The perception of the stimulus causes our
body to undergo certain physiological changes and we experience
emotion.
This theory, however, reversed the old common sense notion about
the sequence ofthe arousal of emotions. The previous sequence
was we see a bear, we feel afraid, we run. According to the new
theory, order was changed to we see a bear, we run, we feel afraid.
While commenting on his new theory James writes: “My theory,
On the contrary, is that the bodily changes follow directly the percep-
tion of the exciting fact, and that our feeling of the same changes as
they occur in the emotion. Common sense says, we loose our fortune,
are sorry and weep; we meet a bear, are frightened and run: we are
insulted by a rival, are angry and strike. . . . . this order of sequence
iS incorrect and more rational statement is that we feel sorry because
We cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble”. (1890,
P. 450).
The Cannon-Bard Theory: In 1927 the American psychologist
Walter Cannon unleashed an attack against the James-Lange theory.
Later on reinforced by L.L. Bard’s work on the thalamus, he pro-
Posed that the lower brain centres, specifically the thalamus and
hypothalamus, are responsible for inciting emotional reactions. After
Perceiving a stimulus, the sensory impulses reach the thalamic-hypo-
thalamic regions. From there they are carried simultaneously to the
internal organs of the body and the cerebral cortex. The cerebral
cortex, therefore, receives and experiences emotion at the same time
that physical changes are occurring in the body.
In this way, Cannon-Bard theory tried to maintain that emotion
and physiological responses occur simultaneously not one after
another. For example, when we encounter a frightening stimulus
like a bear, the sequence of the arousal of emotion takes the form:
:
We perceive the bear, we run and j are afraid, with neither reaction
i.e., emotional res; ponse and emotional experience, Preceding the
Other. att 170
Cognitive Theory: Round about 1970, the American psychologist:
appr oach Schachter
Staley 16 both theandearliJerome Singer, while adopting ‘an closke
er theories of emotion, introduced a new
80
: General Psychology
theory named Cognitive theory of emotion. They sugges
ted that our
physical arousal together with our perception and judgment
tion (cogni
of situa-
tion) jointly determine which emotions we feel. In
other
words, our emotional arousal depends on both physio
logical changes
and thecognitive or mental interpretation of those
changes. One
Surat work wiriou the other. However, the necess
ary detection
an exp sue for an emotional state always
rests with the interpre-
ation of a situation. Since this interpretati
on is purely a subject of
cognitive functioning, the Cognitive factors are said
to be the potent
determiners of our emotional states.
The views expressed by é Schachter and Siinger was
also supporte
by Magda Arnold by stating that cognitive processes control how wed
interpret our feelings and how we act on them. She used the term
Cognitive Appraisal for the identification and interpretation ©
emotion provoking stimuli.
In this way, Cognitive theory of emotion, tried to emphasize the
role of the cognitive factors, a third element, in understanding the
relationship between physical reactions and emotional experience
aroused on account of the perception of an emotion provoking
stimulus. Cognitive theory helped us to learn that the emotiona
experience and physiological changes through which we pass are
determined by the way we interpret a situation through the cognitive
functioning. In short, we can say that the dominant cognitive
element of our behaviour in the form of our previous knowledge an
our interpretation of the present situation directly affect our
emotional experience.
Activation theory
The implications of the Cannon-Bard theory in suggesting that
“emotions serve 4n emergency function by preparing the organism
for appropriate action” led the way to the modern Activation
theories of emotion. The term activation theory of emotion was
actually coined in 1951 by Donald B. Lindsley. In general.
Activation theory refers to the view that emotion represents a state
of heightened arousal rather than a qualitatively unique type ©
psychological, physiological or behavioural process. Arousal 15
considered to lie on a wide continuum ranging from a very low leve
such as deep sleep, to such extremely agitated states as rage or
extreme anger.
According to Lindsley, (1951), emotion provoking stimuli activate
the recticular activating system in the brain stem, which in turn sends
downward toward the
impulses both upward toward the cortex and
emotions] behaviour,
musculature. For the occurrence of a significant OWEVET, the
activat ed.
the recticular formation must be properly l eme TE k an
activating system tries to serve only a genera
organise the inpu etermi ne
the specific structures in the brain emotion.
essed
{he particular form of the expr
81
Conclusion about Theories
All these four types of theories discussed above, have tried to
Provide explanation for the emotional behaviour in their own ways.
The James-Lange theory states that our bodily responses stimulate
Our perception of emotion. The body first responds physiologically to
a stimulus, and then the cerebral cortex determines the emotional
experience. The Cannon-Bard theory states that impulses from the
emotion provoking stimulus are sent simultaneously to the cerebral
Cortex and the internal organs of the body. Thus the emotional
experience and the bodily responses occur simultaneously, but inde-
Pendently. Cognitive theory brings into the lime-light the dominant
role played by cognitive factors stating that the emotion we experi-
ence and physiological responses we give are both determined by the
Cognitive functioning; the way in which our mind receives and inter-
Prets the stimuli. The Activation theory developed by Lindsley focus-
Ses on the role played by the recticular activating system for the
arousing and display of emotions. If we try to evaluate the views
Proposed by these theories, we can come to the conclusicn that none
Of these existing theories can be termed as a comprehensive theory of
€motional behaviour. However, to some extent it can be concluded
that emotional behaviour is surely a product of the process of activa-
tion. The biological structure of an individual modulated by the
environmental experiences, in one way or the other, must activate the
Internal organs and the cerebral cortex for the various physiological
Tesponses and affective experiences that are experienced by an indivi-
dual while going through an emotional behaviour.
SUMMARY
It has been found that there are certain specific, innate and inborn
modes of behaviour that may be exhibited by the organisms without
any prior training or experience. Behaviour of this type has been
named as instinctive behaviour and the innate tendencies or predis-
Position responsible for such behaviour patterns are known as
Instincts. :
The psychologists like William James, William McDougall, Sig-
mund Freud, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, etc., have supported the
Instinctive theory of behaviour by hypothesizing that the Anstincts are
e ultimate cause of all activities. While James has given a list of
basic instincts, and McDougall a list of 14 instincts, the later psy-
cChologists Freud, Adler and Jung brought in the field some new
instincts like the life instinct, death instinct, the will to power, self-
actualization and herd instinct.
Nowadays the instinctive theory, stands somewhat rejected for
explaining human behaviour. Recent researches have concluded that
contrary to the behaviour of lower organisms, it is very difficult to
distinguish between learned behaviour patterns and instinctive ones
in human beings and therefore what behaviour one possesses, should
General Psychology
be considered a consequence of the interaction between one’s indivi-

dual environment and his biological structures and disposition (both
inherited and acquired).
_ Instincts should not be confused with reflex actions that are
directly operated by our spinal cord without bringing our brain into
the picture. Reflexes are more prompt, automatic and short lived.
While instinctive behaviour can be modified or improved through
experience or training, the reflex act like sneezing, blinking of eyes:
etc., remain the same.
_ An Instinctive behaviour as McDougall demonstrated necessarily
involves all the three aspects of our behaviour i.e., cognitive (percelv™
ing or knowing), affective (feeling or emotion) and conative (doing Of
acting). In his list of 14 instincts, he also pointed out the names °
specific emotions attached to each of the 14 instincts and terme
2
emotions as the product of some instinctive behaviour. There exists
number of theories to explain emotions. The James-Lange theory
advocates that emotions spring from physiological reactions. This
theory reversed the notion about the sequence of the arousal of
emotions from we see a bear, we feel afraid, we run to, we see a beat»
we;run, we feel afraid.
The Cannon-Bard Theory tried to maintain that emotion and
physiological responses occur simultaneously, not one after another.
Therefore, the sequence of emotional arousal should be: We perceive
the bear, we run and are afraid.
of the cognitive
Cognitive theory tried to emphasize the role
stand ing the relat ionship between.
factors a third element, in under ed on account ©
and emoti onal exper ience s arous
physical reactions
lus.
the perception of an emotion-provoking stimu
line, in general refers
Activation theories, the most modern in the
of heigh tened arousal. For
to the view that emotion represents a state
the occurrence of a significant emotional behav iour, the recticular
activating system located in our brain stem, must be properly acti-
the higher structures of the brain-
vated to react in consultation with OF
lly represent strong feelings
Emotions, thus viewed, essentia e defi nite inte rnal
acterised by som
affective experiences which are char ompanied with some ©
acc
and external bodily changes and they arens are generally categorize
othe r type s of beh avi our al acts . Emo tio j
à
as positive and negative. love curio”
we include the emotions of
In positive emotions while tions of fear, anger,
sity, joy and happiness; the unpleasant emo
in the cat ego ry of negative emotions.
jealousy are included nature a nd
nti fic ati on an d measurement of the
The task of the ide be carried 0U
se pos iti ve and neg ative emotions—may
intensity of the ressions a” t
h int ros pec tiv e rep ort s, observation of facialchaexp
nge s. The las
throug of int ern al physiologica l
measurement in ter ms
od requires the use of sophisticated instruments for
mentioned methlog s
ical change in ter ms ©! ood pressure, respira”
‘measuring physio
83
tion, pulse rate, skin temperature, sensitivity, brain waves etc. The
most modern specialized instrument like EEG, Galvanic skin reflex
instruments, syphygmomanometer and lie detector can also be put
into use for the objective and reliable (to certain extent) measurement
of the nature and intensity of emotions.

Arnold, M.B., Emotion and Personality (2 Vols.}; New York: Columbia Univer-
sity Press, 1960.
Barnard, L.L., Instincts: A Study in Social Psychology, London: George Allen and
Unwin, 1924.
Birney, R.C. & Tee Van, R.L., Instincts, New York: Van Nostrand 1961.
Cannon, W.B., Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage (2nd ed) New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1929.
Crow, L.D. and Crow, A., Educational Psychology (3rd Indian reprint) New
Delhi; Eurasia Publishing House, 1973.
Darwin, C., The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (reprint) Chicago:
Chicago University Press, 1965.
Delgado, J.M R., Physical Control of the Mind: Towards a Psycho-civilized Society,
New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
Drever, J., Instinct in Man, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1917.
James, William., The Principles of Psychology (Vol. I and II), New York: Henry
Holt & Co, 1980.
Janis, William., Psychology: Brief Course, London: Collier Macmillan Ltd.,
969.
Lindsley, D.B.. Emotion in S,S. Stevans (Ed.) Hand Book of Experimental Psy-
chology, New York: John Wiley, 1951.
McDougall, William., An Introduction to Social Psychology (28th ed) London:
Methuen, 1946.
McDougall, William G., An Outline of Psychology (13th ed.) London Methuen,
na
Morris, Charles G., Psychology (3rd ed.), Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice
Hall, 1979.
Schachter, S & Singer, J.E., Cognitive, Social and Physiological Determinants of
Emotional State, ‘Psychological review”, 1962, 69 p. p. 369-399.
Schachter, S., Emotion Obesity and Crime, New York: Academic Press, 1971.
Selye, H., The Stress of Life, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956.
Tinbergen N., The Study of Instinct, London: Oxford University Press, 1956,
Young, P.T., Emotion in Men and Animal (2nd Ed.), Huntington: New York:
Krieger, 1973.
Wood, J., How Do You Feel? Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1974,
Woodworth, R.S., Psychology, London: Methuen, 1945.
SENSES AND SENSITIVITY
We do not live in vacuum. Our environment that surrounds us 1S

fully charged with the existence and activities of the various living
organisms, inanimate objects and events. All that exists in T
environment may be described in terms of various stimuli. Those
stimuli may lie both inside and outside of our body. Flowers presen
in the garden, birds flying in the air, hunger pangs in our stomach
and pains somewhere in our body, all play a determined bid to ca
our attention for realizing their existence as well as awareness.
This,
in turn, makes us interact with these stimuli in terms of receiving,
interpreting and responding to them. The exposure
to the eae"
presen
t in our environment is thus the primary source of
mation. What we derive from our environment and the the infor
relevant
response to this is the origin of our behaviour.
:
How do we interact with lage: x the ‘ nment? ?
the stimuli present in enviro
What is that which hel ps us in becoming
aware of what is going on
both inside and outside of our body? The answer,
lies in the eriste
and functioning of our body’s sense organs. Let us try to know al
about it.
Meaning and types of senses
Our senses are in fact the windows to
the world—internal as well
as external. These are the gateways
of all information that our brain
receives by interacting with the stimuli prese
our body. Our great ancient thinkers held nt inside and outside of
that there were five human
senses—vision, hearing, smell, taste and
Sense organs, eyes, ears, nose, tongue,
touch corresponding to the
and skin of our body. During
the subsequent ages there has been an addit
ion of some more senses
to this list. These senses may be
grouped into five categories as
under:
Name of the category

Senses included
The Visual Senses
The Auditory Senses Sense of vision.
Sense of hearing. a
The Chemical Senses
Sense of smell and sense of taste.
The Skin Senses
Sense of pressure, sense of tem-
perature and sense of pain.
The Body Senses
pesnestnerig sense and Vestibular
>
Sélises did Sensitivity 85
these types somewhere

We would be discussing in detail z each of
;
ife this chapter. Here first we will conc entr ate on some general
atures of thes e sens es alon g with the mec han ism of sensation,
Sensation and sensitivity

emits a
Be Each stimulus present outsid e and inside of our body onsi ble for
Ttain amount of physical energy that is ultimate ly resp
à
some effect in one or the other sensory organs of our
producing as a
bea This page of the pres ent book, for example, is working has a
ts on our sens e orga ns. It
mulus for producing some effec
its letters reflect a
Particular size and shap e, colour and texture andour sense organs for
on
Particular pattern. This effect produced nature of a parti-
to aware or conscious of the
become of a
Nabling us ity or tendency
Cular stimulus is known as sensation and the qual r type of sensation
ing some or the othe
Sense organ to help us in feel
18 known as sensitivity- are we
respond indiscriminately nor
© We as human beings neither conscious of each and every stimulus
apable of becomingronmawar e or of
ee in our envi ent. We do not have the same power capa -
our cat 1$
ot see in the dark but
bl €lling as our dog has. We cann or sound wave s that are beyo nd our
e Of doing so. Similarly the light by our television set. Not only in
Sensation can be successfully caught sound
f discrimination (which
bigg 9
er, etc.) wee have our limita-
object is
yeauency is higher, which we are capablof e dete ctin g a sti mul us ,or
ons. The degree to which stim uli for find ing out the differ-
or more
discriminating between two itive or are attributed to possess sensitt-
‘nce, we are said to be sensdifference.
Vity to that stimulus or that
mination of stimuli
The detection and discri
above, is concerned
psy cho log y of sens ation, as we have seen of some or
‘T he become aware or conscious
With an organism's abilityintoour external or internal environment. This
the other stimuli present li has two aspects. The first is
‘Awareness or consciousness of the stimu out whe ther a
with the proble
concerned prese m of detection; to find in toilet soap?
nt or absen t ¢-g. is there any smell
Stimulus is iminating between
the problem of discr
he second is concerned with a more pleasant
which of two toilet soaps have
stimuli e.g., judgingsome ions of detection and
odor. Let us have thoughts over the quest
‘discrimination of stimuli. produce a
Each of our sense organs is specifically stimulated to
Particular kind of effect (Sensation) by the physical energy emitted by
a particular kind of stimulus. For example the ears are stimulated by
the sound stimuli sensation and eyes are stimu-
to produce hearing
It is not essen-
lated by the light stimuli to produce vision sensation. on for an
tial that a stimulus should always result in some sensati
Andividual. One may or may not at all have heard a particular sound
‘smelt something or seen a light. The question arises how much
sensory stimulatio
ion n is
i needed to produce a given
j ee i Ora
noticeable difference in sensation? This question
related w Ani
problem of detection and discrimination may be answered
throug
two technical concepts, namely, absolute threshold and differen ce
threshold.
Absolute threshold may be defined as the minimum
physical energy of a stimulus that may prod intensity A
uce any sensation at a ical
a person. It does not mean that below a certain intensity
energy, a stimulus is not able to activate of physi je
the receptor of a_ sona
organ. The recep tor of the sense organ is always activated
ted but the stimulation may not be stron or stimu. a
g enough to result in i
sensation. In other words, an individual feels
of the stimulation from a stimulus a sensation 2
only when the condition O [P
Tequired level of absolute threshold is fulfilled. The
will, therefore, help in d etect 5
absolute thresho
ing sounds or odours, we may hear ot
smell from those we cannot.
How can absolute threshold be

common met measured? In general the most
-
(ii) the method of constant i
Stimuli and (iii) the method of
choice. Let us illustrate th
i forc e
auditory stimulation.
The method of limits: In the

method of limits the work is
out in two
t rounds, I n thefirst round, the inten carried
progressively raised from a sity of the om
he hears the sound. This quite low level until the subject says t
value of the intensity of sound is
by the experimenter. Let it be say Xı. recorde
Second round begins with
sound. This level is now succ a quite hi; gh level of the intensity of na
es: sively lowered until the subje
ct
of the intensity of sound isrepothe?
r
that he hears no soun d. This value
recorded by the expe: Timenter.
Let it be say Yı.
The experimenter in this Way,
involving ascending and descendi tries to complete various rou
nds
ng serj
The average of the value tn X2+-Ya, Xa+Ys,
designated as the absolute thre
shold.
The method
the method
À -nding or descending order as in
of limits) and each time he is asked to indicate whether
or not he detects the stimulus.
For
stimulation, he may be asked to exam say
ple in the case of auditory
sound. The responses of the subject are whether or not he hears the
shown opposite then recorded and a graph as
in Fig. /.1 can be plotted to show which stimuli has
been detected and which are not.
Senses and Sensitivity Se
100,
75
50+-——-—-——-—
‘Yes’
of
Percentage
responses
9 10 11 12
7 8
Stimulus intensity
shold
ation of sn absolute thre
Fig. 7.1. Graphical determin
od the subject is exposed
The method of forced choice: In this meth
may listen to four sounds of
group of selected stimuli, e.g. he
to a
to say ‘yes’ for any one of the
varying intensity and may be asked able to hear it). This experi-
four (showing detectability with that he is
ment may then be repe ated other groups of selected stimuli. The
the stimulus derived from these
average value of the intensity of give the absolute threshold.
sounds of the expe rime nt, then, will
Law
Difference threshold and Weber’s
The question of discriminating soun between stimuli or finding differ-
ence in sensation, for exam ple, first d is louder than the second
sound or vice versa, may be answ ered in terms of difference threshold
and more clearly through Webe r’s Law.
rence in the intensity
The difference threshold is the minimum diffe
to detect. In other words, it is the
of two stimuli that a person is able t or the smallest
smallest change in stimulation that he is able to detec
te. This is also named
difference in sensation he is able to discrimina
as just noticeable difference or j-n.d.
much in the same
The difference threshold may be determined
way as the absol ute thres hold by adopt ing any of the three methods
value repre sents the minimum
described earlier. In any case its
intensity chang e that is detec ted by the subje ct on at least fifty p per
cent of the presentation.
The difference threshold like absolute thresho! i
situation to situation and from individual to individual Loans
ing feature of -the difference threshold is that it varies with me
Strength or value of the stimulus. This relationship was
first demo
strated in 1834 by Ernst Weber by giving a law known as Weber’s
Law.
Weber’s Law: This law states that the difference threshold
r
proportional to the strength or value of the stimulus. It means
that
for creating a just noticeable différence we have to
the intensity of the stimulus in the ratio of
increase or reduce
the strength of the stimu
lus. For example, if we have two fifty kilogra
ms weights and peg
experiment it is found that we require
a 100 gm. weight to be
added or taken away for a just noticeable difference
between „these
two weights, then it is implied that we will require
discriminating between two hundred 200 gm weight for
kilograms weights.
Various senses and their fun
ctioning
Let us now tu rn over to knowing
in detail about the various types
of senses. For thi1s purpose, first we take
our sense of vision.
Sense of vision
For human beings it is the most im
them with the greatest amount portant sense as it supplies
of information about the externa
world. The physical stimulus for
the sense of vision is light. Light 1s
an electromagnetic energy force
that travels through space in
form of light waves at approximately the
meters per second from sources
1,86,000 miles or 3,00,000 kilo-
etc. We as human beings are able like, sun, electric bulbs, lamps
to utilise but a very small portion
of the light waves available in
space, known as visible spectrum.
rays, radar, televi
sion and radio waves are among those that x
be received by the human eye, the rece cannot
ptor of the light waves.
The structure and functioning of the
along with its main parts is shown eye: The structure of the eye
in Fig. 7.2.
Lens
Fovea
“Vitreous humor S
Aqueous humor Blind spor
Fig. 7.2. Tha structure of the human

ayə
Senses and Sensitivity 83
transparent
through the cornea, the
Rays of light enters the eye y 3 per cent of the
our eyes. Approximatel
Covering that protects sur fac e and the rem ain ing ones
lected off the cornea eou
light rays are refoug or (th e flui d beh ind the
aqu s hum
are passed thr h the liquid of the eye; a bla ck circle
pup il of the eye- The pupil the eye. The
cornea) and the the coloured part of
ies in the centre of the itis, by the size of the
ers the eye is controlled
quantity of light that ent by the muscles that lie in the inner boundary
pupil which is controlled the muscles of the iris relax, causing the pupil
of the iris. In dim light e ligh
contracts,
t. In bright light the iris ering the
to let in mor ent
to open wid er
dow n the amount of light
gae the pupil for cutting
e. focussing
the pup il, ligh t ent ers the lens, à transparent call ed the
` Throug h fac
on a photosensitive surcom
e
mechanism which focusses 1it mon com-
wall of the eye ball. The
retina lying well inside the and far-sightedness are caus! ed by an error
plaint s of near-sightedness . retina
ween the lens and the
in communication bet tha t respond to light.
But
ina con tai ns the receptor cells pas s thr oug h a
The ret
rea ch the rec ept or cells, it must Nea r
before the Jight can within the retina .
blood vessels existing ep-
layer of nerve fibres and, there lies a blind spot. There are no rec d
dle of the ret ina ret ina are cla ssi fie
the mid of the
t. The receptor cells is
tors’ in this blind spo thin rods and short squat cones. The retinaare
gr ou ps —l on g of recept ors . Con es
into two
of these two types the
composed of millionsof the retina, primarily in an area called in
located at the cen tre y operat e mai nly
con es ena ble us to see colour. The acu ity is ref er-
fovea. The ual acuity (Vi su al
daylight and are responsibi le for vis
discriminate det ails and fine
vision, the ability to to low
rods, that respondThey
red to keenness of d of vis ion ). The are
differences in the fel ripheral areas.
ed on the outside, phe dark.
illumination, are situatnight vision, the capability of seeing in the
mainly responsible for ht
it activates these lig
en the lig ht fal ls at the rods and cones, sages in the form of
Wh mes
up neural impulses, cal energy from the rods
receptors and sets Th is ele ctr och emi
electrochemical energy
- ls in the retina.
to bip ola r cells and ganglion cel r cell
and cones is the n sen t ected to each bipola
era l, mul tip le rod s and cones are conn nglion cell. The axons
ga
In gen
cells coverge on each respon-
and multiple bipolarke up the optic nerve. This optic nerve is area of
of gangli on cel ls ma es to the vis ual
electrochemical messag
sible for sending the ions of vision are indicated.
sat
the brain, where sen pleasure,
Adap tati on: For the sake of our safety as well as ourtion. This
property of adap
receptors in our sense organs exhibit the
ways. First ly, the receptors can receive
adaption is exhib ited in two effec tivel y across quite a wide range
sensory stimulation and oper ate
nse
the stimuli having most inte
As a result our ears can work with our eyes can function in the intense
sound to the least audible sound;
and darkness. Secondly, as a
bright light as well as in the dimlight receptors in our sense organs get
result. of continuing stimulation, the
90
General Psychology
accustomed to that Particular stimulatio
n resulting in a greatly dimi-
nished sensitivity to that stimulus.
For example the inhabitants of a
Visual adaptation: The receptors in

types of adaptation: our visual system exhibit three
(i) the retinal adaptation.

(ii) the dark adaptation and
, (iii) the light adaptation.
In case we happen to be shif

dark surrounding, we feel ted from sunlight abrupt
a lot of difficulty i ly into a
i j
5
light to stimulate the n
cones, we get adaptedthere is not enough
egin to identify the objects. to the darkness and
world of different brightness, But what we see is a black and white
completely deprived of the
Afterwards when we come colours.
feel difficulty in facing into brigh ter
exposure of the visual Syst
the light waves. |
em to darkness m
the eyes Ls ý vision. Gradually,

become less sensitive
adapted. and its reception becomes light
an blue and
Senses and Sensitivity =
brightest by daylight
nig ht inc rea ses , tho se colours that are the en objects will conti-
na by gray; whereas gre
ill be lost and be replaced ger time. This shift in visibility—from.
a lon
nue to appear green for to the shorter—is called the Purkinje effect
,
a lon ger wav e len gth
Pur kin je who
a after a nineteenth century Czech physiologist
as able to notice it first.
cells.
ration of receptor
Thi s eff ect occ urs due to shift in the ope by con es whe rea s rods
Th is eff ect ive ly operated ing
ght vis ion col our s hav
pe e day or bri light or night vision. The are activated
e responsible for dim when the y
intensely illuminated re-
aad wave length are
m light or at night, with the cones about to
t Tough cones in diove having shorter
rod s tak ing r the operation, the colourons with the colours
reat and re illumination in
comparis
Wave length get mo
having longer wave length.
spond to the whole:
: We , hu ma n beings cannot re colours. The
a Colour Vis ion to the visible spectrum of
world of light. We
are lim ite d receptor cells in
col our s de pe nd s on the capacity of brathe in, response to
the ity to see ent me ss ages to the in
leg for sen din g dif fer ible spectrum
gth s of the vis ibl e spectrum. Thet vis we can detect
erent d wa
a div ve len It does not mean tha
s ide into seven colours. an d 130 separate
Mo st of us can see between 125 ited number of
lim
Only seven colours. fact that we have only a
Colours irrespective of the
names for colours.
a of colour vision
tur e: On e of the important phenomen that are usually
_ Colour Mix
mixing Or combin ing of colours our
d wit h the ally two types of col
is conc er
ble
ne
in the vis ibl e spectrum. There is usu i
availa
and add iti ve-
mixing—subtractive we mi x paints. In suc
h
takes place whentries to absorb (and thus.
colour mixture, eac h of the mixedm thetlight falling on it. The remain-s
wave length fro k to our eye
subtracts) some ve lengths are then reflected bac
ing unabsorbed waperceive the © rceived as green, only because, eitouher
r eye
which makes usblue pa in ts is pe unab so rb ed by the
of yellow and wave leng th which remain
Teceives the green
yellow or blue. of different
ing tak es pla ce whe n we mix light wavese lengths are
Additive mix the component
wav
colours. In such
mixing none of
of the m rea ch the eye and are then
rat her all to produce
they are somehow mixed
:
absorbed (subtracted)
transmitted thtoat the brain where n i experimentally observ
ed
i visi ble by us- It has bee xing of which can help in
is
the cothloerure are some primary colours the mi
y colours of light
that
duc ing any col our in the spectrum. The primar In case we =
pro red light, blue light and gre
en lig ht.
(wave jouzths) are a screen and
more primary colours onults will be as
lig hts © any two or
to projec t their overlapping. the res
then try to combine them by
under:
Combination components of
different lights. Perceived Result
a
‘ Red and green

ite Yellow.
Red and yellow
Orange.
Red and Blue
Purple.
Green and Blue
Red, blue and green
Blue-green.
(In dim and moderate Grey
P brightness).
es Red, blue and green
Y (In quite an intense Pure white.
brightness).
In addition to this, every primary colour

tary colour. Mixing of these two compleme has a single complemen-
ntary colours results in
gray or if the two lights are bright enough,
be summarized as below: white . These results can
Primary The related comple- Colour of the mixture

colour mentary colour In case of dim In case of
TER and Moderate
ùi intense brightness
brightness
Blue. Yellow
Red Gray White
Blue-green Gray
Green Magenta White
Gray White
, „Colour Blindness: The
defects in colour vision which makes a
person unable to see some
ness. The persons who se eyes orseeall no
colours is termed as colour blind-
colours at all are completely
colour blind. This type of blindness is
technicall
tism. It is on account of the genetically deter y known as achroma-
in the retina. They can respond only to the shademined absence of cones
s oflight and dark.
Therefore, outside world of colours for
but black, white and these indiv iduals is nothing
shades of gray.
_ On the other hand, the
particular colours are te
They suffer from various c
and yellow-blue anomal
Theories of colour vision

How we see colours has been a subject of
extensive research. Two
most popular theories, originated in.
the nineteenth century in this
‘connection are known as Young-Helmholtz
Trichomatic Theory and
Hering’s Opponent Process Theory.
Senses and Sensitivity
advocated by Thomas
Young-Helmholtz Theory: It was first Late r on, it was elaborated
Young (1773-1829), an English physi cist.
1-1894), a German physiologist.
by Hermann Von Helmholtz (182three types of cone cells in the
are
According to this theory, there of
a whic h displ ay three disti nct types of sensitivity; one for each
retin Sensi tivit y to all
green and blue.
the three primary colours—red, inations and proportions O
caus ed by vary ing comb
other colours is of receptor cells in the same way
as
eXcitation of these three types colours.
of the corresponding primary
may be produced by mixing groands.
_ This theory, subsequently , faced criticism on variousabsence of
n colour blindnes s. The
Firstly, it failed to explain red-gree
n expe rien ces in the red-green colour blind, accord-
both red and gree presumed
lained on the basis of the
ing to this theory, may be nexpcones. However, it may further fail to
absence of red and gree green) by a
ain the dete ctio n of yell ow (a combination of red and
expl
red-green blind. to explain the
the theory lies in its failure
The second weakness of zones. In other words it could not answer
phenomena related to colour th e centre of the the 1retina
Why the red and gre en are seen only near tow ards the peripheri.
low are seen furt her out
while blue and yel
phenomena of after images and
Thirdly, it failed to explain the one visual stimulus by ano
ther
contrast (the alteration in the effect of e).
sti mul us that occ urs befo re, afterward, or at the same tim
theory still
weaknesse s, Young-Helmholtz on
In spite of all these ing explanations of colour vision the
holds enough ground for provid of thr ee con e typ es wit h
ociation
account of its belief in the ass
three primary colours. ;
process theory
Hering’s opponent 1918).
by Edwald sh Hering (1834-on
This theory was formulated vision eg e dro gen d the
this the ory , the col our on e
the 1
ory
According to © colours asad vo
advoc atedcaby te elmholErtz
f
of thr ee pri mar
im: y
mixi ture anism
ree different mech s) each producinan g two
but depends on thining three separate receptor c. i me ch an is m,
ism.
ta
the tonna (con of sensatioi n. These are (i) i bla k-white e
th
o i iti mechanism. Whilsse, the
d (iii) yellow-blue ne
chanism an
Cpposite aus mean perception of bright
ism accounts for our d E
black-white mech
t for colour. palpai
other two accoun
1
the colours in each
v o n
ses,
he
i ms or proces ses,
n t 2
ee mechanis
p
d to white; sensa-
n a ae a n 3 black is oppose
z
an g i
In all these ri
„p SEN: sation of
he sensation of blue.
is is why, we never
see
yellow is oppose! t iin thceptión of whitei tho
y poshter or on4a!percDE ES eapetee: of visible
ye ncaa
e of lig ep ti on ia rf presence
abse e meat ngmg
improper function ’s
light. The corelour an? omoralie s aiow fait
ye ll le c nanism, The Heri
d- gr ee the se the tw o pro -
of either the nent per. reed ec
au
theory is called the oppo i
cesses in eac mechanism oppos
In addition to the explanation of colour anomalies, Hering’s

theory is also suitable for explaining our perception of complementary
colours. It postulates that if two complementary colours—say red and
green, simultaneously stimulate the red-green mechanism; they result
in opposing and counteracting each other. Moreover, this theory is
also credited for providing explanation of the phenomena of colour
zones, after effect and contrast.
The chief weakness of the Hering’s theory; as pointed outby
‘Chaplin and Krawiec (1974, p. 109), lies in its assumptions involvi
ng
opponent processes in the retina. The assumptions are comple
x and
involve the postulation of events for which there is no physiological
evidence. The theory also suffers from the limitation of having
to
account for certain aspects of brightness phenomena in colour mixing
in a highly complex manner. However, with all such minor limita-
tions in the real sense, the Hering’s theory is continuing
Tecognition for its capability of explaining
to enjoy wide
the truths about colour
vision.
The sense of hearing

The sense of hearing gives us the pleasure of enjoying sound sen-
sations. The physical stimuli for the sense of hearing are sound
waves. These waves are molecules of air, travelling at approximately
750 miles per hour, compressing and expanding as they progress on
their way. Such waves travel much like the ripples produced by @
pebble thrown into a pond.
_ The Characteristics of Sound: Like light waves, sound waves
in frequency and amplitude. The frequency of the waves is vary
measured
in cycles per second, expressed in a unit called Hertz (Hz). One wave
cycle is that portion of a regularly recurring wave that
is
once; The human ear can detect frequencies of from 20 completed
to 20,000
ertz.
The amplitude is represented by the height of the wave
below in the Fig. 7.3.
as shown
| 1 cycle l 4
Amplitude
Fig. 7.3. Wave cycle and amplitude

For their distinction and discrimination, sound-waves carry some
more typical characteristics in the name of pitch, loudness, tone and
timbre, etc,
When we have to see that a sound is low or high, it is said in
terms of the pitch. Pitch of a sound is determined by the frequency
of wave vibrations per second measured in hertz.
95
its amplitude.
dne ss. of the sou nd inv olves its pitch as well as
Lou
s.
It is measured in decibel unit e tone consists
of reg ula r wave vibrations. A pur
A tone is made up r the sou nds resulting
However, we seldom hea much of the overtones
o:a single frequency. of the time it contains multiples of that fre-
rom pure tones. Most ent al frequency and
—consisting of a fun
dam ines the
le x typ ica l pat ter n of the over tones determ
quency. A comp nd.
timbre or texture of the sou
tioning of the ear
The Structure and func sation of hearing:
aud itory system for the sen
TI Our ears work as an ear as shown in the figure 7.4 below, can .
be
of the dle ear , and inn er car
parts: outer car, mid
he str uct ure
ee
ughly divided into wthrthe ks.
auditorv system wor
et us try to see, ho
Outer ear Semicircular
Cartilage canals
Incus
Inner ear
Auditory nerve
(to brain)
Cochlea
Eustachian
Stapes tube
(stirrup)
Eardrum window
Oval window
l To throat
Auditory cana
ear
O f the human
e structure
Fig. 7.4. Th pinna (the
first collected by the
from the air arie r
The so. und waves
r)
te
ch an ump up
outer ea
th e au it or y canal to rea ne that
m into ble, vibratinth g membra caus es
I th in st re tc ha e ea rd ru m
ma na o the e. The qu ivering of d
e a i n . rdrum to vi br at , the an vi l an
separates the ea th e mi dd le ea r called the hammer at io ns to
three tiny bones in carry the vibr
in sequence and the stirrup is loosely
the stirrup to hit each other se three bon es,
r ea r. T. he last cO f the f
the in ne windo w . e roun d
nn ec te d to th e ov al
er e 1S 3 me mb ra ne calleaedr th
e a il o
co ndow, th e inner
Just below theiesovt
al wi
ua li ze th e pressureuein th ji
wind ow which tr t the oval oe i
stirrup hits
agains
5 i rane of9
coi led
the cochleIt
tub e. A er Rear
a, , the the inn
4 me
owleais,is & peamb
-si zed
The oval Vyindoch
mechanism. The ©
96
General Psychology
nerve to the brain.
Theories of hearing
When we speak Something it is tran
Persons in the form of smitted to the ears of othe
r
sound waves. How these soun
received by the teceptors of the d waves are
auditory system and travel all
the hair cells, has been discussed in the alon
preceding pages. The questiongs
which remain unanswered upto
Process of auditory coding and discthis stage are concerned with the
rimination of pitch. How are the
many different sound wave patt
neural impulses? How do the erns that reach our ears coded
hair cells, the actual auditory into
communicate with the brain abou receptors
These questions have been a mattt the loudness or pitch of the sound?
into theories of hearing. Let us er of great investigation resulting
discuss some major theories like
theory, Frequency theory and Place
Volley theory.
The Place theory: The place
formulated by Hermann Von Helm theory or resonance theory was
holt
is known to develop the trichomatic z, a German physiologist who
ing to this theory, the basilar mem theory of colour vision. Accord-
brane, including the organ of
with its hair cells, functions as a reso corti
nator. In other words, it vibrates
in sympathy with the external soun
d waves coming into the ear by
way of the auditory canal and oval window.
waves vibrate the basilar membrane and These incoming sound
displace different parts of the mem
those of different frequencies
brane and stimulate different
places of the organ of corti. The
determined by the place of
coding of physical frequency. is
stimulation on the organ of corti
other words, the place theory asse . In
rts that the pitch of a sound
dependent on the place of stimulat is
ion on the organ of the corti. The
analysis of the quality of the sound Waves
place in the cochlea through the iden reaching the ear thus takes
tification of the places of
stimulation.
The Frequency theory: The credit for the Propagatio
theory goes to William Rutherfold (1839-1899 n of frequency
). In essence a Pure
frequency theory holds that the cochlea respo
nds to a sound wave
entering the outer ear like a telephone transmitter by reproducin
wave’s frequencies; that is, it simply transmits neural g the
impulses along
the auditory nerve at the same rateas incoming stimulus frequencies.
The frequency theory, in this way, in contrast to Place theory: places
the entire burden of analysis of the quality of the sound wave (discri-
mination of intensity, pitch, etc.) on the auditory cortex of the brain.
The Volley theory: The frequency theories got into serious trouble
on the ground as it was noted that nerve impulses cannot be fired as
able to
rapidly as the frequency of the highest pitched sound we are theory.
hear. This problem was solved by the evolution of the volley
This theory maintains that one nerve cannot fire rapidly enough to
have to
follow a high frequency and therefore, several nerves would nerve
alternate in transmittin g volleys of impulses. In other words,
individually. For example, first
cells send impulses in sequence, not
third, andso on. By that
One nerve cell fires, then a second and aand fire again.
time, the former ones take rest to recover
theories alone may be said to give a full
None of the above
sound in
account of the auditory coding and discrimination of thevalidity to
intensity and timbre etc. However, their
terms of pitch, in their own way remains un-
explain these mechanisms somehow
an electic approach incorporatin g the view-
affected and thistheis why
available theori es is consid ered best to serve the
Points of all
Tequired purposes.
The chemical senses
d chemical senses as both are
_ Senses of smell and of taste are ealle
Said to be activated by chemical stimuli.
smell sensation are situated
_ Sense of Smell: The receptors for the cell packed area called the
high in each nasal cavit y in a small
Cyactory-nerve
location of th e receptors for smell

Fig. 7.5. The
olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is only about half the
size of a postage stamp, but it is packed with nearly 600,000
receptor
cells known as olfactory cells. These cells have a lot of olfactory
which is stimulated by molecules of substances that hair,
come in through
the nose or rise up from the base of the mouth.
The axon of the receptors carry the smell sensations in
of neural impulses directly to the olfactory bulbs in the the form
a result we experience a particular odour. Although nothinbrain and as
g has been
definitely known about what kinds of molecules carry what
kinds of
odours, it has been concluded through some latest researches
in this field that both the size and the shape of the aromat
cules influence the particular odour they ic mole-
carry.
Sense of taste
The receptor cells for the sense of taste lie inside the taste
which may buds,
be located within small bumps of the tongue in the back
of the mouth and in the throat. However, most of these taste
buds
numbering about 10,000 are concentrated on the tip,
sides and back
of the tongue. Each of the so-called taste buds contains about
20 taste
cells, a cluster of taste receptors. These taste cells form an openin
g at
the top of the bud known as the taste pore.
The chemical substances in the foods we eat when dissolved in
saliva, are then passed through these taste pores to the
cells respon-
sible for taste detection and ultimately the taste sensations in the
language of neural impulses are sent through axon of the taste cells
and sensory nerves to the brain which tells us how we can experience
the sense of taste. These taste experiences, establis
hed through
various researches and experiments, are usually concerned with the
temperature and consistency of the food, the smell-of the
food mole-
cules, the four primary taste qualities—sweet, sour, salty and bitter—
and all other tastes results from a combination of these four qualities-
The skin sense

The group of skin senses includes three senses: the sense
or pressure, the sense of pain and the sense of touch
of temperature (warmth
and cold).
The Receptors of the skin senses: The recept
ors in the skin for
these three types of sensation fall into three general categories;
free
nerve endings, basket nerve endings and encapsulated end organs
. All
these different kinds of skin sense receptors send typica
l skin
sensory
messages to the brain through the spinal cord. The messa
left side of ges from the
the body are transmitted to the tight cerebral hemisphere
and from the right side of the body to the left hemisphere. Let us
now learn more about these receptors.
Free nerve endings receptors are found just below the surface of
the skin. They are involved in all the three types of skin sensations.
ss
‘99
endings receptors represe! nt the nerve fibres that
Basket nerve to the
wrap around the base of the hair. They are more responsive
stimuli carrying touch or pressure sensation.
skin sense receptors
Encapsulated end organs, the third type of
inside some sort of capsule or
represent those nerve fibres that end ive to pressu re and tempe rature.
shell. They are found to be sensit
e of touch or pressure is helpful in
f Sense of touch or pressure: Sens receptors
eeling the sensation of touc h or pressure on our body. Thertips , lips
entr ated in the finge
concerning this sense are usually conc pres sure . Unli ke
of spatial disc rimi nati on of
and other areas capable of touch respon d only to
the other senses, the receptors in the sense amoun t of pres-
(incre ase or decrea se in the
changes in stimulation
to detect continuous touch.
sure) and consequently, they fail
rature helps us in feeling
Sense of temperature: The sense of tempe in detecting the difference
as
the sensation of warmth and cold as well are no
established that there
between two temperatures. It has been
th and cold and as a receptor the free
Separate receptor cells for warm the differences in sensitivity
nerve endings are mostly responsibl e for
e. The objec t at least 1 or 2 degrees centigrade warmer
to temperatur by the receptor cells as warm
than our body temperature are sensed our body
degrees centigrade colder than
and those at least 1 or 2
temperature are sensed as cold. the
ing warm and something cool Inat the
When we are touching somethcal sensations may be felt.
doxi
same time two types of para temperatures are felt almost like
case of paradoxical cold, the high ulation. Similarly in the case
of stim
freezing cold at the first instant ed effect of
brain may read the combin or burning.
of paradoxical heat, the ofint ens e heat
as & sensation
warmth and cold sensations ation
helps us in realising the sens
Sense of pain: The sense of painskin for pain lie mainly in the free
s in the
of pains. The receptor the receptors for pain reside not only in the
nerve endings. However, accounting for
in muscles an d body organs as well, thusstinal disorders.
skin but comco! es from cramps and inte
much of the distress that duce tissue damage may cause
all such stimulation that pro
In general,
Pain. trol
own as the ‘gate con
t the or concerning pain, kn cho log ist s Ro na ld Me lzack
Ani d in 1965 by the psy
tion”. peer rafe s that_theregateis ma a gate-
k Wal l. Thi s the ory maintain tem . Thi s y be
and Patric is m in our pai n-signaling sys
of the
ch an lev els
like me , depending on the
partially, oF not att all
Opened fully,sen run tom the body’smasur face to the
of sor y fib res tha d y close the
activity : Some fibres we e jo nu la te
central nervous system en the gate. The
woan stan aee may op
gat e whi le so me oth ers
a i e ms also play a a
e
level of pain. In addition to tin other brain me
chanis
in-stem can
mple, certain areas of the bra which can
part in feeling pain: For exa nected to the spi nal cor d,
send out signals to fibres con
effectively block pain. Similarly the cerebral cortex may also affect
the feeling of pain by inhibiting fibres that descend from the cortex.
The gate way theory, in this way, may prove quite helpful in explain-
ing the mechanisms of experiencing pain including the role of higher
brain centres in blocking or desensitizing the feelings of pain.
However, the pain in all ways is quite a complex sensation both
in its physiology and in the way that it is experienced by individuals.
The sensation of pain to a particular degree may be felt in different
ways by different persons or even by the same person at different
times. Many patients have been found to be relieved of discomfort
and agony through hypnosis or suggestion. It has led us to believe
that the higher areas of the cerebral cortex (other than sensory areas)
exert considerable influence on pain, modifying in some ways the
reception and transmission of impulse.
The body senses

The body senses include the Kinesthetic and the Vestibular sense.
These senses help us to maintain the balance of our body at the time
when we stand, walk or stumble. With their help we are able to reach
for objects accurately and manipulate them or even head for the right
direction.
The kinesthetic sense

This sense plays a key role in relaying information about the
position and movement of the parts of our body without actually
observing or sensing them through our sense of vision. There 1s no
one specific organ allotted to the Kinesthetic sense. The Kinesthetic
receptors are scattered throughout the muscles and joints of our
body. Nerve fibres from these receptors join together with the nerve
fibres from the organs of the skin just before they enter the spinal
cord for carrying Kinesthetic sense messages from one part of the
body to the cerebral cortex almost in the same way as the skin
receptors do.
The vestibular sense

The vestibular sense related with equilibrium is concerned with
the sensation of movement and changes in orientation of the head. It
does more than just relaying information about body position. It
helps us to run without falling, to walk on a high wirestrung stretch-
ed between two poles, to catch ourselves when we trip, to keep our
balance on a bumpy air plane trip or a swaying bus, etc. The recep-
tors for the vestibular sense lie in the inner ear. The vestibular
system consists of three semicircular canals, arranged at right angles
to one another and two sac-like chambers. The semicircular canals have
enlarged ends containing receptor cells that respond to any movement
or rotation of the head. The receptors in the utricle and Saccula
respond to the changes in the position of the head with Tespect to the
direction of gravity. The pattern of excitation of the receptor cells
_— ——
position of the head with respect to

helps the brain to identify the receptors are stimulated harshly or
e
r vity. When the vestibular sens
rs when we are in a boat on rough seas—it may
abruptly—this occu ea. Howe ver, we can adapt to nearly any
cause dizziness and naus
of the vestibular system, on
such outcomes, even the loss or damage
the assistance rendered by our
account of our ability to adjust and
visual and Kinesthetic systems-
SUMMARY
vision,
possess at: least nine senses: r and
Human beings are found to the ves tib ula
ssure, temperature, pain, to become aware Or
hearing, smell, taste, pre se senses help us
of the
Kinesthetic sense. Each stimulus coming in contact
particular
conscious of the nature ofa is termed as sensation and the qua or
lity
with our senses. This awareness in feel ing one
ear or eye which helps us
of the sense organ like wn as sens itiv ity.
Other type of sensation is kno and discrimi-
or sensitivity (detection
Measurement of sensation out through two different measures (i)
ried
nation of stimuli) is car minimum intensity of physical energy of
esh old —th e (ii
the abs olu te thr
sensation at all in a person and t a
a stimulus that may produce any in sti mul ati on tha
—the smallest change
the difference threshold led the just noticeable difference (j.n d.
person can detect, als o cal
in humans as it
sidered most important
Sense of vision is con amount of information (about 80%) of
st
supplies to them the greate physical stimulus for the sense of visiontheis
al wor ld. The and | cones) of
the ext ern
by t he receptor ce lls (rods
h which is received ht falls at the rods and cones it activates them
light
retina. When the lig sage that is sent to the visual
ulses, 2 coded mes
and sets up neural forimpin du ci ng the sensation of vision.
area of the brain nse organs.
—exhibited by our se a
Adaptation: is a unique property re ceptor respon
é ds in a decreasing
picture when a ual system
It comes into the
ng st im ul at io n. Th e receptors in our vis
n, the dark
manner to cont inui ely retinal adaptatio
types of adaptation, nam
exhibit three -
e light adaptation
adaptation and th capacity of
bl e for night vision, the
The rods are dama inly re sp
e
on si
the cones operate ma inly in daylight anlsd
in the rk ; wh il of reflector cel
seeing operatio ns
help us to see colour
. The shift in the li ar lig ht sensation effect
nes or vicct e versa) causes a pecu the colour in terms
(rods to co Pu rk in je ef fe —shift in the visibilityresofpective wave lengths.
kn ow n as ing upon their and rods can respond
of day an d night vision depend s
cone
of colours to which of us, is
The visible spectrum trum, tongmostmixi
this onspecco
vis ton : In gen era
ourven colours- The phenomen l, nc er ni ng or
is cal led colse um is cal led colour
divided int o
in our visible sp ec tr
ur s ava ila ble
combining of colo y perceive the combin
ing effect of the
llow and blue. The other
AS 4 result wema
mixture. xt ur e of ye
colours i.e., gr ee n 48 the mi
important phenomenon belonging to colour vision is colour blindness

—the defects in colour vision which makes a person to see some or
all colours.
How we see colours can be explained through the theories of
vision. According to Young Helmholtz Trichomatic theory, the
eye
contains three different kinds of colour receptors that respond to
red, green and blue light, respectively. By mixing these three
basic
colours, the eye can detect any colour in our visible spectrum.
The
Opponent process theory accepts the notion of three separate
kinds of
receptors, but holds that each responds to either member
ofthree
basic colour pairs—red and green, yellow and blue, and
black
white (producing two opposite qualities of sensation). The evaluation and
of these two theories may reveal that both theories may
be correct at
different stages of the visual process.
The physical stimuli for the sense of hearing are sound
Sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate, which
waves.
sets in motion the
hammer, the anvil and the stirr up. The stirr up strikes
window, which transfers the vibration to the fluid in the oval
the cochlea
basilar membrane then moves up and down, and the receptor. The
cells
in the Organ of Corti cause their adjacent bipolar neuron
then send a coded message of the sound heard to the s to fire and
auditory centres
in the brain.
The place theory of hearing asserts that the
dependent on the place of stimulation on pitch ofa sound is
the
the basic receptor cells of hearing lie). The organ of corti (where
Frequency theory holds
that pi:ch is determined on the basis of the
frequency of firing of
nerve cells, not by the receptor in organ
of corti but by the brain
itself through its auditory centres. The Volle
y theor
the frequency theory explain how the nerve impul y while supporting
the frequency of highest pitched sound. It ses fire as rapidly as
maintains that instead of
a single nerve, several nerves would have to
alternate in transmitting
Volleys of impulses. A combination of the
theories may prove more useful in explaining viewpoints of these
pitch discrimination.
The receptors for the smell sensations are
nasal cavity, in the area called the olfac situ ated high in each
sensations are directly carried to the brain
tory epithelium. The smell
thro ugh the axon of these
receptors.
The receptor for the sense of taste
Whic
the tongue activate these rece ptors to send h lies in the taste buds on
coded message of the taste
to the brain which tells us ho w we can expe
rience the sense of taste.
The receptors for Sense of pressure
areconcentrated in the finger
tips, lips and various other area
s of free nerve and basket nerve
endings, capable of spatial discriminati
for the sense of temperature (warmt on of Pressure. The receptors
h and cold) and pain lie in the
free nerve endings of our skin. While for
the
there is no other place to reside, the receptor temperature receptors
s for pain may reside in
muscles and body organs as well. All thes
e three kinds of skin sense
(pressure, temperature and pain) receptors send typi
cal skin sensor
for the necessary inter-

message to the brain through the spinal cord
pretation.
s are called body senses. The
' The Kinesthetic and vestibular sense
role in relay ing information about the
inesthetic sense plays a key
our body without actually
oe and movement of the parts ofsense of vision. The receptors
our
for ming or sensing them through
ut the muscles and joints of our
ia ese sense are scattered througho are in with
tells us what position we
ae y. The Vestibular sense for this sense are located in the
V pect to gravity. The receptors
estibular organ in the inner ear.
ted Readings
References and Sugges
ries of Psychology (3rd
iec, T.S., Systems and Theo. à
Chaplin. James P and Kraw & Win son Inc, 1974
ed.), New York: Holt, Rinehart New York : Holt ,
ory Behaviour,
ntal Psychology of Sens
Soag, J.F., The Experime
inehart & Winston Inc, 1967.
k: John Wiley, 1972. A
Senses (2nd ed.), New Yor
Shard, F.A., The Human ghton Mifflin,
as Perc eptual Systems, Boston: Hou
Men, J.J., Senses Considered
ed.), New York:
Psychology of Seeing (2nd
Gregorc y, R L., Eye and Brain: The
Graw-Hill, 1973.
n, 1972.
in Action 1, New York: Longma
alee R., Human Senses s, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall,
Sens ory Psyc holo gy, Englewood Cliff
ey
Van
on, Princeton, New Jersey:
Teevan, R.E. & Birney, R-D. (ed.); Colour Visi
Nostrand, 1961. Hearing (Rev. ed.),
New York:
sho fsk y, F. and Stev ens, s S; Sound and
War
Time Life, 1969.
8
PERCEPTION AND ILLUSION
We always remain surrounded by the forces

of
Our Sensory receptors are bombarded continuousour environment.
ly by the various
stimuli present in this environment. As a result
we become aware of
(although in a very typical selective way) some light, sound or
chemical stimuli by experiencing some typica l sensations. This aware-
Ness or information about the stimuli is then relayed
by our sensory
transmitter to the centres of the nervo
us system.
Remember that the psychological process upto this stage is strictly
confined to the feeling of some consciousness or
awareness of one OF
the other stimuli present in our environment.
Our eyes for instance,
only make us aware of some light stimuli—it does
or the pen. Our ears are aware of some auditory not “see” the book
stimulation but can-
not tell us that the train is whistling
or birds are twittering. The
question arises, then what happens inside our
OW are we helped in analysing, identifyin
central nervous system:
andderiving the meaning of the g, classifying, interpreting
awarenes
cerning the typical stimuli? In other wordss, or sensory impressions con-
Organise the transmitted sensory coded mess
how is our brain able to
age concerning variety of
Stimuli of our world into some meaningful patte rn? The answers tO
allthese questions may be given through the
tion.
psychology of percep-
Let, us first try to get aquainted with the meani
ng of the term
perception.
Meaning of Perception
The term perception may be defined as unde
r:
E.G. Borin
E g; H.S. Langfield & H.P. Weld:
TO the chain which leads from the “Perception is the first
p- 10).
stimu lus to action.” (1948;
_ Charles G. Morris: “All the processes invol
ingful patterns out of a jumble of sensory impreved in creating mean-
general category of perception.” (1979, p. 325). ssions fall under the
Edmund Fantino and G.S. Renolds: “Perception is the
organising
process by which we interpret our sensory input.” (1975,
p. 262).
O. Desiderato, D.B. Howieson & J.H. Jackson: “Perception is
experience of objects, events or relationships obtained
thé
by extracting
niformation from and interpreting sensations.” (1976, p, 128)
Perception and Illusion 105
aspect of
R.E. Silverman: “Perception is an individual’s awareness
es the raw data he or
behaviour, for it is the way each person process
nment, into meanin gful pattern s.” (1979,
cat ae from the enviro
p. 123).
ing conclusions
From the above definitions we come to the follow
abcut the nature and meani ng of the term percep tion.
on is essentially a process
1. Perception is a process: Perceptiome of some psychological
rather than being a product or outc
ems approach, then, sensory
phenomenon. If we talk in terms of syst
sensory organs, may be termed as
impressions, gathered through our ered
finally behave or react to this gath
INPUT. The way in which weas OUTPUT. Perception provides the
information may be take n
F S
of PROCES J into
for : converting INPUT
necessary link in terms s-
and interpreting the sensory impre
‘OUTPUT by way of organising
sions.
extractor; Our sensory receptors
2. Perception is the information
various stimuli present in our
are bombarded continuously by r impossible to react to all
is diffi cult and rathe
environment, It
is therefore essential. Perception
process
stimulation. A selection of a jumble
ng relevant information out
performs this duty by extracti them into some meaningful
impressions and converting
of sensory
pattern.
first step
to response. Perception is the
3. Perception is preparationof an organism. It is the preparatory
towards the active behaviour ponse. Our sensory
ividual for action and res
stage that prepares an ind eiving and transmitting centres of the
rec ordered by
Teceptors are just the should react and respond is
sensory information. How we nt of som e mediat-
through the involveme
our central nervous system
perception.
ing activity know as straightforward
sation: In a simple andn. The relation-
4. Perception involves Sen precedes per cep tio
t sensation direct, that is, wh at
way, we may sense tha and perception is always
ships betwee n sen sat ion
par t of per cep tio n. Perception
ion is always 4
we do have in sensat as it organises, inter
prets and gives meaning
be yo nd sen sat ion student of Psychology,
sensations. Therefore, to a
go es
to the result of to sensory stimuli. Sensation,
perception means assigning meaning
is thus termed as perception.
attached with some meaning
: In addition to the help pros
5. Perception provides organisation
sens ory impressions, perception also
vided in deriving mea nin g to
nisation. This arrangement
helps in its prope" arrangement and orga ern rather than being merely
DE Useanisation reflects a part icul ar patt
ons. What one perceives, he
a SS SANON of the sensory impressi total
nised pattern and not as the sum
perceives as a whole in an orga
of various stimuli. highly individualized: Perception by all means, is
6. Perception is, Different
D i f individuals do not perceive objects,
ffair.T.
divividual
an indi s in much the same way. Even individual
Or relationship
events
perceptions of the same event may vary. For example, a hawker

sel-
ling the commodities in the Open ground and a farmer standin
g in his.
farm are likely to perceive rain in quite different ways. The same
may cause a quite different perception
rain
for the same farmer at the
harvesting season. It is because the perception is always influenced
by the internal bodily factors as well as the psychological
factors like
attention, expectations, motivation and past experiences
with the
stimuli, etc. :
A closer look at the nature and characteristics of percep
tion may
help us to derive a somewhat useful definition in
the following
form:
Perception isa highly individualized psychological process.
that helps an organism in organising and interpreting the
complex patterns of sensory stimulation for giving them
the
necessary meaning to initiate his behavioural response.
Perceptual organisation
As we have seen our senses react to patterns of stimuli present
in
our environment. Perception organises that stimulation, it interprets.
the patterns and gives them meaning. The question here arises how
does this perceptual organisation take place. This
phenomenon was
first studied properly by a group of German psychologists known
the as
Gestaltists. Notable among these psychologists
Worthemer Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Kohler. The wordwere Max
‘gestalt
coming from the German, meansconfiguration, totality or whole.
Gestalt psychologists tried to study percepti
wholes. on in terms of Gestalts or
They asserted that what we perceive in terms
We perceive it in terms of an object,
of its totality or a whole and not merely a
random collection of its constituents or parts.
viduals tend to Organise environmental stimuli
They found that indi-
into some meaningful!
patterns or wholes according to certain
principles.
The Gestaltists discovered over hundr
ed principles or laws con-
Cerning the perceptual organisation. Simil
logists who put other theories and princ arly there are other psyco-
explaining the mechanism of perce
iples like adaptation level for
ptual organisation. Below we
would like to discuss some of these
important principles:
The principle of Figure-Groun
d relationship
_ According to this principl
e, a figure is perceived in rela
its background. A tree is a tionship to-
figure that appears against a
background
tive strength of the fig

ure or
Sensory experiences other than visual experiences may also be

personel as figure and ground. A person who is eating a meal that
astes too salty will perceive salt as a figure on a ground of chapaties
and vegetables. We smell, listen and watch particular odour, news
and figures oftelevision (figure) and at the same time are aware of
the conversations going on and various objects present in the room
(ground).
the
A A proper figure-ground relationships is quite important from
a figure or the ground. In case where such
ngle of the perception of
in terms of
selationship does not exist we may witness ambiguity
— figure (the
perception as may be revealed through the followingperceptio n.
amous Rubin’s Vase) depicting reversible figure-ground
e that
Fig. 8.1. Rubins Vase—an ambiguous figur
can be perceived either as a base or
as two faces
Principle of closure
tual organisation is that of
ortant principle of p ercep
Another imping an incomplete
closure. Accord to this principle, whi confronting fill
le
in sensory
plete or clo se the pattern or
pattern one tends to com
it as a meaningful whole.
gaps and perceives be
s in part AandBthe of the Fig. 8.2 may Fig .
For example thethelinelet cur ved line sho wn in
well et as ter W and M, like 8.4
as a circle and a dotted Fig .
8.3 is likely to be perceivedd interpreted
int : as a dog. This type of organi-
and
tends to be perceived l in making valuable interpretati
on of
sation’is extremely helpfu
108
General Psychology
Fig. 8.2.
Fig. 8.4. illustration of the principle of closure
various incomplete objects, patterns or stimuli

present in our environ-
ment.
y-hCS<«
Percéption and Illusion 10%
P rinciple of Grouping in
ng ref ers to th e te nd en cy to pe rc ei ve sti mul i
a of groupi so li d
ns by gr ou pi ng th em on so me
heats ape meaningful patter nt in ui ty .
is li ke si mi la ri ty , pr ox im it y an d co
or st im ul i th at lo ok al ik e ar e
On th e ba si s of si mi la ri ty , ob jects
sent e in Fi g. 8. 5, ve rt ic al ro ws
am pl
ally perceived as a unit. For ex
600000
00000
00000
e00 000
@0oceceod
@0oe@eceo Similarity
Fig. 8.5.
s e p a r a t e g r o u p s i n
o t s m a y b e s e e n to f orm
f b l a c k d o t s a n d b l a n k d
o t i o n .
term s o f t h e i r p e r c e p t o one
t h a t a p p e a r c l o s e
a s i s o b j e c t s O T s t i m uli r oup.
i ) O n p r o x i m i t y b iin g to t h e s a m e g
(i b e p e r c e i v e d as belong close
another are likely to g r o u p e d in th ei r
in Fig. 8.6 sixty-four cubes
For example
mE om EE
uE
EE uE EE
e e e e uE
Be e n
mS EE HEE
eeeee uE
spe
-T E E E EE EH = u
asa EE
peeeeeee sna HE E E
E E EE. ga
-EE
T E E E L E L
-
EE EE E E
E e e E se
- T uN E E E E
g n n n m n n ge
a p n Proximity
proximity appear as a square while the same sixty-four
cubes grouped
in four appear as sixteen squares.
(ii) On continuity basis, the objects or stimu
unit or group on the basis of their continuity li are perceived as a
. For example in Fig.
8.7 while following the basis of continuity,
the perception is organised
Continuity
Fig.8.7.
by selecting the dot cord inst

ead of breaking the continuity by
selecting b or a. It explains why our
attention is being held more by
continuous patterns rather than disc
ontinuous ones.
Principle of simplicity
According to this Gestaltian principl
sensory stimulation so that we perc
e, who tend to interpret our
eive the simplest possible pattern.
The Simplicity or ‘Configurational
goodness’ (in the language of
Gestalt psychology) of a figure is said
to observe the general rule
that the information about the part
s is able to provide knowledge of
the whole. Thus the characteristic
like symmetry, unbroken lines and
curves, compact areas and the perceive
r’s
may contribute to figural simplicity beca familiarity with the figure all
use they enable the perceiver
to perceive the whole from some of its part
s.
Principle of contour
A contour is said to be
ground. The degree of the qual a boundary between a figure and its
ity of this contour separati
from ground is responsible ng figure
for enabling us to organise
objects into meaningful patterns stimuli or
.
Principle of context
Perceptual organisation is also governed
text i.e., the setting in which a perceive by'the principle of con-
change in its context is likely to brin d stimulus or object appears, A
g a great change in its Perception.
{11
Perception and Illusion
be perceived by the same farmer, as

For example. the rain may or phrase may mean
different in different contexts. Similarly a word
different things in different contexts. An examin er may award higher
book in a pleasa nt context than in an
marks to the same answer
unpleasant one.
Principle of contrast
Perceptual organisation is very much affected through contrast
to nearby stimuli may
effects as the stimuli that are in sharp contrast
ent perceptual affects.
draw our maximum attention and carry differ ed
a €colour is strongly affect
fa
For example the intensity or brightness ofastin g background or figure.
by the presence or proximity of the contr
as may be evident
It may also lead to distortion of our perception
through the following figure.
on contrast effects
An illusion based
Fig. 8.8.
le seem
in A make the central circ
Here the surrounding circles B, even though the two are the same
le in
larger than the central circ
size.
ity
Principle of adaptabil for some
the perceptual organisation
According to this principle, of the perc eive r to perc eive the
tability
stimuli depends upon the adap who adapts himself to work before an
al
similar stimuli. An individuperc e
intense bright light will eive normal sunlight as quite dim whil
workin a dimly lit dark room , the
for a person who adapts himself to d as very bright. Similarly our
perc eive
ustomed to a certain
normal sunlight is like ly to be
may all get acc
senses of touch, smell, hearing ing accustomed to this may strongly
degree of stimulation and gett
the related sensations.
affect the interpretation of
112
General Psychology
Perceptual constancy
Perceptual constancy refers to the
present in our environment as tendency to perceive the stimuli
relatively stable and unchanging,
though in reality there may even
be alterations in sensory informat
way of shape, size, colour, brig ion by
htness or other characteristics.
possible on account of our
Previous experience, knowledg It is
familiarity with a particular e and
sensory stimuli. We tend to
have a
impressions. For example, Red
or night and from any dist Fort is perceived as a red fort by day
the same fort despite the ance or angle. We tend to
changes in Sensory inform perceive it as
the retina on account of ati
alterations in distance, dire on reaching
ction or illumi-
_ There are a number
of different types of percep
like shape constancy, size tual constancy
con
constancy, or loudness con stancy, colour constancy, brightness
stancy etc. Let us discuss
important constancies. a few of these
Shape constancy
y of perceiving the shape of

» Constant and unchanging despite
m which angle it is viewed.

t classroom projects a rectangu
image on our retina only lar
when it is viewed directly
At other angles, the from the front.
image will be trapezoidal.
But it is the phen
r us perceive the door as rect o-
looking perfectly round, A iar shape. Similarly a wall cloan-
while Standing in front ck
us as round, following of it is perceived by
the Principle of shape
constancy, eve
e actual retinal image n when
will be
ing distance. In actual

ity, the size of th
goes on decreasing as
distance from th
account of the phenom
ena of size constancy
ceived as shrinking in , the object is not per
its size. For example, -
a class-room teacher the familiar object lik
is likely to be perceived e
feet 8 inches and not as of the same si
4 or 3 feet even in cas
image get decreased in size e the
front of the class to 30 on account of his moving actual retinal
feet. from 10 feet in
Perception and Illusion ‘113
Brightness and colour constancy

tendency of perceiving
Brightness or colour constancy refers to the ar object as fairly con-
the brightness, darkness, or colou r of a famili
if there has been a great change in the inten-
stant or unchanged even different places. It
in
sity of light reflected from it at different times
ptual const ancy that we happen to
is only on account of this perce
of white in broad day-
perceive a white wall to be the same shade
eveni ng. Strictly in the real
light as in the pale or dim light of the tion the wall must
phen omen on of light sensa
sense, according to the day-light but the
in bright
be perceived darker in the evening than ive it as of the same
makes us perce
brightness or colour constancy
intensity of illumination. This
brightness or colour irrespective of the with the colour or brightness
is simply on account of our familiarity
observe colour or brightness
of the wall and this adaptation makes us
constancy for the varying intensities of light reflected from it at differ-
ent timings of the day.
All these types of perceptual consmana tancy play a key role in making
the world quite unde rsta ndab le and geable for our harmonious
happened to us in the absence
adjustment. Imagine what would haveworld of ours would have been
of this natural gift. Then for us this
degrees of brightness and colour.
a confusing barrage of shapes, sizes,
of shapes sizes and colours etc.»
With the changed positions in terms
the perception of the objec ts woul d have been utterly confusing
vehicle. But by the will
leading to road accidents while driving a
cons tanc y base d in our previous
of God, we enjoy perceptual
y with the perceived objects that
experience, knowledge and familiarit information in a stable and
help our brain to interpret the sens ory
unde rsta ndin g and manipulating it properly
unchanging manner for
to good advantage.
Perception of space
lem of three dimensional
Perception of space involves theof prob
spac e an object in the environ-
perception. In visual percepti on
relationships to the viewer,
ment is to be perceived in terms of three distance or depth (near-far).
t) and
height (up-down), width (left-righ images are to be projected is flat.
The retina on which all our visual
has no depth. The
It has but two dimensions, height and width; it
ge objects in the third dimen-
question arises then, how can we mana on acco unt of some specific
sion, depth or distance. It is poss ible
visual cues that he!p us to respond accu rately to the direction,
t. Thes e cues that help effec-
distance and depth of a perceived objec
perception are divided into two
tively in the distance and depth
binocular cues.
classes—monocular cues and
derived from
Visual monocular cues are those cues that have been effective even
eye, OF monocu lar vision i.e., they are
vision with one
if one eye is closed. In contrast to visual monocular cues, visual
with both
binocular cues, require binocular vision i.e., the vision
eyes. Let as now discuss the role of both types of visual cues.
Visual monocular cues
There exists a number of visual
distance perception. monocular cues to depth and
A few important ones are as
below.
1. Relative size : An important
monocular cue for the percepti
on
smaller on the retina than thos

e of objects close at hand. This
decrease in the size of retinal relative
image can be effectively used
for the judgement of distance as a cue
roof of a multistorey building and depth. While viewing
or window of a flying airplane from the
of the known stimuli, buses or the size
othe
of the relative distance. Similarl r objects can provide us the idea
y when we observe some pain
picture of an artist, the
cue for the perception of
ting or
vided with the help of relative distance is pro-
size. Here one person shown
farther away than the other as being
is depicted by reducing his
size and
another object lying in the same

cue, the first object that cuts off the line of vision. As a result of this
being closer and the othe view of the other is perceived as
r one as more distant.
cue to depth and distance. The classic examples of such
perception
converge the greater is

our impression of the
distance.
4. Light and sh,
Shadow giving Perceptio

n of the distance
Fig.8.9.
Shadowing may also help in the perception of a three dimensional

figure out of a two dimensional drawing. For example, the distribu-
tion of shadows and lights on the surface of a moon, ball or globe is
able to provide them a three dimensional quality. We may thus
perceive several craters or mounds on the surface of the moon and
may add the perception of depth and distance to the ball or globe
instead of perceiving them as some round object like flat disc
(Fig. 8.10).
Perception of
depth through shadowing
Fig. 8.10.
5. Texture gradient: A texture gradient may provide us with a

good cue to physical distance and to depth. While the more densely
packed and finer textures give the perception of distance, the spaced,
or rough textures give perception of nearness. In other
detailed
the
words, the more dense the texture of a surface seems, the greater
distance or depth will be felt. For example when we look at any
(see
surface with regular linings such as shown in Fig. 8.11, or texture
Fig. 8.12) the figural presentation becomes denser as distance
increases.
6. Accommodation: Movement of our eye muscles to bring desir-
able changes in the shape of the eye lens (rounder or flatter) in
accordance with the distance of the objects (nearer or farther away)
in the field of vision is termed as accommodation. This change in the
shape ofthe lens on account of the phenomenon of accommodation the
in
produces Kinesthetic sensations in terms of muscular tension
muscles of the eye. We usually feel some eye muscle strain in focus-
sing on a nearby object but little muscle strain when we focus on
something far away. The degree of the intensity of muscle pain
or
lack of it, thus, may provide a good cue for the estimation of depth
or distance.
Textural density gradient Producing

the appearance of depth
Fig. 8.11.
Another example of
texture-density Gradient
s
Fig. 8.12.
7. Relative movement: In case we move our heads

from side to
side, the objects close to us are perceived
as moving very quickly and
those farther away are perceived as
much more slowly. Similarly in
our stationary position we perceive
fast Moving objects as being
closer than slow moving objects. In case we
are riding in a train, bus
or car we may notice that the nearby trees
or telephone poles seem to
pass through our vision very rapidly, while distan
seem to move fairly slowly. All these examp t hills and buildings
les are concerned with
the relative movement of the observer and the objects.
It gives birth
117
Perception and Illusion
rent motion of the
to a phenomeno n of motion parallex, the appa
observer, which provides us
objects with regard to the position of an distances of the objects.
some very important cues to depth and
Binocular cues
often provides more impor-
Binocular vision req uiring both eyes We
distance or depth perception. dis-
tant cues than monocula r vision in bin ocular cues naming Reti nal
will here discuss two important
parity and Convergence. and
at an object first with one eye
Retinal disparity: If we look an identical image. This disparity
not see
then with the other, we do disparity. Our eyes are set our left
approxi-
kno wn as reti nal
in images is head. While loo kin g thr oug h
mately 2} inches apart in our the
an obje ct is seen slightly to the left where with per-
eye, the image of Yet, whe n we
seen slightly to the right.
help of our right eye it is is perceived. This
ve an obj ect wit h bot h eyes, a single fused image ortant cue to
‘cei the brain, provides us an imp
fusion that takes place in ens ion ali ty.
the object’s three dim
distance or to depth; or of
distance and
ortant binocular cue to
Convergence: Another imp trolling the convergence of the eyes.
s con
«depth is given by the muscle le looking at a distant object,
the lines of
We can not ice that whi ught nearer
parallel. As the obj ect is bro
of our eyes are alm ost ect in
vision eyes ‘converge’ upon the abjimages
(within 40 or 50 feet), both our clos e, the two
, the object is too
order to focus it. In case
bec aus e the eyes refuse to converse.
remain separate
by the eye muscles.
vergence is controlled
The phenomenon of con ies wit h the degree of conver-
cle movement var
The degree of eye mus hetic sensations serves
iat ion resulting in the Kinest
gence and this var th cue in the perception of objects in space.
-as distance and dep a
tance and depth of
dis
tion: For judging the on the visual senses.
Auditory Space Percep sol ely de pe nd up
do not y a
the objects in space, Wese of smell and hearing etc., can also pla
‘Other senses like sen ion. This
the perce
role inperso
leading blind ption of distance, depth and direct
auditory sense
is why ns; while depending much on their tion and
good perception of depth, direc
may be found to have a very ately to the direc tion and
to respond accur
distance. They are able l perce ption ,
ory perception, like visua
distance of asound. In audit aural cues (requ iring heari ng
we may have two types of cues—mon the
along ) and binau ral cues (requiring hearing by both
by one ear the use of one ear alone
ears). While in the perception of distance, we need
in the perception of direction
(monaural cues) is enough,
ral cues).
both ears (binau
of distance n as loud-
Perception
na ur al cu es to distance are know
ant mo
The two importand echolocation.
ness of the sound
118
General Psychology
Loudness of the sound Provid
distance es cues for the judgement
of an object. Loud sound of the
gives cues for nearby objects.
estimation of the distance.

In such cases as roaring jet
telephones, thunderin. g
clouds, whistl
. . planes , rin ging
degree of the loudness ing traifns, we <4 can visu
. .
expected from these sou alise the

their distance and are thu rces in relation to-
s able to estimate the dis
tance of the source
or this purpose, they

surface as they walk. Org usually tap their canes against the ground
use of this phenomenon anisms like bats and dolphins also make
distances by avoiding
for locating their foods and
the obstacles in their covering the:
paths.
Perception of dire
ction
_, The cues with regard to
vided with the binaural cue the direction of the sound source is pro-
difference cues, s like time difference cue
s and intensity
Time difference cues help us
the sound source. to judge the left or right dir
Si ection of
Sides of our head, a sou
Teach
nd wav e coming from either
one ear before it reaches side is bound to
the oth er. This time difference
In this way, the joint

us, to a great extent, efforts of monaural
to localize sounds in and binaural cues
Space in terms of dis help
tance
head at an angle. In
addition to this, the pas
also play a key role in
estimating the location t learning experiences
of a sound source. For
or thun-
example
1 whe n we listen to the sound of a roaring jet plane
dering clouds we tend to look up by raisin g our heads. This experi-
with the moveme nt of our head and monaura l as well
ence coupled
as binaural cues provide us with a remarkable ability to locate the
source of the sounds in space.
Perceptual illusions
dgement or false percep-
_ Perceptual illusions represent gross misju is
tion. The sensory informatio n received by our sensory receptors
gh the process of percep-
interpreted and given some meaning throu so that the resulting
tion. Somet imes this inter preta tion goes wrong
Such false perception or
perception fails to correspond with reality. mation are called per-
senso ry infor
gross misinterpretation of the ¢
ceptual illusions.
nature and characteristics.
_ Perceptual illusions differ in their of princ iples for explain-
sets
Different illusions often have different to examine a few well known
ing the cause of illusion. Let us try
types of illusions.
false perception of
Illusions of size: Illusion of this type provides
exam ple footba ll in the : hands ofa
the size of the objects. For a
the hand s of an adult
child may be perceived larger than one in same size in both
all is virtu ally the
despite the fact that the footbtends to appear much large r when it
Situations. Similarly, the moon . In all such cases,
tly over head
is on the horizon than when it is direc in the frame of reference
illusion is caused on account of the change s the objects,
A larger background alwa ys make
or background. in comp aris on to a smaller
small er
in its frame of reference, look fact may
be perceived as larger. This below in
background where they will through as depicted
the illusions such
also be verified
Fig. 8.13.
E E ee ie
illusion of size
Fig. 8.13.
Can you tell which of the centre crcles in the above figure is
larger? Although both of these circles are the same size, the one
on
the left looks larger. It is also due to the misleading impact of
the
smaller and larger backgrounds.
Illusions of Length: Look at the Fig. 8.14, which of the two
lines
in this figure is longer? Although both these lines are identica
l, yet
the bottom line is perceived as longer. This is the famous
Miiller -Lyer
illusion. It is caused on account of our interpretation
of angles at the
ends of the lines as Perspective cues.
illusion of length : Miiller-Lyer illusion
Fig. 8.14,
Illusions of Perspective: Look at the Fig.

rectangular pieces kept between the 8.15, which of the two
railroad tracks is larger in size?
Although both of these Pieces are identical,
yet, the top one looks
Illusion of perspective : Ponzo Illusion
Fig. 8.15.
longer than the bottom one. This is the famous Ponzo illusion. [t
caused on account of misleading perspective cue as we is
hasten to add
rectangular piece
a third dimension (depth) to the stimulus. The top i
thus, looks larger simply becaus e it appear s to be farther away.
two hori-
Illusions of Curvature: Look at the Fig. 8.16, are the
lines straigh t and paralle l? Althou gh these lines are actually
zontal
You may find it
straight and parallel, yet they appear to be bowed.
, even if you are
impossible to perceive them as straight and parallel
J
Ilusion of curvature
Fig. 8.16.
e are supposed | to be the

told the truth. Such ill usions of curvaturency to over-estimate acute
result of eye movements a nd a tend
angles.
8.17, which of
The Horizontal-Vertica l Illusions: Look at the Fig. e vert vertic
icali and
longer? er? /Although both the
the two lines in the figure is th, the vert ical line is most
ly equal in leng
horizontal lines are physical
Horizontal verticalıllusion
Fig. 8.17
horizontal-vertical illusions mainly

often percmeive d as longer:our Such
field of visi on whi ch is gene rally that of
result fro the shape of
122
General Psychology
zontal line. The greater degree of

tal-vertical illusion resulting in the strain, thus felt may cause horizon-
perception of the vertical line as
longer.
Illusions of Movement: Quite ofte
n, we perceive movement whe
the objects, we are looking at, n
are actually not moving at
faulty perceptions are called all. Such
illusions of movement. One
illusion of
a room that is completely dark

except for a small spot of stat
light and stare at this light for ionary
a few seconds, the spot of ligh
t is
in such circumstances a slight

create a false perception of movement of our eye muscles
the movements of the spot may
-light.
A second type of illusion of
movement is created throug
i h induced
sun
motion. Here the cloud in fact remunder a cloud, it appears to be in
of the sky, the clou ains in motion. In the framework
ds are Percei
figure. On account of the figved as the ground and the sun as the
motion is induced and we get a ure-ground relationship, an apparent
is moving through the clo faulty perception that the sun (fig
uds (groun ure)
d).
Another type of illusion
menon of Stroboscopic mot
of movementis based on the pheno-
ion
usually perceived in movies —a kind of apparent or false motion
and television. On the scre
ens of movie
Stroboscopic motion is also

menon, called phi-phenomen responsible for an illusory phen
on o-
covered This phenomenon was first
and successfully demonstrated dis-
psychologist, in 1912 by a German Gestalt
Max Wertheimer. He showed that if two short
lines of light are projected one para
intervals between 30 and
cent imeter apart in a dark room llel
200 thous indths of a second, at
perceived as moving from one the light is
position to the other. In our
we often come across such
illusory mov
daily life
perceive movements in the ements such as when we
stat ionary neon signs on an
board where words appear to mov e from one end of the boar advertising
other as different combinations d to the
of stationary lights are flashed on
off. and
SUMMARY
‚Perception is a highly individualiz

helps an organism in organising and ed psychological process that
interpreting the complex
patterns of sensory stimulation for giving them the necessary mean-

ing to initiate his behavioural response.
Perception, thus, is concerned with the task of organising environ-
mental stimuli into some meaningful patterns or wholes according
to certain principles. Psychologists have discovered over hundred
principles or laws concerning the perceptual organisation. The Princi-
ple of Figure ground relationship stands for the perception of a figure
in relationship to its background. Principle of closure describes the
tendency to complete or close aa incomplete pattern. Principle of
grouping refers to the tendency to perceive the stimuli by grouping
them on the basis of similarity, proximity and continuity. Principle
of simplicity advocates perceiving the simplest possible pattern.
Principle of contour asks for the degree of the quality of the contour,
mean-
Separating figure from ground. Principle of context demands a
stimulus appears.
ingful change in the setting in which a perceived
the contrast effects in
Principle of contrast lays emphasis on care of
that we
Perceptual organisation and Principle of adaptation advocates
develop an adaptation level that acts as a standard by which we judge
Perceptual constancy refers to a tendency to
or compare stimuli. (despite
perceive the stimuli as relatively stable and unchanging
in the form of shape
Changing sensory images). Constancy can occur
(shape constancy), size (size constancy) and colour (colour cons-
tancy).
Perception of space: Perception of space involves the problem of
perception i.e., height, width and depth or
three dimensional
distance
distance. In visual perception we can perceive depth or
or binocular cues (requiring.
through monocular cues (from one eye) or distance include
both eyes). Visual monocular cues to depth light and shadows,
Telative size, interposition, linear perspective, movement. In bino-
texture gradient, accommodation and relative
and convergence.
cular cues we include cues like retinal disparity
can
depth of the objects in space, one etc.,
In judging the distance andlike sense of smell and hear ing
rely on other sensory systems
e perception, the perception
besides his visual senses. In auditory spacugh monaural cues (requiring
of distance may be carri ed out only thro
and echolocation. However in the
one ear) like loudness of the sound
perception of direction of the soun sourcd e, binaural cues (requiring
time diffe rence and inten sity difference are needed.
both ears) like
percep-
7 'usions represent gross misjudgement or false
pa en information. Illusions of size provides false per-
nt of the
ception of the size of the objects. It is caused on accou
Change in the frame of refer ence or backg round . Jllusi ons of length
on accou nt of our interpre-
like famous Miiller-Lyer illusion 1s caused Illusi on of
tation of angles at the ends of the lines as persp ectiv e cues.
perspective like famous ‘‘Ponzo illusion” is caused on account of
e. Illusions of curvature are supposed to be
misleadi
ading persp! ective cu i
ts and a tendency to over estimate acute
resulted from eye movements illusions
7. result from the shape of our
angles The horizontal-Vertical
field of vision which is generally that of a horizontal ellipse. Z/lusion

of movement involves the perception of movement in objects s
that are
actually standing still. The autokinetic illusion refers to the apparent
motion created by a single stationary object. A second type
of illusory
movement is created through induced motion produced by the false
perception of figure-ground relationship. Another type of
illusion of
moveme nt is based on the phenomenon of Stroboscopic
kind of apparent motion usually perceived in movies motion—a
and television.
Stroboscopic motion is also responsible for an illusory
phenomenon,
known as phi phenomenon e.g., perception of an apparent moveme
in the stationary neon Signs on an advertising board.
nt
Bartog S.H., Principles of Perception (2nd ed.), New

69.
York: Harper& Row.
Beadslee, D. and Wertheimer, M., Readings in Perception, Princeton:
trand, 1958. Van Nos-
Boring, E.G., Langfield, H.S. and Weld, H.P.
(Ed.), Foundations of Psychology,
New York: John Wiley, 1948.
Desiderato, O., Howieson. D.B. and Jackso
n J.H., Investigating Behaviour—
Principles of Psychology,
New York: Harper & Row, 1976.
Fantino, Edmund and Renold, G.S.,
San Francisco: W.H, Freeman & Introdu ction to Contemporary Psychology,
Co; 1975
Gibson, E.J., Principles of Perceptual Learning and
App leton-century-crofts, Development, New York:
1969.
‘Gombrich, E.H., Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology
tation (4th ed.), London: Phaidon, 1972. of Pictorial Presen-
rR Ee Eye and Brain: The Psychology of Seeing, New York: McGraw
ul, fe
‘Gregory R.L. and Gombrich, E.H.,
Illusion in Nature and Art, New York:
Scribners, 1974.
Kaufman, L.; Sight and Sound, New
York: Oxford University Press, 1974,
Machlis, J: The Enjoyment of Music (3rd
Ed ), New York: Norton, 1970.
'Melzack, R., The Puzzle of Pain, New
York: Basic Books, 1973,
Moris Chorles G., Psychology (3rd Ed.) Englewood
all, A
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
Rock, I; An Introduction to Perception
, New York: Macmillan, 1975.
‘Silverman, R.E., Essentials of Psychology
Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1979. (2nd ed.), Engl d Cliffs, New
Brewood Cus, No
“Weintraub, D. and Walker, E.L,; Perce
ption, Belmont Calif: Brooks Cole, 1966.
9
THINKING, REASONING AND
PROBLEM-SOLVING
reasoning and problem-

The cognitive abilities like thinking, characteristics of
solving may be considered as some of the chief es including higher
from other speci
human beings that separate them poetr y, a highly deve-
animals. What we see in the form of a good a magnificent
, a beautiful paint ing,
loped computer machine or robotthe think ing, reaso ning and problem-
building are the produ cts of
. Not only that but
individual, or society in
The challenges and pr oblems faced by the ous efforts involving
be -solved through some seri
general, may and reas onin g powers may thus be
thinking and reasoning. Thin king
al as
for the welfare of the individu
considered as an essential tool ent chapter we will try to know some-
well as the society. Int he pres problem-solving
thing about the process © f thinking, reasoning and
behaviour of human beings.
THINKING
ly complex process and

Thinking is an incredib
Define Thinking : t in psychology to define or explain. However,
ep
a most difficult conc t no st one unturn T ed in their quest for achieving
th in ke rs ha ve lef ming up . with dozens of
the succeeded in co
resu lts, and
have . .
of a few such
some
eren t defin ition s. Let us begin with the reproduction
diff
definitions.
discussion it is wellcontoneckee p
Valentine : “In strictvity psychological ts ly a ted
an. acti W]hich con sis ess ent ial cf
ead br pape ”
the thinking for ich are directed towards some
flow of ideas wh
(1965, p. 278)-
:g is mental activity in its cognitive aspect’
Ross : «Thinkin ith regard to- psychological objects. P1951,
ment al ac ti vi ty w
p. 196-97).
126
General Psychology
Garrett: “Thinking is behaviour which
hidden and in which symbols (images, is often implicit and
ideas, concepts) are ordinarily
employed (1968. p. 378).
Mohsin : “Thinking is an implicit
problem-solving behaviour”
(1967 p. 117).
Gilmer : “Thinking is a problem-solving process in which we
use ideas or symbols in place of
overt activity” (1970 p. 326).
Definitions like the above may be divid
ed into two categories.
In the first category we have
thinking is a process of internal the definitions which maintain that
(belonging to past, present
representation of external events
or future). We may think about a thing
Process used in problem-solving

behaviour. Therefore in a workable
definition of ‘thinking’ we must try to combine
with the product of thinking (the internal behaviour
aims or Purposes of thinking).
such a case, we may define thinking as belo In
w s
“Thinking refers to a pattern of
behaviour in which we make
of internal representations (sym use
events for the solution of some bols , signs etc.) of the things and
specific purposeful problem.”
Nature of thinkin g
The meaning of the term ‘thi
pages is further elucidated in the nking’ as discussed in the preceding
following lines :
(i) Thinking is essentially a cognitiv
e activity.
(ii) It is always directed to
achieve Some end or purpose.
genuine thinking we cannot let In
our thoughts wonder on with
out any definite end in mind as -
happens in the case of day-
dreaming and imagination.
Thinking, Reasoning and Problem-Solving 127
(iii) Thinking is described as a problem-solving behaviour. From

the beginning to the end, there is some problem around which
the whole process of thinking revolves. But every problem-
solving behaviour is not thinking. It is only related to the
inner cognitive behaviour.
(iv) In thinking there is mental exploration instead of motor
exploration. One has to suspend immediately one’s overt or
motor activities while engaging in thinking through some or
other types of mental exploration.
is a mental
(v) Thinking is a symbolic activity. In thinking there
throug h some
soluti on of the probl em which is carrie d out
signs, symbols, and mental images.
an expanse of time
(vi) Thinking can shift very rapidly, covering
and space almos t insta ntane ously .
king)
Elements of thought (Tools of Thin
ss may be
The various elements involved in the thinking proce rely on
ised as under. In the process of think ing we usually
summar
these clements or tools.
st of personal experi-
1. Images : Images, as mind pictures, consi or felt.
ences of objects, persons or scenes once actually seen, heard
res symb olis e the actua l objec ts, exper ience s and
These mind pictu inste ad of
te the image s
activities. In thinking, we usually manipula
actual objects, experiences or activitie s.
idea’ that stands for a gene-
2. Concepts : A concept is a ‘generalproperty of all the objects, or
ral class and represents the common
epts as a tool economise our
events of this general class. The conc
we listen to the word ‘elephant
efforts in thinking. For example when
not only abou t the nature and qualities of
we are at once reminded part icul ar experiences and under-
the elephants as a class but also our sness that stimulate our
our cons ciou
Standing about them emerge from
present thinking.
and signs represent ta and stand
3. Symbols and Signs: Symbols exper iente saa PENE In this
as substitutes for actual object s, als
and mathe matic al numer
sen ot be confined to words
se they cann rai lwa y sig nal s, s
school bells,s badges, songs,
and terms. Traffic lights for the symbolic expression. These
sym-
flags, and slogans all stand
bol ; timulate and economise thinking. They at once tell us
Se TAMET ibe to act. For example, the waiving of the green
flag by the guard tells us that the train is about to move and we should
get in the train. Similarly, the mathematical symbol for subtraction
(—) childWeld
tells aatid has to do.
whatforheemphasiz The conclusion drawn by Boring,
ing the role of symbols and signs
Langfield
into the process of thinking is worth mentioning. They write
“Symbols and Signs are thus seentobe the pawn and pieces with
A at game O f thinking is played. It could
= not be such a
be successful game without them” (1961,p. 199.)
128
General Psychology
4. Language: Language is the most efficient
and developed vehicle
used for carrying out the process of thinking.
When one listens or
reads or writes words, phrases or sentences or
language, one is stimulated to think. Readiobserves gesture in any
written documents ng and writing of the
and literature also help in stimulating
promoting our thinking process. and
5. Muscle activities. Thinking in
one way or the other shows
evidence ofthe involvement of a slight
incipient movement of groups
of our muscles. It can be easily noticed
responses when we think ofa word, resethat there are slight muscular
when we utter the word aloud. A mbling the movements used
high positive correlation has been
found to exist between the thinking
and
individual. The more we engage ourselve muscular activities of an
s in thought, the greater is
the general muscular tension and conv
ersely as we proceed toward
muscular relaxation, our thought
processes gradually diminish.
_ 6. Brain Functions: Whatever may be the
4s Primarily a function of our brain.
role of muscles, thinking
Our mind or brain is said to be
Role of rigidity, set, direction

and interest in thinking
Set may be inferred either to a kind
are used to perceiving certain situations. of habit or to the way we
Our
problem-solving behaviour are all largely affec thinking, reasoning and
ted through the induce-
ment of sets. What goes previously in
our Perception or experience
makes the base for our present and
future thinking. We just do not
want to deviate from this already
set path of our thinking and this
Causes a lot of rigidity in our behaviour.
As a result, we just do not
want to be bothered with methods,
select the same path (decided on the facts or new ideas. We always
same likes or dislikes, biased or basis of previous set), have the
over simplified ways of thinking
reasoning and problem-solving. The
previous experiences, surely interfere set that has been gained from
with subsequent thinking behav-
iour. This reliance on a set way of think
interferes with the thoughtful consi ing and habitual solution
deration of potential solution that
is required for effective problem-solving.
of one’s endeavour. In brief, inductio It mars the creative aspect
proce
n of a set in our thinking
ss which may help us in initiating
some constructive thinking,
after dependence on the set, leading to Tigid
habit of thinking (fixa-
tion of the thinking behaviour) may kill the
poten
problem-solving and creativity in our behaviour, tiality for effective
Thinking, Reasoning and Problem-solving 129
The sets induced in our process of thinking are quite often the
result of our interests, directions, purposes and goals of our accom-
plishments. How we should think, reason or engage in problem-solving
can be understood and predicted, if one has a proper knowledge of our
interests, attitudes, emotionality and goals of our life. One can think
and reason within his own limits and these limits, tẹ a certain extent,
are provided by the previous experiences in the form of sets, habits,
interests and attitudes. This provides the foundation as well as the
circumscribed boundaries in some cases for our thinking. It is both a
boon or curse for our thinking, reasoning and problem-solving
behaviour. It is a boon when the set procedures provide us with a lot
of freedom and incentives in the form of various directives, alterna-
tives and consequences; it is a curse when they bring rigidity and
persistence in our ways of thinking by reducing the alternatives and
Choice of direction. [t ma y then lead to a stereotype behaviour,
destroys our initiative and potential
rigid thinking and completely
for adequate problem-solving and creativity.
Types of thinking
into the follow-
Thinking, as a mental process, is usually classified
ing types:
st form of
1. Perceptual or concrete thinking: It is the simple tion i.e., inter-
thinking. The basis of this type of thinki ng is percep
experi ence. It is also named
pretation of sensation according to one’s
perception of actual or
as concrete thinking as it is carried over the
concrete objects and events.
ptual thinking it
2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking: Like perce
ption of actual object s or events. It is an
does not require the perce ts; the generalised
abstract thinking where one makes use of concep
is regar ded as a superi or type of thinking to
ideas and language. It under standing and
in
Perceptual thinking as it economiz es efforts
Problem-solving. r
higher |form of think-
tive Thinking: It is somewhat of a higher
3. Reflec
simple thinking in the following
ing. It A be distinguished from
ways:
at solving complex problems rather than simple
(i) It aims
problems.
the relevant experiences and
(ii) It requires re-organisation of all
finding new ways of react ing to a situation or of removing an
n of experiences or ideas.
obstacle instead of simple associatio
not undergo any
does The t-
(iii) Mental activity in drefle ctive thinking
or typ e of ef fo rt . re is an insigh
tri al an err
mechanical reflective thinking.
ful cognitive approach in are
account in which all the relevant facts
(iv) It takes logic L into
logi cal order, in order to get to the soluti
on of
arra ng e d in a
hand.
the problem in
+130
General Psychology
4. Creative Thinking: This type of thinking is chiefl
Creating something new. It is in search y aimed at
of new relationship and
associations to describe and interpret the
nature
situations. It is not bound by any pre-establishedof things, events and
rules. The indivi-
dual himself, usually, formulates the problem
and he is free to collect
evidence and to invent tools for
its solution. The thinking of tke
scientists or inventors is an examp
le of creative thinking.
5. Non-direcied or Associative
Thinking: In strict psychologica
sense, what we have discussed above in term l
of thinking constitutes real or genuine s of the type or categories
directed thinking whic thinking. It is essentially a
h pertains to reasoning and prob
procedures aimed at meeting specific lem-solving
when we find ourselves engaged in a goals . However, there are times
unique
non-directed and without goals. It is reflected type of thinking which is
through day-dreaming,
dreaming, free associations, fantasy, delu
sions and other flowing
uncontrolled activities. In Psychologica
thought are referred to as associativ
l language such forms of
e thinking.
Day-
dreaming, fantasy and delusion
withdrawal behaviour that helps an s indivi
all fall in the category of
dual to escape from the
demands of the real world by makin
free-floating (placing hi
g
cannot be expressed in actual

behaviour. It
dual to seek retirement from
his duties an
Prov! ief from harsh realities

L tensions and
aggression. external
Delusions,
characterising abnormality in b
ed as persistent thoughts or false beliefs which ehaviour, may be defin-
vigorously by believing them h the individual defends
to be absolutely true despite logica
absurdity or proof to the contrary, l
and despite their serious interfer-
ence with his social adjustment.
The
delusions never stand for the correctionin individuals suffering from
their thoughts or beliefs
(which have no basis in reality and are often
individual’s Inconsistent with the
knowledge and experience) by an appeal to reason
.
Thinking, Reasoning and Problem-solving 131
Under the influence of such delusions one may think or believe that
he is a millionaire, the ruler of the universe, a great inventor, a noted
historian or even God. On the contrary, he may think himself the
most incapable, unworthy or insecure creature in the world or may
unnecessarily possess guilt feelings or complain that he is suffering
from some incurable physical or mental disease.
REASONING
Meaning and definition

environ-
Reasoning plays a significant role in adjusting to one’s
ment. It not only controls one’s cognitive activities, but also the
total behaviour and personality is affected by the proper or improper
essentially a cognitive
development of one’s reasoning ability. It is
ability and resembles thinking in so many aspects such as:
or goal.
(i) Like genuine thinking, it involves a definite purpose
problem-solving
(ii) It is also an implicit act and involves
behaviour.
previous know-
(iii) Like thinking here one makes use of one’s
ledge and experi ences.
instead of motor
(iv) Like thinking there is mental exploration mentally the
_explore
exploration in reasoning as we try to
reason or cause of an event or happening.
ly symbolic function. The
(v) Like thinking, reasoning is a high development of concepts
ability to interpret various symbols, in reasoning.
and linguistic ability helps much
nce, it becomes difficult to
On account of the above resembla oning. However, reasoning is
distinguish between thinking and reas
prod uctive and advanced stage in
said to be a typical thinking—a it
the complex process of one’s thin king. In comparison with thinking s
comp lex ment al proc ess that need
is regarded as a more serious and on
requires some deliberate efforts
a well organised brain. It also reas ons.
the part of the individual who
ns given by some eminent scholars can
The following definitio ing an d nature of process of reasoning.
throw more light on the mean
with a purpose or goal
Garrett: “Reasoning is step-wise thinking
in mind (1968. p- 353)- plied to highly purposeful con-
Gates: “Reasoning is the term ap ).
king (1947, p. 428
trolled selective thin
as onin g, ite msboth(fa cts or mbpri nciples) furnisheedd
Wo od wo rt h: “I n re
ob se rv at io n or ; are co in ed and examin
by recall, present, ,
‘to see what conclusion can be drawn from the combination (1945
p. 523).
Skinner: “Reasoning is the word used to describe the

meatal
recognition of cause-and-effect relationships. It may be the predic-
tion of an event from an observed cause or the inference of a cause
from an observed event”. (1968, p. 529).
Munn: “Reasoning is combining past experiences in order to solve
a problem which cannot be solved by mere reproduc
tion of earlier
solutions” (1967, p. 339).
A close analysis of the above definitions may reveal that reason-
ing depicts a higher type of thinking which is quite carefui, systemat
ic
and organised in its functioning. It may
follow some logical syste-
matic steps as under:
(i) Identification of the goal or purposes for which reasoning
is
to be directed.
(ii) The mental exploration or search for the various possibilities,
cause and effect relationships or solutions for realising
set goal or purposes the
based on previous learning or experi-
ences and present observations or attempts.
(iii) Selection of the most appropriate possibility or solution
careful mental analysis of all the available
by
alternatives.
(iv) Testing the validity of the selected possibility
or solution,
purely through mental exercise and
thus finally accept of
reject it for the actual solution of
the problem.
_ Reasoning in this way may be termed as a highly
thinking which helps an individual to explore mental specialized
effect relati ly the cause and
onship of an event or solution of a problem
some well organised systematic steps based by adopting
on previous experiences
combined with the present observ ation.
Types of reasoning
Reasoning may be classified into two broad types—Inductive
reasoning and Deductive reasoning.
Inductive Reasoning: In this type of reasoning
we usually follow
the process of induction. Induction is a way of provi
ng a statement
or generalizing a rule or principle by provi
Statement
ng or showing that if a
or a rule is true in one particular
cases which appear in some serial order and case, it will be true in
thus it may be applied
generally to ail such type of cases.
Therefore, by starting from parti-
cular facts or special examples „and insta nces one can formulate
generalized principles and conclusions in this type
example the following are inductive, reasoning: of reasoning. For
(1) Mohan is mortal; Radha is mortal; Karim is mortal;

Edward
is mortal. Therefore, all human beings are
mortal,
(2) Iron expands when heated; water also expan
air also expands
ds when heated:
when heated Therefore, all types of
miatter—solid, liquid and gas—expand when
heated.
133
Thinking, Reasoning and Problem-solving
_ Deductive Reasoning: Deductive reasoning is just opposite to

ng with some
inductive reasoning. Here one starts completely agreei principle and
hed genera lized fact or
already discovered or pre-establis e the following are
tries to apply it to particular cases. For exampl
deductive reasoning:
being and,
(1) All human beings are mortal; you are a human
therefore, you are mortal.
a form of matter and
(2) Matter expands when heated; iron is
thus expands when heated .
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Meaning and definition

this world is faced with some
From birth onwards, everybody in
needs and motives that are to be
problem or the other. There are ite goals or aims are set. In an
satisfied. For this purpose defin
cles and interferences.
attempt to realise them one experiences obsta
h need s serious attention and
It creates a problem for him whic come the obsta cle or interference
deliberate effort on his part to over
For this purp ose one has to set
in the attainment of the objectives. eed syste matic ally in a scientific
one-self to think and reason and proc
manner.
discussed above is known as
The productive work as a whole
very useful for the progress of an
problem-solving. It has been found meaning and nature of this term
individual as well as of society. The
following definitions.
is made clearer still through the
-solving behaviour occurs in
Woodworth and Marquis: “Problem solution is not | obtainable by
h a
novel or difficult situations in whic
ying concepts and principles derived
tual met hod s of appl
iar situations.” > (1948, p. 623).
the habi
from past experience in very famil
es
process of overcoming difficulti
Skinner: “Problem-solving is a inment ofa goal. It is a proce-
atta
that appear to interfere with the e of interferences”. (1968, p. 539).
stme nt in spit
dure of making adju s into
ons bring the following fact
Analysis of the above definiti and natu re of pro blem-
the lime-light with regard to the meaning
solving behaviour. the set
s needs and realisation of
(i) In the satisfaction of one’ aviour arises only when (a) the
goals, problem-solving beh l for the individual,
goal is quite purposeful and essentia realization of this
rfer ence in the
(b) there is serious inte acle can not be overcome
goal, (c) this interference Or obst trial and error
by simple habitual acts or mechanical
methods.
ing and reasoning
(ii) The individual has to, utilise his think
l work (by following
powers and engage in serious menta
some well organised systematic scientific steps) for the
removal of the difficulties and obstacles.
134
General Psychology”
(iii) The problem-solving behaviour involves quite deliber
ate con-
scious and serious efforts on the part of the problem-solv
er.
(iv) Problem-solving behaviour helps in the removal or adinstmen!
with interferences and ultimately makes an individual reach
his goal and satisfaction of his motives.
©) Problem-solving behaviour helps an individual in the
growth
and development of his personality makin
g him happy and
wiser by getting him adequately adjusted. It also contri
butes
a lot towards the progress and development
of society.
Thinking on the above lines, prob
lem-
understood as a deliberate and serious actsolving behaviour can _be
on the part of an indivi-
dual to realise the set goals or objectives by inve
nting some novel,
methods or following some systematic scien
tific steps when the simple
methods like trial and error, habit formation and
conditioning fails
to remove the interferences and obstacles that
stand in the path of
the realization of these goals.
Scientific method of proble

m-solving
The question arises, what is that scientific
procedure which is-
followed in a problem-solving behaviour. Let us
matic steps. describe its syste-
l. Problem-awareness: The first step in
beha iour of an individual concerns the problem-solving
his aware
problem that needs a solution. He must be conf ness of the difficulty or
obstacle or interference in the path of the ronted with some
realization of his needs or
motives and consequently he must be consc
ious of the felt difficulty
or problem.
3. Collectian of the relevant information:

In this step, the indivi-
ant information about the
may consult experienced
i his old experiences, think
1 efforts for widening the
scope of his knowledge concernin
g the problem in hand.
4. Formulation of hypotheses or hunch
for possible solutions: In
the light of the collected relevant
information and nature of his.
problem, one may then engage in sonte
think of the various possibilities for
serious cognitive activities to
the Solution of one’s problem.
As a result, he may start with a few possible
solutions of his problem.
Thinking, Reasoning and Problems-olving 135
5. Selection of aproper solution: In this important step; ali the

possible solutions, thought of in the previous step, are closely.
analysed and evaluated. Gates and others (1946) have suggested the
following activities in the evaluation of the assumed hypotheses or
solution:
:
(i) one should determine the conclusion that completely satisfies
the demands of the problem;
ent with
Gi) one should find out whether the solution is consist
princi ples which have been well establi shed;
other facts and
ve instances
(iii) one should make a deliberate search for negati
which might cast doubts on the concl usion .
to think of a
The above suggestions can help the individual many possible
em out of the
proper individual solution of his probl
his own discretion by
Solutions. But for all purposes he has to use proper identification of
utilizing his higher cognitive abilities for the
or soluti on by reject ing all other hypo-
the appropriate hypothesis
theses.
esis: The solution
6. Verification of the concluded solution or hypoth
verifi ed by utilising it
be furthe r
arrived at or conclusion drawn must case, the derived
us likewi se probl ems. In
in the solution of the vario then and then only,
solution helps in solving these likewise problems,ding the solution of his
one is free to agree with his findin gs regar
problem. The verified solution, may then become a useful product
behaviour that can be ulilized in solving
of his problem-solving
other future problems.
SUMMARY
r in which we make use

Thinking refers to a pattern of behasviou and events for the solution
thing
of internal representations of the
lems.
of some specific purposeful prob
Tools employed in the proc ess of thinking, generally consist of
experienced), concepts (categories
images (mind pictures of the stimuli signs (like+, and badges or flags),
for classifying stimuli). symbols and
r,
thinking in one way or the othe
and /anguage. In addition to this, of a sligh t incip ient movement
ent
produces evidence of the involvem s, guided and operated by
all mean
of groups of our muscles and by ly
itiv e areas of the brain . Moreover, our thinking is large
higher cogn or the way
of sets — (kind of habit
affected through the inducement ), These induced sets are quite
used to perc eive cert ain situa tions
directions and purposes. This set
often the results of our interests, of rigidity in our thinking beha
viour.
induction may result in a kind
: : Thinking, what we consider as genuine, may be classified into
conceptual thinking,
certain types like perceptual or concrete thinking, However we can also add
reflective name of thinking.
andthe creative
thinking in associate thinking, including day-
Peary. eee k
one more category !
dreaming. fantasy and illusions, which is non-directed and without
goals.
136
General Psychology
Reasoning is referred to a highly speci
some well organised systematic alized thinking involving
cause and effect relationship or steps for the mental exploration
of two types—inductive and deductive.solution of a problem. Reasoninof a
g
we make use of many experience While in inductive reasoningis
s and examples for arriv
generalized principle or
conclusion, in deductive ing ~ at s
start completely agreeing reasoning we ne
with some deduced results
try to apply it to particular or principles an
cases.
Problem-solving as a deliberate
of some novel methods, and serious act, involves the
use
higher thinki
may be identified as
collection of relevant
Problem awareness,
Selection of a proper information,
solution.

ted Readings
Bartlett, F., Thinking, New
York: Basic Books, 195
Boring E.C., Langfeld, H.S. 8.
and Weld, H.P, (ed.), Founda
(Indian Edi), New Yor
k: John
tion of Psychology,
Wiley, 1961.
Davis, G.A., Psycholog
y of Problem Solving,
Fentino, „E. and New York: Basic Books,
Reynol 1973.
© Francisco: W.H, Fre d, G., Introduction to Contemporary Psy
eman & Co 1975. chology, San
Garrett, H.E.; General Psychology
House, 1968. (Ind ian Edi.) , New Delhi: Eurasia Publishi
ng
Gates, A.G., Elementary Psychology
(Reprint), New York: Macmillan,
Gates, A.J. and 1947.
et. al., Educational Psycho
logy, New York: Macmil
Gilmer, B Vonhaller, Psy lan, 1947.
chology (International Edi)
Mohsin, S.M » Elementar , New York: Harper, 1970
y Psychology, Calcutta: Asia .
Munn, WL., An Intr Publishing House, 1967.
oduction to Psychology
(Indian Edi.) Delhi: Oxf
ord & IBH,
Ross, J.S., Ground of Educ
ational Psychology, Lon
1951. don: George G. Harrap &
Co
Skinner, C E. (Ed.); Esse
ntials of Educational Psyc
New Jersey: Prentice-Hal l, 1968. hology, Englewood, Cliff
s,
Valentine, C.W., Psy
chology and its Bearin
Language Book Society g on Education, Lon
& Methuen, 1965. don: The English
Vinacke, W.E, > The Psychology of
1974. Thinking (2nd ed.), New
York: McGraw-Hill,
Wertheimer, M , Productive Thin
king, New York: Harper, 1945
Woodworth R.S., Psychology, .
London: Methuen, 1945.
Woo dworth. R.S. and Marquis,
D.G., Psychology (Sth
Holt & Co., 1948, ed.), New York: Henry
10
MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR
What is motivation ?
learning cycling gets bruises and
while
We observe when a girl, practice.
e her performance by continued
Cuts but she goes on to improvseen to get up quite early in the morning
Similarly an athelete may be continued practice irrespective of
and regularly visit the field for his may be seen to burn midnight oil
dent
the odds of the seasons. A stu ent of
min ati on dra ws near er and nearer while another stud film
as the exa may be seen enjo ying the T.V.
the same class at the same time
with his frien ds.
or playing cards
ave in a
athlete and the students beh ‘why’
What makes the girl, the ted to
wer to such questions, rela
particular manner? The ans in the key wor d ‘mot ivation’. They do
lies
and ‘how’ of behaviour are motivated to do or behave in such
‘or behave because they ething which
may be regarded as som
manner. Motivation, thus vidu al to act or behave ina
mpt s, com pel s and ener gizes an indi e specific goal
pro icular time for attaining
som
particular fashion at a part which is responsible for the motivation
that
or purpose. But what is that push and
the real activating forces a specific goal?
Wha t are
of an individual. obt ain ing
move or act for
pull an individual to by naming these
e trie d to provide some answer Let us try to learn
Psychologists hav drives and moti ves.
activating forces as needs,
about them.
Needs
has to
j res.S Every. human being
wa s or desi
Needs are general want nee ds if he is to main tain and
u
action of his basic
strive for the satisf thi s wor ld.
himself in
actualize or enhance
of the individual needs.
Nothing can be said about the number
some scholars hold that the number of individual needs is
While has
infinite, others have provided a definite number, e.g. Murray r
In this text, for the sake of prope
given a list of thirty seven needs. to divide the human needs
understanding and clarity we would y,like Biolog ical needs and Socio-
into two broad categories, namel
needs.
psychological
tiyr
-A General Psychology
odily or organic needs fall into

i thiis
ategorized as under:
Br
gory of biologica! needs,
od. These needs are most we have neen ae
Survival and existe fundamenta
nce. Without them
we can hardly survive.
Gii) In the chaini of our survival X
of the biological nee A and exi; stence the other cate
ds includes needs ateg
g o
like:
(a) Need for rest
when tired
(b) Need for bein
g active when re
(c) Need for slee
sted.
p when deprived
of it for long.
(d) Need for regul
ar eli: mination of waste prod the
body. ucts from
(e) Need for having
an even internal body
(S) Nee temperature.
d for Protection from the
like hazards threats of physics al enviro
;
nm' ent
of weather, natura l A A
etc. calamities, wild imals
ani
eeds, we can place

ire to seek sex-expericn ong
survival of an individua ce i
.
atisfaction of which lies n
and well-being. Moreov
tial for a ha x beh er,
aviour is most
human species,ppy fa ntinuity and survival ofessen
the
are associated wi category of biological needs,
th we have needs
i of our senses, tnia
These sensory
stimulus variab
ility and mani
co nt act, Sensory st nee d
pulati imulation and
Socio-psychological
needs
Under this category
,
with the socio-cultural ween can list all those needs that are
vironment of associated
ial learning. Althou an individual, They are
acquired through soc
with the survival of gh such needs are not
the organism or linked
may lead to a psyc species, yet their
hological state seri de pr iv ation
ou
s for the sake ofsly affecting his survival and
welfare. These need
below: clarity may be classi
fied as
1. The need for freedo
possesses a craving for m or gaining independence: An individual
ind
independent as individua ependence. Nature has created us free
ls and requiresus to on and
all human beings have an
urge to remain free an ind
so. Therefore,
ependent,
139
Motivation of Behaviour
of us needs to feel secure not
2. The need for security: Every one ers but also fiom socio-
only to save himself from the physi cal dang
emotional, social and econo-
psychological angles he needs desirable
mical security for his well being.
y one of us irrespective of
3. The need for love and affection: Ever desire to love and be
a strong
age, caste, colour and creed have
loved. Depe ndin g upon one’s age and circumstances, it may vary in
of emot iona l cravig for the satisfaction
kinds and nature, but a sort
y by all living organisms.
of this need is exhibited universall
re to
y human being has a strong desidegree,
4. The need to achieve: Everlike money, fame, repu tati on,
achieve some or other things
goo d life part ner, spiritual attainment, etc.,
merit position, medals, the eyes of others but also for the
not only for raising his status in omplishment.
own acc
satisfaction he gets out of his
us has
social approval: Each one of
5. The need for recognitivn or gnition, appreciation and esteem at
reco
an inherent desire for gaining st may thus desire to be known for his
the hands of others. An arti re to be appreciated for her
beauty,
art, a young woman may desi an bein gs espe cially
keeping by fellow hum
good manners or house belo ngs. A stud ent may show
which she
the members of the group to students of his class and thus gaining
this desire in surpassing other or approval from his fellow stud
ents,
required social status, prestige
teachers and parents.
a social
y: Man is referred to as
6 The need for Social Compan urge to be with his own kind
has a strong
animal in the sense that he stre ngth of this
s with them. The real
and maintain social relation individuals who are faced with social
e
need can be felt by thosement.
rejection or sol ita ry con fin
inherent
on: Every one of us has an
7. The need for self-assertirule or dominate others. It may vary
to
desire to get an opportunity person but it is surely exhibited by all of
in inte nsit y fro m per son to ngth and status.
ns irrespective of age, stre r or children
us in one or other situatio par tne
juniors, servants, life
Some may show it to theirit towards their pet animals, birds, and even
while others may exhi bit rting oneself
thin gs like doll s or pictures This need of asse
inanimate that works as
motive called power motive
gives birth to an important s personality and behaviour.
one’
a strong determiner of
ion or self-actualization : We all have
8. The need for self-express exp ression of our self and actualization
cra vin g for the poet,
an inherent may havstr e a hidden
of our own potentialiti es. An individual hav ea ong desire to
and thu s may
in his self one wants to get
musician or painter or nutured. In this way
get his tal ent exh ibi ted elopment of his
the expression and dev
adequate opportunities for is not happy until
uently he strives for and
potentialities and, subseq ression and sel f-a ctu ali zation.
he gets opportunities for such exp
General Psychology
$
the satisf ; Ctivities to a goal that may bring pee
action of the need. The streng th ofa drive depends upo
volving the related nee
d.
into two categorie
or primary drives such as s.hunIn the a
drive. In the second cat ger, thirst,
ary drives such as fear or ego
OF approval, Striving for achiev
ry we have
ement, aggression and anxdep
iety, desire
endence”
© our physiological needs and
therefore
f imbalances in the body’s int
to be acquired through
ernal
func
with his socio-cultural ensocial learning as a result of one’s interaction
vironment. Th
isfaction of his So ese drives move an individual
to act for the Sat
turn proves as a rei cio-psychological
needs which ay
maintenance of the nforcer of the behaviour for the
behaviour. continuity an
l )
logical drives are gic
basically unlearne al or secondary drives or bio-
biologiea I needs d in nature. Th
as a result of ey arise from ou
homeostasis.i a bj r
iologic al mechanism known as
For explaining the drive functi
on, the term homeostasis
ed by W.B ; „annon was coin-
‘Cannon (1932) , a pr ominent Harvard Un
suggested that iversit hysiologist.
toward an optimu our
of balance be m level of functi body system eai works
tween input and on in g maintaining a no
‘sugar level drop ou tp ut , Fo rmal state
s, the brain, gl r example, when
of the body send ands,
out signals that ac stomach organs, and other
blood-
one hungry. After tivate a h parts
food has bee n cons iv makes
it returns to a um ed b yh en ind
c e ivi duaun
physiological balanc state of balance, l’sd body,
e is homeostasis. This anea ha
there is a need
to When there js an ls body;
Serves as an instigato restore bal Nee; thus a drive ari imbalance
r of behaviour. ses which in turn
The term homeos
ta
‘chemistry has now sis used by Cannon With re
be ference to body
upsets the balance of en broadened to includ
satisfaction of any basian individual. The denial or failure in
thus arising a drive
c need
may bring imbalance Ps the
primary or secondar yche state,
y for initiating a beha
viour.
Drives and incentives
Drives are also influence
d and guided by
appreciation, rewards, bonus, in
fulfilment of One’s centives. Praise,
the desired objectives are some
of the exampl es of
needs and gett
Incentives, ing
Motivation of Behaviour 141
adds more force to

Incentive works as a reinforcing agent as it A piece of tofee,
ignite d fire.
a drive like adding fuel to the already as an incentive for
chocolate or ice cream or a playi ng toy may work
as a result he may be
a body to give more strength to his drive and ble way. Similarly a
behav e in a desira
further motivated to act or indiv idual to eat or a
favourite food may provide an incentive for an see it. In
idual s to go and
favourite movie may compel other indiv are greatl y affected
er prima ry or secon dary,
this way drives, wheth ives work more forcefully
and directed by the incentives. These incent
depr ived for long of that parti cular
in case the organism remains
incentive.
Motives
vated behaviour, the psycholo-
In search for the origin of a moti ed above, start from the basic
gists, as we have already emph asiz
s
logical. A particular need give
needs—biological or socio-psycho a drive that moves an individual
as
lise to an activating force named fash ion at a particular time. Drives
to act or behave in a particular force behind a behaviour. However,
thus work as a basic activating language we usually
well as day-to-day
practically, in psychological as e?
like: what was the motive behind this crim
come across statements indi vidu al to criti cise or blam e us?
What may be the motive of ant out that motives work as a basic
poin
etc. These statements clearly It makes one think as
ar behaviour.
activating force behind a particul moti ve (which carry the same meaning)
to why the terms drive and while
bly. However, psychologists
are often employed interchangea viour have now started to concen-
beha
exp'aining the mechanism of of the old term drive. For clarity,
trat e on the term mot ive inst ead
in the following ways:
they have tried to define it plus
ion or impulsion to action
Fisher: “A motive is an inclinatction” (Labhsingh & Tiwari, 1971,
dire
some degree of orientation or
p. 72).
readiness
Rosen, Fox and Gregory:
«A motive may be defined as a ety of
rs to a vari
in some ways and not othe
or disposition to respond
situations” (1972, p. 41)-
ve isa
e to one or more motives. A moti
Caroll: “A need gives ris has been learned. It is directed towards
ch
rather specific process. whi
a goa l” (19 69, p- 21)
d us to generalize that:
All these definitions lea
mind or an aroused feeling.
1. Motive is an inner state of
h basic needs or drives.
2, It is generated throug creating a kind of
dual to respond by
3. It compels an indiviact.
tension or urge to
in some selective way to
4, It is a preparation for responding
the satisfaction of the related need.
5. It is a goal-directed activity, pursued till the attainment of

the goal.
6. A change in goal may bring changes in the nature and
strength of the motive.
7. Attainment of a goal helps in the release of tension aroused
by a specific motive.
8. Motive may be considered as a learned response or
tendency
and also an innate disposition.
Understood in this way, a moti may beve
considered as an energetic
force or tendency (learned or innate) working within
the individual
to compel, persuade or inspire him to act for the satisfa
ction of his
basic needs or attainment of some specific purposes.
There exists a variety of motives based on the human
basic needs.
For understanding the nature and role of these motive
s let us briefly
discuss a few important ones.
Hunger motive
thus sends out hunger signals, while the ve ntromedi

performs the task of inhibition al hypothalamus
by controlling the “off” switch.
The physical mechanism of hunger as
throw light on the working of hung explained above tries to
er motive and eating behaviour.
However, our eating behaviou
r is too complex to depend
blood sugar levels and the only on
hypothalamus, Recent researches
suggested that a number of have
limbic system and the temporal other Parts of the brain such as the
lobe may also play a major role
the human hunger drive. It has in
also
that besides the chemical composition now been experimentally
and brain mechani
proved
other personal, social cultural and Psycho SAE i
, log
or preference for a specific food, one’s ical factors e li e ice
biological etc
boredom, loneliness, nervousness, insecurity, anxiety, depression, socio

cultural demands, and acquired food habits, etc., work for deciding
the eating behaviour of human beings.
Thirst motive
_ This drive or motive arises out of the need for quenching one’s
motive as we can exist
thirst. It is found to be stronger than the food
longer than we can withou t water. In the case of this
Without food
in hunger motive)
motive, the apparent signals (like hunger pangs
drynes s from the mouth and the throat.
come from the sensations of motive goes much
thirst
However, as we have seen with hunger the motive (like
key of the thirst
deeper than that. The physiological in the body tissues and
hunger motive) lies in the imbal ance of fluid
in the body has been linked to
hypothalamus. Imbalance of the fluid blood stream . Salt causes
the level of salt (Sodium chlori de) in the
in the blood upsets the fluid
dehydration. A_ high level of salt to supply fluid to the body
need
balance in the tissues which in turn to the lateral hypothalamus and
tissues. This message is conveyed
the supply of the fluid in the
thirst drive is activated. After getting
chemical balance is restored. It
form of a drink etc., the body’s
situated in the hypothalamus which
activates our thirst satiety centre
in turn switch ‘off’ the thirst drive. of
while the chemical imbalance
In this way, it may be seen that the cent res of its cont rol
or thirst moti ve,
the body instigate hunger
ections) lie in the central nervous
(in the form of ‘on’ ‘and ‘off’ conn . Similarly it may also be seen
thalamus
system particularly in the hypo al
hum an thirs t beha viou r depends not only on one’s biologic to a
that lance of the body tissu es but,
predispositions and chemical toimba be a function of social lear ning . Why
large extent, it may be said all, some
when we drink and how we drink
we drink, what we drink, own pers onal , socia l and cultural
our
how or the other, depend upon nings.
lear
factors and environmental
Sex motive
survival
so essential for an individual's
Sex motive, although not a highly powerful pyscho-physical
like food and water, constitutes ts in immense > happiness and well bein g
motive . Its sat isf act i ‘on resul s. Whe re
al to the spe cie
ium of surviv
to an individual and as a med ely biological and innate in the non-
the sex mot ive is pur
the root of in humans
simple to point out the roots
human animals, it is noted soby both the physiological and psycho-
whose sex drive is govern sex motive ‘ is termed asa
logical fiactors. The k refore, the human : ncies .
complex blend of innate as well as acquired tende
in stimu-
es are undeniably essential
In most animals, sex hormonhormones, the testosterone in the males
lating the sex drive. These
secreted by their testes andtestthe
and estrogens in the females, are l of the es
exp eri men ts connected with the remova
e and female animals or bir ords
ova rie s. The
and ovaries in the case of mal
1
General Psychology
ovariectomized female
s sometimes experienc
sex drive or satisfact e little or no declin
ion e in
after the natural declin . Females may also remain sexually active
e in ova rian function that occ
urs with age (in
In addition to the dep endency on hormones,
are sexually receptive onl females of most
species, excluding humans
—when they are on hea y at certain times
t or, in more technical
estrus cycle. During this per language, during the
iod, the female Ovaries secrete a greater
In human beings, alt hough the Pregnancy

drive is not dependen is possible only in
estrus periods, the sex
t upon the occurrenc the
e of
hormones Production.
Mu
arousal and behaviour ch of their motivation in the form of sex
1s rooted in earlier exp ual
eriences and social
learning and controlled
by lesions in the hypoth
Cal structure in the ala mus, the subcorti-
brain.
sex drive and behaviour

fertility period and secretion in human beings independent of their
of hormones.
Maternal motive
The behaviour involving
by the females of a specie the care and Protectio
s is called maternal nbehof the offspring
` motive that energizes
a female to indulge in suc aviour and the
the matern
al drive or motive h behavi
our is called
by the biological and Psy . The maternal drive is Stimulated both
cho ical factors inter-rel
The earlier scene in this logdirection is dominated ated with learning.
hormones. The hormone progester by the role of the
one has been found to be imp
ortant
in maintaining pregnancy and estrogen helps to trigger birth. ‘

Another hormone, prolactine produced by the pituitary gland, directs
the mammary glands to secrete milk for the new born.
„The later period of the maternal behaviour is controlled and
guided by the learning components of the maternal drive. The stimuli
responsible for stimulating the maternal drive and behaviour spring
from a variety of sources: from one’s physical environment, or socio-
cultural background, from mother and grandmother, from observing
the behaviour of friends and neighbours, from books, from movies
and television, etc. One’s own physical and mental health may also
contribute in this direction. However, much depends upon the impact
of the social learning and earlier experiences that leave an unforget-
table impression on the mind of the mother justifying the finding
that being a gozd and loving mother depends considerably on having
a good and loving mother.
Aggression motive -
Aggression motive is related to those behaviours that are intended
to inflict physical or psychological harm on others. Various views
have been propounded about the origin and working of this motive.
Those believing in instinctive theory like Freud, Lorenz and Ardrey
held that an aggressive motive is linked with an innate independent
instinctual tendency in human beings which expresses itself in destruc-
tive and violent activities. However, this innate drive concept now
stands rejected due to lack of substantial research.
of frus-
From another viewpoint, aggression is caused as a result
l
tration. However, later researches have proved that it is not essentia
frustra tion always leads to aggressi on.. Bandur a
that reaction to only in those
(1973) suggests that frustration generates aggression attitudes and
people who have previou sly develop ed aggress ive
ment. It leads us to a
actions as a means of coping with their environ and aggressive
that aggress ion motive
more accepted conclusion and social learning.
behaviour are the product of earlier experiences
been brought up in the
One may be aggressive because one has
his parents, elders, teachers
environment where he frequently observes
him or others. A teacher,
and peers showing aggression towards some one in a fit of
who is rebukin g or pushing
mother, or a friend e aggression to be
of effectiv
aggression, essentially provides a model does not occur just
. Imitati on of aggress ion
imitated by the children
shown on the television
with live models, violence or aggression nes and novels
magazi
screen and described in the pages of the provoking, if
may provok e an individ ual toward aggress ion. This
reinforced, may lead him to adopt aggress ion as a mode of his day-
to-day behavio ur.
Affiliation motive ;
liation motive directly springs from the affiliation, a need to be
ues people. Why do we desire to be with other people? One
answer is the “herd instinct”. For most animals, the herd instinct
is
genetically programmed. It provides them a tendency to live
together
in packs, flocks or groups and as a result they get better care
and
protection for their welfare and survival. In human
beings also the
desire to be in groups may arise on account of the “herd instinc
the fear and anxiety of their welfare and survival. However, in t’—
case, the arousal of affiliation motive is somewha their
t a complex pheno-
menon. Very often it is stimulated by some other needs or
motives
like social approval motive, recognition motive, power
motive and
achievement motive. As these needs or motives are connected with
the socio-psychological make up of the individuals, the affiliation
motive must be considered as an offspring of the early experiences
and social learning,
; What can lead an individual to an isolated
life style depends upon his experiences and lifeinter style or affiliated
action with his
environment right from early childhood. For
example, children who
are raised with close family ties, show stronger affili
ation motive than
those comi ng from more loosely knit families. The neglected children
or. destitutes, on the other hand, may lack in the intensity
of affilia-
tion motive. In this way, the patterns of affili
ated behaviour and
strength of the affiliation motive may vary from indiv
dual based on their earlier experiences and idual to indivi-
social learning.
Achievement motive
The need to achieve is the spring-board of the achievement
motive. This desire to achieve is as basic
and as
biological or socio-psychological needs. However, natural as other
in a competitive
society or set up the desire for surpassing others
or achieving more
than others is intensified too much which
in turn may give birth to a
Stronger drive or motive to achieve something or everything
that is
essential for beating others in the race and conseq
uently feeling 2
sense of pride and pleasure in one’s achievement.
The type of moti-
vation produced by such motive for achievement
has been named as
achievement motivation.
Achievement motive as a term has been defin
ed in various ways:
' Atkinson and Feather: “The achievement motive is conceiv
ed
as a latest disposition which is manifested in Overt striving only
when
the individual perceives performance as instrumental to
personal accomplishment’? (1966, p. 13). a sense O!
Irving Sarnoff: ‘‘Achiévement motive is defined in terms
way
of the
an individual orients himself towards objects or
conditions that
he does not possess. If he values those objects
feels that he ought to possess them he may and condit ions, and he
achievement be regard ed as having an
motive. (Mangal 1983, 191).
Looking through these definitions
we can Say that achievement
Motive mov
‘of difficult es or drives an indi
and challenging pervidu al to get involved in the mastery
formancesfor the pursuit of excellence-
ont
It comes into the picture when an individual knows that his perform-
ance will be evaluated, that the consequence of his actions will be
either a success or a failure and that good performance will produce
a feeling of pride in accomplishment. Hence, achievement motive may
be considered as a disposition to approach success or a capacity for
taking pride in accomplishment when success is achieved in one or
other activity.
_ As far as the origin and development of the achievement motive
is concerned, it can safely be said that it results from one’s early
training as well as experiences and subsequent learning. In- general,
children usually learn the achievement motive from their parent’s life
style and family life. Studies have shown that children who get
independent training started at an early age and get more autonomy
Within a cooperative, encouraging and less authoritarian family
environment, usually develop as achievement-oriented children. Later
on, the experiences and learning based on the circumstances and
situations in one’s life may lead an individual to provide a level for
attaining the
the intensity of his achievement motive to struggle for
desired standard of excellence.
Theories of motivation
to be
What motivates human behaviour is nota simple question mecha-
answered. Psychol ogists have tried.to explain the process and
nism of motivation in a number of ways. Here we discuss some of
the main viewpoints.
Behaviourist’s viewpoint (need and drive reductio

n theory)
Behaviourists like Watson, C]

yn, Clark Hull and Skinner emphasize that
as stim uli to evoke responses in the form of
needs and drives work 1 S
they say thati a
Motivation behaviour. Explaining the he mechanism,
gives birth to a drive or motive which
need in the form of stimulation in motion. The reduction of
in turn sets the motivational behaviour s as a reinforcer for main-
then work
the need and the associate drive,
reduction hypothesis propa-
taining behaviour. This need or drive gly opposed by psychologists
stron
gated by the behaviourists has been ce of needs and drives in
who came later. However, the importan
guiding the motivational behaviour of humans is
controlling and
beyond question.
nctive theory)
Freud’s viewpoint (insti
ory of motivation was based on instincts. In his last
or erotic
eee psycho-analysis; he asserted that Eros (life
even to the extent
instinct) and the death instinct (Desire to destroy
of the motiva tion in
of destroying one’s self) are the ultimate cause
behaviour. In fact life instinct, the urge for self-preservation domi-
death
nates the earlier scenes of one’s life. When life instinct stops,
instinct comes into operation. For example, the lover who has failed
in his love affair may think of committing suicide. However,
moves what
or energizes the activities of the life instinct is the
need for
sexual gratification—a media to provide intense pleasure, satisfactio
n
and meaning to one’s life. Freud maintained that from birth onwards
human beings experience sex gratification and sex motive,
is the ultimate sole motiye that works in energising therefore,
behaviour.
the human
Adler’s viewpoint (social urges theory)

Without agreeing with the extreme views of Freud regarding sex
as the basis of human motivation, Alfred
Adler, a student of Freud
advocated that human beings are motivated prima
rily by social urges.
For maintaining his social self one requires a marg
in of safety
besides the simple Security in terms of
protection from danger. He
achieves this margin of safety through domi
order not to feel inferior or small, he striv
nation and superiority. In
es or struggles for superio-
rity. Therefore, the struggle for achievement and status or
dominate are really an outgrowth of the fund the will to
amental need for
security. Thus, the motivation of human behaviour may
be endorsed
through a single basic drive known as secur
terms ity drive or motive or in
ofa single need, the need for security to maint
self. ain one’s social
d
Cognitive viewpoint (Goal-oriented

Theory)
Unlike the mechanistic and instinctive
other psychologists, the Cognitive school approaches adopted by
of psychology brings into
the limelight the role of cognitive factors
vation. in producing human moti-
According to this view, human behaviour is purposeful with
a certain end or goal in view. An individual who aspir
es to reach @
goal, is helped by his cognitive abilit
ies for the development ofa
desirable drive or motive (tendency to
move towards that goal). The
achievement of the goal satisfies the indiv
forces the maintained behaviour.
idual which in turn rein-
The cognitive view of motivation was first broug

a philosopher-psychologist William James
ht into focus by
sized that the concept of motivation (1842 -1910 ) who empha-
was necessary to bring the
“psychomotor gap” betwe en ideas and actions. This view was further
elaborated by psychologists like Georg e Miller advocating the
Construction of plans for bridging the Psychomotor
certain ends. Another cue for the involvemen
gap
to meet
bringing motivation comes from the theory tof ofcognit
cognitive factors in
advocated by the American ive dissonance
psychologist Leon Festinger. Cognitive
dissonance denotes an imbalance between what
we believe (cognition)
and what we do (conation). It may result in a
psychological discom-
fort to us. As a solution, we are motivateto
d set the imbalance right
either by changing our beliefs or our behaviour. For
example, infor-
mation linking smoking with cancer and heart
diseases create
dissonance in chain smokers. They cannot resist the temptation of

smoking, yet they are warned that cigarette smoking is injurious to
their heaith. There is an imbalance or dissonance, involving the
beliefs (cognition) and smoking behaviour. The remedy lies in a goal
by
directed behaviour that is aimed to reduce the dissonance either
the informa-
stopping the excessive smoking or by refusing to believe
tion about its danger.
Maslow’s viewpoint (Self-actualization Theory)

_ In 1954 psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed that a motiva-
ng
tional behaviour may satisfy many needs at the same time implyi
,
that an act is multi-motivated. Human needs, according to Maslow
ency. In other j words, the
arrange themselves in hierarchi ies of prepot
on the satisfaction of
appearance of one need generally depends
and may be arranged
another. They are closely related to each other of the personality. As
from the lowest to the highest develo pment
needs that can
shown in the Fig. 10.1, he proposed five sets of basic
for unders tandin g human
be arranged in a definite hierarchical order
ion Ukin
actualizat An individual
Esteem needs and his needs
Belonging and
love needs
Safety needs
Physiological needs
cture of needs
Fig. 10.1. Maslow's hierarchical stru
motivation. At the b ottom of the

ladder are physiological needs,
necessary for survival, and at the top are distinct psychological needs.
Starti ng from the satisf action of the physio logical needs, every indivi-
dual strives for the satisf action of the other needs of higher order.
This striving for one or the other level of needs causes the motivation
of his behaviour. A need that has been satisfied is no longer a need.
Tt ceases to be a motivating force and therefore, the satisfaction of
needs.
one need leads an individual to try for the satisfaction of other
In this way the motivational behaviour of a person is always domi-
nated not by his satisfactions but by his unsatisfied wants, desires or
needs.
"150 General Psychology
The motivational behaviour of most of us fits well in the
chical structure of needs proposed by Maslo hierar-
w and consequently for
them a need of a higher order does not appear
lower order
until a need of a
is gratified. They can
think of the other needs only S
when the food and other basic psychologica
l needs are well gratified.
A hungry person cannot think of casting his vote, doing social
or attainment of salyation through rememb service
ering God. Similarly, one
who is insecure or unsafe may hardly
tion of love or esteem needs. be motivated for the gratifica-
But as it happens there is room for exception

chy of needs to explain human motivation. The in Maslow’s hierar-
history of mankind
may point out countless heroes,
saints and other great people who
have always stood for the ideals, religious
without caring for the satisfaction of biolog or social values of life
ical or other lower needs.
_It seems that the effects of gratification of a need
lating and important are more stimu-
than the effect of
of lower order needs motivates an indiv deprivation. The gratification
idual to strive for the higher
order needs. An individual, as Maslow
emphasized, can actualize his
potentialities as a human being only
after meeting the higher leve
needs like love and esteem. However, in the compl
iance of the hierar-
chical order there may arise exceptions. One
may be more attracted
or motivated to the satisfaction of one need
therefore a person can reach the top at thecost of anotherand
without caring for the satisfac-
tion of lower order needs. But one thing
is very clear that the nee
of sclf-actualization dominates and rules all the other lower
needs. It seems to be the supreme aim of huma level o
n life and thus’ works
as a master motive for motivating the
human behaviour. In the
words of Maslow “A musician
must make music, an artist must
paint, a poet must write, if he is to be ultimately
at peace with
himsel
f. What a man can be, he must be.
He must be true to his
Own nature. This need we may call
self-actualization” (1954, p. 46).
The fulfilment of self-actualization is thus a must
for an individual
as he will feel discontent and restless unless
what he or she is fitted for. he does not strive for
Measurement of motives
The methods employed for the meas
‘classified as direct, indirect and expeurem ent of motives may be
nature of the adopted measures or tech rimental depending upon the
niques,
Direct methods
In this category we may include all those

that permit the subject to express methods and techniques
his motives through verbal or other
Overt behaviour. Here the required
information about the motives of
an individual is gathe red directly from
‘subject and his natural behaviour, by direc the Primary source, the
for his own behaviour or through tly asking him to account
naturalistic objective observation
: Motivation of Behaviour (451
uded in this
-of his behaviour: The major techniques or methods. incl motivation
categor y may be named as questio nnaire, invento ries,
au tobiography
scale, check-list, naturalistic observation, interview,
and other self descriptive measur es.
Indirect methods
_ In situations where the subject is either unawa re of his motives or
is determined not to reveal his real motives, the use of indirect
to which the subject ‘is
methods is recommended most. The material ts of fairly ambigu-
exposed in the indirect measu res of motiv es consis
Based on the mechanism ‘of
ous or unstructured stimulus situations. for his hidden or
to provi de clues
projection, the subject is expected uctur ed stimul i. The inter-
true motiv es by respo nding to these unstr
imenter may then help, in the
pretation of these clues by the exper
true motiv es.
assessment of the subject’s
test,
All the projective techniques like Rorschach Ink blot
) Child , Appe rcep tion Test (CAT ),
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT Sente nce comp leti on
the Blacky pictures, Drawing completion test,
ique, Role playing and Socio-
technique, Word Association techn indirect methods of measuring
drama, etc., fall in the categ ory of
motives.
opportunity to the subject
These projective techniques provide fullin quite a structured form
tions
to project his motives and inten
ondi ng in term s of writing some stories about the
through resp
a sente nce, sketching or drawing,
Pictures shown or completing . T he interpretation of these
associating a wor d or playing a rolereason for giving the test. For
nds upon the
structured responses depe or
example, if the experimenter is interested in measuring affiliations of
achievement motive, the subject’s responses are evaluated in term
or achievement orientation it
n
how much affiliation orientatio
displays.
Experimental methods
of measuri ng motives cons
ist of the
o s
Experimental method r cont roll ed condi-
ive obs erv at ions unde
measures involving obj lect expe rime nter first
t he real motives, here the
tions. For ascertaininghypo in the labo ra-
theses and then tests them
makes some tentative for arriving at som e obje ctiv e,
tory or laboratory-like conditionsaddition to the investigation of the
reliable and valid conclusions. In lving motivation, experimental
origin and causing @ behaviournginvovari ous empirical predictions
testi
methods do also help in. one may
based on particular motivati onal hypotheses. For exam > plemotive
nt must
e persons having high achieveme
hyyppothesize that th predi ictable wa7 ys froma persons with low achieve-
differ in a number oferimental testing of this hypothesis, the experi-
ment motive. In ex ro-
menter ma y collect scores related with achievement motive by int
er
ducing a projective test like TAT or Rorschach Ink blot and aft
ms
that he may try to demonstrate that subjects who score high in ter
of achievement motive are also faster at solving mathematical
problems, memorizing poems and performing
some typical complex
skills.
SUMMARY
Whywe behave and how we behave in a parti

particular moment can be understood in cular fashion at a
terms of motivation. It is
one’s motivation which Prompts, compels
engage in a particular behaviour. and energizes him to
The activating forces working in
motivation may be named as needs, drives or motives.
Needs are general wants or desires and are said to be the very
basis of our behaviour. They can be broadly
and socio-psychological. Biological needs classified as biological
organic needs like need for oxyge
inclu de all our bodily or
n, food, water, rest, sleep and SEX,
etc. They are linked with the survival
of the
Socio-psychological needs like need for love organism and species.
and affection, security,
affiliation, self-assertion and self-actualization, etc.,
are linked with
the socio-cultural environment and
psychological make-up of. an
individual. They are considered very much
tion may seriously affect the survival essential as their depriva-
and welfare of an individual.
__, A need gives rise to a drive which activ
within and directs its activities to a goal ates an individual from
that may bring about the
satisfaction of the need. Biological needs
drives such as hunger, thirst and sex and the give birth to biological
produce Socio-psychological drives such as socio-psychological needs
fear, anxiety, approval and
achievement. Drives are also influenced and
guided by incentives
like praise, appreciation, rewards, bonus etc.,
reinforcing agents. in terms of working as
What we were used to understand by the
word ‘drive’ has now
been replaced by a more forceful term “moti
ve”. It is defined as an
energetic force or tendency (learned or innat
e) working within the
individual to compel, persuade or inspire
him to act for the satisfac-
tion of his basic needs or attainment of some specif
Psychologists have identified and named a ic purposes-
number of motives.
Hunger motive primarily arises on account
food and the of our body’s need for
thirst motive on account of the need
regarding food or fluid is conveyed for fluid. The need
to our brain which in turn
Produces the motivation behaviour involving hunger or thirst.
Apart from the biological funct
very much controlled by personalion, hunger and thirst motives are
experiences and social learning.
Sex motive although having astrong Physiological base
form of hormones functioning and estrus cycle is largely in the
affected
by the variables related with one’s experience and
social learning.
` Maternal motive (the urge to provide care and protection to
offspring) is stimulated both by the biological factors and social
Í—
motive and
learning. The motives like aggression motive, affiliation
achievement motive are parely learned as they are linked with the
learnin g.
demands of one’s environment in terms of social
explaining human motiva-
_ There are a number of viewpoints for
forwa rd the need and drive reduction theory
tion. Behaviourists put lation gives birth to
of stimu
by emphasizing that need in the form ces motivation. Freud
a drive or motive which in. turn produ
death instincts) are the ultimate
explained that the instincts (life and
cause of the motivation in human s. Adler remarked that human
ated prima rily by social urges and therefore, a
beings are motiv drive
human motivation can be explained only in terms of a single with
e. Cogni tive psych ologi sts,
or motive named as security motiv d the role of
the help of their goal-oriented theory. highlighte Psychologist
motiv ation .
cognitive factors in producing human for
Maslow put forward a hierarchical structure of needs order
ion of lower
explaining human motivation. The gratificat needs.
to strive for the higher order
needs motivates an individual self- actua lizat ion. In
the need for
On the top of the hierarchi lies that guides and controls
r need
fact it is the satisfaction of this maste s.
the human
the motivation behaviour of
ugh direct, indirect and experi-
Motives can be measured thro it the subject to express his
perm
mental methods. Direct methods
overt behaviour. Indirect methods,
motives through verbal or other are used in situations where the
involving projective techniques, determined not to reveal his real
is
subject is either unaware or g
meth ods consist of the measures involvin
motives. Experimental controlled conditions.
objective observations under
Referen: ces and Suggested
Readings
of Motivation, Monterey
J.P., Psychological Theories
Arkes, H.R. and Garske, 1977
Calif :Brooks/Cole, .
ent Motivation,
Atkinson, J.W. and Feather, N.T. (Ed.); A Theory of Achievem
1966 .
New York : John Wiley, Cliffs, New
ysis, Englewood
Bandura, A.. Aggressiol, n: A Social Learning Anal
ey : Prentice-Hal 1973.
York : McGraw-Hill, 1961. Cliffs,
Jers
vation of Behaviour, New of
Brown, J.S., The MotiHyg Adjustment, Englewood
iene—The Dynami cs
Caroll, H.A., Mental l, 1969.
New Jersey : Prentice-Hal cited by Labh Singh &
tion to Abnormal Psychology
Fisher. V.E., An Intr oduc AGRA: Vinod Pustak
ls of Abnormal Psychology,
G.P. Tiwari in Essentia
Mandir, 1971- New York; John Wiley,
Bases of Motivation,
Physiological
Hokason, J.E., The
1969. 1974.
1970's New York : Play Press,
the
Hunt, M., Sexual Behayiour in ent cited by Man; al S.K. i
Irving Sarnoff, Personality Dynamics and Developm
a
Ludhiana : Prakash Brothers, 1983.
Educational Psychology (V ed.)
Kinsey, A.C., Sexual Behaviour in the Human Female Philadelphia : Saunders,
1953.
154
General Psychology
Kinsey, A.C., Pomeroy, W.B. &
Philadelphia: Saunders, 1948.
Martin, C.E., Sexual Behaviour
in Human Male,
Maslow, A., Motivation and 7
Personality, New York : Harp
Mc Clelland, D.C., Atkinson, J.W., er & Row , 1954 .
Clark R.A. & Lowell, E.C., The Achie
Motive, New York : Appleton, vement
1953.
Montagu, M.F A. (Ed.) Man and Aggr
Press, 1968. ession, New York: Oxford Universi
ty
Rosen, E. Fox, Ronald
Philad
& Gregory, Ean; Abnormal
elphia : Saunders, 1972
, Psychology (3rd ed)
Schachter, S., The Psychology of Affiliat k
sity Press, 1959, ion, Stanford Calif :Standford Univer -
Stacey, C.L. and De
Martino, M.E. (Ed nalion
(Rev, ed.) Cleveland .); Understanding Human Motivatio
: Howard Allen, 196
3.
Valley, F.P., Motivation Theories
and Issues} Monterey, Calif; Bro
oks/Cole, 1975-
paipeert
ATTENTION
Meaning
frequently in our day-to-day
We make use of the ter: m ‘attention’ class room, your teacher
ng lectur es in the
conversation. While givi he says or to look at
to listen to what
may call for your attention publi c bus station, you may
the black-board.At * a railway statio n or
please) meant fordrawing the
hear the announcement (your attention about the sched ules of the
them
attention of the passengers, telling ary sense, attent ion is taken
trains or buses. In this way, in the ordin which can be turne d on
mind,
as a power, capacity or faculty of our form that can be lent to this.
in kind or
or off at will or something
ption, as we will find after
or that situation. However, this conce Attention can never be
reading this chapter, is misco nceiv ed.
y of our mind. We must try to
considered as a force or some facult
a process or a function. Therefore,
understand it in terms of an act,
the use of this term as a noun is misleading. It may be better under-
act of
ding or a process involving the
stood as a verb named as atten on a topic, objec t or event for
listening, looking at or concentrating ding a prope r meani ng to
For provi
the attainment of desired ends. ata few defini tions provided
take a look
the term attention, let us
this subject.
by eminent authorities on
entration of consciousness upon
Dumville: “Attention is the conc
her” (1938, p. 315).
than upon anot
one object rather
ing an object or thought clearly
Ross: “Attention is process ).of gett
p- 170
before the mind” (1951,
tion is bei D ng keenly alive to som
e
Morgan & Gillila nd: “Atten It isa preparatory adjustment
in our environment.
specific factor
128).
for response” (1942, p-
defined as a process which
Sharma, R-N- “Attention can be
ticular stimulus according
compels the individual to select some par licity of stimuli present
itude out
to his interest and att(19 of the mul tip
jn the environment” 67, p. 392).
ing facts into the lime-
All these definitions may bring the foilow
slight:
G) Attention is essentially a process and not a product.
General Psychology
Ithelps in our awareness or consciousnes
ment. s of our environ-
This awareness or Con
sciousness is selective
4
At one tim
.
e we can concentrate
on a particular object or focus i nes 3
our conscious
only. :
The concentration or focus prov
tion helps us in the cla
ided by the process of atten-
object or Phenomen
rit y of the perception of the per
on. ceived
In the chain of the Stimul
good mediator. Properlyus-response behaviour it works ve
attended stimulus yields
bet
one has to pass throug
h the Stage of prep
ness (mental as Well aredness or alert-
as Physical) set by
attention. the process of
Attention is not merely a cogn
itive function but is essentia
det ermined by emotional lly
and conational factors of inte
rest,
initiates into the state

of attention, we may
head, fixing his eyes or set mark him turning his
ting his ears toward the
object of attention.
» ‘Say a lot about the attent

ion or non-attention behay
(1) Attention helps in bringing ment al alertness and prepared-

ness. As a result one beco
mes mentally alert and
one’s mental powers as effectively as poss tries to exercise
ible.
Attention 157
(2) Attention helps in providing proper deep concentration by

focusing one’s consciousness upon one object at a time rather than
two.
ng or discriminat-
_ (3) It makes us better equipped for distinguishi
ing the object of attention from others.
acts asa reinforcement of sensory process and
(4) Attention
ptual field for the maši-
helps in the better organisation of the perce phenomenon.
t or
mum clarity and understanding of the objec
ability to continue the task
(5) Attention provides strength and
despi te the obsta cles put by the forces of
of cognitive functioning condi tions. bia
er
distraction like noise and harsh weath
event, process or phenome-
(6) The attention paid to an object,
in the form of the amount and quality of
non yields better results ing, thinking, reasoning and
learning, remembering, transfer of train
aying the inventive abilities and
problem-solving as well as displ
creative functioning.
Types of Attention
ntion in a variety of ways but
Various authors have classified atte (1951, p. 175) seems to be
n by Ross
the following classification give
more agreeable.
Attention
|
oe l.
Volitional
Non-Volitional
|
i
7 4 K l
| | Explicit
| Implicit (obtained
Enforced Spontaneous (obtained
(Sustained by a single act by repeated
(Sustained by by a sentiment) of will)
instincts) act ot will)
Attention: This &. of attention
dik Non-Volitional or Involuntary Here we attend to an object or
is aroused without the play of will.
on our part. Mother's
an idea without making any conscious efforts towards
towards her crying child, attention of
the members are
attention
opposite sex, sudden loud noise, bright colours., etc.,
.
the
examples of non-Volitional attention.
Non-Volitional attention as classified above can be aroused by
which is arous-
ourinstincts as also by our sentiments. The attention attention. A
ed by the instincts is called enforced non-volitional
or curiosity, becomes,
young man, when we remark on his sex instinct he pays at
quite attentive in his task. The type of attention which
onal attention.
this time can be called enforced Non-Voliti
aroused by the
4 _ The other sub-type of Non-Volitional attention, ion. It is
sentiments is called “Spont aneous Non-V oliti onal” attent
mer
i General Psychology.
the result of properly developed sentiments. We give somew
matic or spontaneous attention toward hat auto-
round which our sentiments are
s that object , idea, person
formed.
2. Volitional or Voluntary Attention: Attention
voluntary when it calls forth the exercise is volitional or
of will. It demands the
conscious efforts on our part. It is
and not given wholeheartedly like least automatic and spontaneous
volitional attention. Usually in
such a type of attention, we have a clear-cut
accomplishment we, with
goal before us and for its
all our efforts, make ourselves attent
Attention paid at the time of solving an ive.
assigned problem of mathe-
matics, answering questions in an examination
hall, consulting the
railway time-table at the time
of embarking on a railway
are some of the examples of journey
volitional attention.
Volitional attention is further sub-divided
mplic into two categories—
it volitional attention and Explicit
Whereas in the former, a single volitional attention-
act of volition
is sufficient to bring
about attention, in the latter We need repea
it. When a
ted acts of will to sustain
child is assigned some mathematical sums
Toom, and he does not attend to them, in the class-
he is warned by the teacher
that he will be punished if he does not do his assig
ned practice work.
This can make him exercise his will
task and finish it properly. Here a singl power, attend to the assigned
e act of will is responsible
Probate R ttentio n. Hence we can take it as an example
of implicit volitional attention.
In explicit volitional attentio
acts of will. One has to Struggle n, attention is obtained by repeated
hard for keeping one self attentiv
It requires a strong will power, e.
for the accomplishment of the keen attention and strong motives
examination days for the requ task. The attention, paid during
ired preparation against the
odds and distraction, is a glaring heavy
example of such attention.
Factors or determinants of attention
(i) Nature of the stimulus: All

` bring the same degree of attention. types of stimuli are not able to
A
readily than words. Among the Picturpict ure attracts attention more
es, the Pictures of human
beings invite more attention than thos
the pictures of human beings those of ebeauti
of animals or objects. Among
ful women or handsome
men attract more attention. In
this Sens
forceful than colourless ones. In i this e wacoloured pictures are more
should always ay, an effective stimulus
be chosen for capturing maximu
m attention.
(ii) Intensity and size of the stimulus: In comparison with
the
weak stimulus, the intense stimulus attracts
more attention of an
individual. Our attention becomes easil
y directed to a loud sound,
159
Attention
large object in environ-
a bright light or a strong smell. Similarly a than a small object. A
ment is more likely to catch our attention than a small one.
ded to
large building will be more readily atten
ge and variety strike
(iii) Contrast, change and variety, Chan
and absen ce of change. If we
attention more easily than sameness
of maps and charts suddenly
are talking to our students the use wall
notice the ticking on the
attracts their attention. We do not
soon as it stops. Any change in the
but it arrests our attention as y captures
attention to which we have become adapted, immediatel
the factor-contrast or change is highly
our attention. Actually
of the organism and contributes
responsible for capturing attention nature of the stimulus. If all
more than the intensity, size or p tinted in capitals, the capita-
the LETTERS on this page were greater attention getting
would have no
lized word in this sentence
contrast or change which makes
value than any other word. It is the
it more forceful.
nd to
Novelty also attracts atten tion. We are compelled to atte chan ge
a! lways better i to intr oduc e the
anything that is novel. So it is secu rin; g atten tion.
otony and
or novelty for breaking mon
r-
tition is a factor of great impo
(iv) Repetition of stimulus: Repe may ignore a stimulus at first
We
tance in securing attention. several times, it captures our
atten-
instance but when it is repe ated occu rs
e likely to be noticed if it
tion. A mis-spelled word is mor than if it occurs only once. In
twice in the same paragraph point on which the teacher tries to
ar
the class room also the particul is raised again and again. Whi
le
the atte ntio n of the stud ents ofte n
draw of the spee ch are
ortant aspects
giving the lecture, the imp of the audience can be easily directed
n
repeated, so that the attentio this practice of repetition should be
to the valuable points. But may bring diminish-
tition of stimulus
carefully used. Too much repe
ing returns.
catches our
mulus: A moving stimulusa e. In other
©) Movement of the Sti a stimulus t hat does not mov
n
attention more quickly tha objects that move 1n our
field of
ive to
words, we are more sensit rs make use of this fact and try to cap-
the adv ert ise
vision. Most of tric lights.
ple through moving elec
ture the attention of peo
conditions
Internal factors or to a stimulus
How much and in what way a person will attend mulus or the
t sti
the characteristics of tha
depends not only upon l conditions but also upon his interest,
favourable environmenta urges. „Every person likes to do or to
basic needs and s to
motives,
se objects or activities eretha t fulfils one’s own desire try or
att end to tho
nature , int st and
: apt itu
u de. Let us
motives and suits his ownthese inner factors in securing attention of a
l
see that part played by
person.
(i) Interest and attention: Interest is a very helpful factor
in
securing attention. We attend to objects in which we are interest
ed
and we do not attend those in which we have no
interest. If we go
to the market to buy a book, our attention will be capture
d more by
book shops than by cloth and shoe shops. A
boy interested in
hockey will be more attentive in watching a hockey match than the
football or the volleyball matches played at the same time on
the
adjacent grounds. A wise teacher is able to secure the attentio
n of his
students if he tries to make his lesson interesting
by connecting it
. With their basic needs, drives and
interests.
_ ii) Motives: The basic drives and urges of
important in securing his the individual are very
attention. Thirst, hunger, sex, curio
fear are some of the important motives that exerc sity,
ise definite influence
upon attention. A hungry person is sure to notice the smell of cook-
ingfood. The man who fears a snake will defin
itely attend to all
things resembling the snake. Sex drive occup
ies a unique place among
the different drives. Even the most inattentive student in the class
can be made to sit on the edge of his chair if the
teacher announces
that he is going to talk about the sex practices
Nowadays in the world of advertisement sex is theof American Hippies-
drive that has been
extremely exploited. We can see the shapely girls in bathi ng suits to
sell such unrelated items as tyres, nut
bolts and tractors.
(iii) Mental set: Besides our interests and motives the
is an important factor of securing attention. Mental set mental set
means.the
tendency or bent of the whole mind.
A person always attends to;
those objects towards which his mind has been set. A person
waiting
for the-letter of his beloved can recognize
her envelope among a huge
lot of the envelopes. Similarly, on the day of examination the sligh-
test thing concerning the examination easily attracts the
attention of
the students. All this happens because persons
concer ned possess 4
definite bent of mind and consequently their attention is immedia
tely:
directed towards the related objects.
Span of attention
While defining attention, we have emphasized that in a strict
psychological sense only one object, idea, or fact can
be the centre
of consciousness at one particular moment and consequently we can
attend to only one thing at a time. However, it is
found with some
people that they can attend to more than one or even many tasks at
the same time. While writing a letter they are seen
attending the tele-
phone, watching time from the wall clock and respondi ng with smiles
to the approach of somebody else. In other cases, immediat
entering ely after
the room or hall the individuals are found to give a
detailed
account of their perception in terms of the number of chairs and
fans, persons present, the pictures hanged, the colour of the walls or
curtains, etc. In this way, people may possess the ability to grasp
a
number of objects or in other words to attend toa number of
sti-
muli in one short presentation. This ability of an individual is
Attention - 161
evaluated in terms of the span of his attention which differs.from.

person to person and even situation to situation in the same person.
Therefore, the term span of attention may be defined in terms of the
quality, size or extent to which the perceptual field of an individual.
can be effectively organised in order to enable him to attend to a
number of things in a given spell of short duration. ai
Historically speaking, it was Sir William Hamilton who, in the
year 1859, first of all tried to perform experiments on the span of
attention. For his experiments he spread out marbles on the ground
before his students and concluded that on an average the
span of visual attention is limited to 6-7 marbles i.e., we are unable
to see more than 6-7 marbles at a time. However, if these marble
Pieces are arranged in groups or units, we can attend to a greater
performed by
number of the marbles. Further experiments were Back (1929).
psychologists like Jevons (1871), Glanville and Dallen
Woodworth and Shalsberg (1968) , etc.
_ Experiments to study the span of visual attention pe. are carried out
with the help of an instru ment known as Tachis trosco Ordinarily
laborat ories we use a Falling g door type Tachis troscope.
in our college in the
It consists of a wooden screen having a windo w or hole
middle. Digits, letters or small patterns written or printed on cards
be inserted in the apparatu s for being seen through the hole or
may
second) which
window. Its exposure is quite short (generally 1/10th
is regulated by a movable falling shutter. The subject is shown the
cards through the hole for the fixed exposure time. He may then be
the number of digits,
asked to record as to what he perceived and
then, be considered as the
letters, etc., correctly reproduced, may,
of visual attentio n.
measure of one’s span
y span of attention,
For the measurement of the other sensor le, the span of
techn iques may be emplo yed. For examp
different
by tappi ng a number of times
auditory attention may be measured has heard.
and askin g the subjec t how many taps he
n
Shifting or fluctuation of attentio
While paying attention towards an object, event or phenomenon,
it is not possible for us to hold it continuously with the same inten-
sity for a longer duration. In course of time when the centre of our’
us to another or from’ onè
consciousness either shifts from one stimul part, this is called the shifting“
part of the same stimul us to another
iousness keeps‘on '
of our attention. Sometimes the centre of our consc
ent parts of’
fluctuating from one stimulus to another or on the differ
a stimulus, this is known as fluctuation of attention. Fluctuation of
attention also involves rapid change in the intensity of thethe attention.
ses rangi ng betwe en paying of
The intensity increases or decrea ion. t
attention and no attention or, at least of less attent
‘The’ reason for the shifting and fluctuation of our attention lies in
the division of the field ‘of perception or consciousness at a particular’
ia General Psychology
Moment. Consciousness
into two parts, central an
is on the wall clock an
objects and activities
reach of marginal co
conscious or aware of
sciousness are interchangeable. The
object at a moment, go under
the marginal consciousness or even beyo
subject of attention generally goes nd that. Consequently the
on changing making the process
of attention as quite flexible
and dynamic.
Historically, the phenomenon of fluctuation of attenti
experimentally recorded the first time by a psychologist on was
Urbantschitsch (1875). While testing the auditory sensati namee
on he observ
ject was not able to hear the tick continuously of eu
a distance. At times, he was able
t other times the tick disappeared to from
hear t “4
hi
The study of fluctuation of visual attention
can be exporiment
ally
made in the psychological laboratory with the help of a device calle
Masson’s Disc. This disc consists of a circu lar card-board having
four 6r PE patches of ink put in a line along one radius (see
Fig. 11.1).
Fig. 11.1. Masson’s disc
When the disc is rotated on an electric or mechanically run wheel,

each dot appears as a circle to the subject. The subject is asked to
concentrate on any one of the blackish circles on the rotatin
g disc
and to report when the circle is clearly Seen and when it becomes less
clear or blurred. The subject is told to raise his finger when it is
and
clear
put it down when it becomes blurred till it becomes clear again
and he raises his finger again.
Division of attention
While reading a book, the attention is centred around the topic
or the material in hand. In case there is a favourite Piece of music
Attention 163
coming from the nearby radio set then there may arise a number of
situations. In one case, the individual may attend to the music and
consequently the reading is given up. In the second case, he may
deliberately attempt to ignore the music and thus may be able to
concentrate on reading. In the third case, there may be all confusion
and mess where he can neither attend to his study nor be able to
enjoy the music. In the fourth case, he may be found quite capable
of paying attention simultaneously to both the stimuli, reading as
well as music. It is the last situation where the problem of the
division of attention arises. In this case, attention is divided between
two tasks. If more than two tasks are attended and performed simul-
Bee then the attention will have to be divided among these
tasks,
Many researchers have tried to study the effect of the division of
attention on the work product. It has been found that the work
products suffer less if both the tasks are simple and similar but in the
case of difficult and dissimilar tasks, the division of attention proves
disadvantageous. No matter the amount, the division of attention
surely results in deterioration of both quality and quantity of nearly
all the tasks attended and performed simultaneously by an individual.
It is very rarely that division of attention produces no effect. It has
happened only in exceptional cases of individuals like the famous
figure of the late Hardayal and mathematics wizard Shakuntalaji or in
ease when except for one, the remaining tasks can be performed
automatically requiring the least or no attention.
Sustained attention
has
If one desires to be successful in the operation ofa task, he
attentio n or concent rating his energies on the
to begin with paying
operation of that task. But it is the beginning of a process and not
the end. After paying initial attention, care is to be taken to hold it
for a long enough duration. The individual should be absolutely
absorbed in handling that task, unmindful of anything else going on,
without getting disturbed in the least. This needed activity is named
(1945, p. 48),
Sustaining of attention. In the words of Woodworth
“To sustain attention is to concentrate one’s activity continu ously
some object or happening or problem,” case of
Thus, in the
upon
sustained attention, there is no wandering. The individual attention
always remains on track and the activity _proceeds systematically
without any serious distraction. The most striking examples of such
sustained attention may be seen through the activities of a hunter
who is settling for the opportune moment to strike or an astronomer
sitting with his eyes fixed on a particular star while looking through
his telescope or a mathematician busy in solving a problem for a long
time.
Truly speaking, if one needs to achieve the required objectives
within a reasonable time, he must try to pick up the habit of paying
General Psychology
p
sustained attention. One must
be used to concentrate on me
one is doing. A student who anivit;
cannot keep his attention one
reasonable period is sure to lag hast
behind in his studies. pie
strive for sustained attention so that jece of
l
art. A writer, a poet, a musici er he can finish his desired p
an all have to care for su stained
attention.
In holding the attention
genuine interest of the for long there is need
sub jec t for tiga:
internal as well as extern in the task which he is doi
ng.
earlier in this chapter) can al factors of getting attention emp has ized
atten-
tion. Therefore, every prove quite helpfu
l in Sustaining O. t use of
care is to be taken for
them. Moreover, the fac making the bes d put
tors which
obstacles in the path of hol create distraction
ed. For obtaining better resdin g the attention long,
ults, the individual whosho uld beanT emo BO
v-
wish to be sustained, should se att ent io rable
environmental condit be made to work under mos
ions and t fav our ab
disturbance mentally i er e
and
Over, the will power of the emotionally should be minimised. Mor e-
and he should be made Person should be adequately deve Joped
to struggle hard for acq :
tives and higher ideals uiring the set objejec-
in his life
Distraction
‘When we are att
end
in the external env i
iro:
y from that objec
;
t or activ=i)ity. These an
ings
which interfere with our
as a psychological term, has been defined attention. Distr
following way; by H.R. Bhatiaja in
in the
: methods of teaching, improper

aids , defectivA e voicp e of the teache Sr improp use of teaching
r and his A
er behaviour € tc.
Therefore, the Comm

mental conditions alwayon notion that the external unusual envir
s hinder the progress of the work on-
ing. People are found working is Bee
of us can concentrate better bette
on
r in a noisy SNS
are
studies while the radio is p ayine,
Actually speakin » the source of distr
action lies more common ly
Attention 465
the individual himself than in outside environmental conditions.

Internal distractions such as emotional disturbances, ill-health, bore-
dom, lack of motivation, feelings of fatigue or interesting thoughts
unrelated to the matter in hand have more effect than the everyday
external distractors. If one is keeping normal health and does not
suffer from unusual mental worries and emotional disturbances, then
no power on earth can distract his attention in case he has determin-
ed with a strong will to proceed on his course. Most of us are in the
habit of offering lame excuses in the name of outside distraction, for
our unwillingness and lack of determination.
But from this discussion, it should not be taken for granted that
external factors of distraction have little significance and should not
be cared for at all. In the midst of external distraction, the individual
has to struggle hard to overcome it. He puts in greater energy to
keep the object before his mind. Surely and certainly, there should
not be such miisutilization of energy which otherwise can be saved for
achieving higher aims. Therefore, great care should be taken to get
away from all possible environmental causes of distraction. The
working situations and environmental conditions should be so modi-
fied and adjusted as to provide adequate working facilities and a
healthy congenial atmosphere for an individual whose attention in
the work we wish to capture and sustain.
SUMMARY
Attention is closely related to the processes and products of learn-

the part of
ing. It refers to some deliberate and conscious efforts on present in
an individual to select something out of the various stimuli
it in the centre of his conscio usness in
his environment and bring
order to perceiv e it clearly for achievi ng the desired ends.
mental prepared-
Attention denotes a state of physical as well as
ness and alertness on the part of an indivi dual as may be adjudged
ation of his body postur es and positi ons, physio-
through keen observ ng or pro-
of the attend ed learni
logical changes and studying yields
blem solvin g activit ies.
Normally, we can attend to only one thing at a time. However,
tasks
there are people who can attend to more than one or even ofmany attentio n
said to possess a larger span
at the same time. They are or
(i.e. ability to organise a larger perceptual fieldin a given spell
studied
short duration). Experimentally the span of attention can be af
with the help of an instrum ent named Tachist roscope .
Attention cannot be held continuously with the same intensity for
a longer duration. In course of time when the centre of consciousness
shifts or fluctuates from one object to another or from one part
of the object to another part, it is termed as shifting or fluctua-
tion of attention. This study of fluctuation of visual attention can
#86 General Psychology
be experimentally made with the help of a device called
Disc. Masson's
products of attention. How

ever,
suffer less if the tasks att
ended to
Parison with the difficult
and dissimi
ill). Volitional attention

is of two types:
sufficient to bring about implicit, a Single act of volition
attention, in explicit we is
will to sustain it. Non-Volit need repeated acts of
ional attention also
categories: Enforced non- comes under two
volitional aroused by
the instincts and spon
used by sentiments. -
Attention is guided
internal factors. Extern and controlled by the external as well as
al factors lying in one
named as : nature of ’s environment may
the stimulus, int
i ensity and size of the be
contrast, change and stimulus,
variety, repetition of
stimulus, etc. Internal fac stimul
person himself like tors represent the factorus, movement of the
his interest, motives s lying within the
and mental set.
iFor better results
desir: ble long dur in lear: ning one has to hold his attention for
ation w ithout gettin a
g distur
staining of attention. bedOnein the least. This
ts for sustaining one’s has to make
re Of attention by taking
eliminating or reducing esponsible for Maintaini
the forces of distraction. ng attention and
Distraction Tepresent
The source of distracti s a sort of interference with our attent
on ion.
ing, uncomfortable seats, may be external (e.g. noise, improper
etc .) and i lig ht-
€motional disturban of motivation,
ces, ill-health, bo
deriving useful redom or
distraction.
ends, one should try to overco fatigue, etc.), For
me al] such forces
of
References and
Suggested Readin
gs
Bhatia, H.R., Elemen
ts of Educational
Orient-Longman, Psychology (3r
1968. d ed. Teprint), Calcut
ta:
Broadbent, D.E., Per
Collins, Mary and Drecep tio n and Communication, Oxford
ver, James, Experimen : Pergamon Press,
Methuen, 1930. tal Psy vchology 1958.
(3rd ed.), London :
Dumville, B., The
Fundamentals of Psy
Tutorial Press, 193
8,
cho logy (3rd ed.) London
: University
James, W., Principles
of Psychology (Vol. 11)
New York: Holt, 1890,
Attention 167
to Psychology, New York:

Morgan, J.B. and Gilliland, A.R.,An Introduction
Macmillan, 1942.
Ross, J.S., Ground Work of Educational Psychology, London: George G Harrup
& Co, 1951;
Sharma, R.N., Educational Psychology, Meerut: Rastogi Publication, 1967.
Press,
Shanker, Udai, Advanced Educational Psychology, New Delhi: Oxonian
1984.
White, Alan, R., Attention, Oxford: Blackwell, 1964.
Woodworth, R.S., Psychology, London, Methuen, 1945.
Woodworth, R.S. (Ed.); Experimental Psychology, New York: Holt, 1954.
12
LEARNING
Meaning and Nature

Learning occupies a very important place in our
we do or do not do is influe life. Most of v
learnt it. Learning, theref nced by what we learn and how we hav
personality and behaviour
ore, Provides a key or structure to one
. A ’s
after his birth or in a
Strict se
the very beginning. While

child gets burnt and he approaching a burning match stick the
bur Withdraws
ning match Stick, he
wastes no ti
apples are sour”, “Barking ach conclu

be dogs seldom bite”.sions Jike “The gre
“A bird in hand enis
gers”, etc. All these conclusio e very cautious
or indirect—bring a ns derived from the inexpbel ieving stran-
eriences—direct
change in one’s behaviour of the
changes in one’s behavi individual. These
our
monly known as learni brought about
ng. In thi
Speaking, stands for all tho
se changes and modi
of the individual which he
undergoes from his
Gardner Murphy: “The

in behaviour to meet env term learning covers
ironmental requirements every modification
Henry
” (1968, p. 205).
P. Smith: “Learning
or the Strengthening is the acquisition
of new behaviour
experience”, (1962, p-or 260weakening of old ehaviour as
). the result of
Woodworth: “Any act
Ka ivity can be Called
develops the ind ividual—(inA any learn ing so faras
respect, 800d or bad it
) and makes him
169
Learning
alter behaviour and experiences different from what that would other-
wise have been”. (1945, p- 288).
ur
4 Kingsley and Garry: “Learning is the process by which behavio
or
din the broader sense) is originated or changes through practice
training”. (1957, p. 12).
in which
Pressey, Robinson and Horrocks: “Learning is an episode
behavi our so as to
a motivated individual attempts to adapt his to attain
ng action
succeed in a situation which he perceives as requiri
a goal”. (1967, p. 232).
habits, knowledge
Crow and Crow: “Learning is the acquisition of
es new ways of doing things , and it operates
and attitudes. It involv to adjust to new
les or
on an individual’s attempts to overcome obstac our... It enables
e chang es in behavi
situations. It represents progressiv p. 225).
him to satisfy intere sts to attain a goal”. (1973,
an activity originates
Hilgard: “Learning is the process by which
encountered situation, provided
-or is changed through reacting to an
in activity cannot be explained
that the characteristics of the changesncies, maturation, or temporary
_on the basis of native response,
tende
states of the organism (e.g. fati gue or drugs, etc.)”. (1958, p. 3).
owing facts about the mean-
The above definitions reveal the foll
ing and nature of learning.
the product.
—Learning is a process and not
and trainings of an individual
—It involves all those experiences
s him to produce change in his
(right from his birth) which help
behaviour.
but it does
changes in the behaviour
—Learning leads to bring ays bri ng improve-
se changes alw
not necessarily mean that the equal
itive direction. One has ty.
ment or development in the pos it side of the human personali
chances to be drifted to the deb
ustment
vidual for the necessary adj
eLearning prepares an indi
and adaptation. case there is
seful and goal-oriented. In
All learning is purpo' Id definitely be hardly any learning.
no purpose, there wou It is a
is to o wide to explain in words. the
—The scope of learning which cove rs nearl y all do-
very comprehensive process affective of human beha viou r.
mains— conative, cognitive and that lives
continuous. Every creature
“Learning is universal and it is not limited to any age, sex, race
learns. In human beings s never ending process that
goes
or culture. It js a continuou
from womb to tomb. account
the changes in behaviour on
__Learning does not include or drugs, etc.
of maturation, fatigue, illness
oned
w more light on the last characA teristics menti
3 1
Let us thro Is that changes ;in one behaviour are not always
above: ‘It reveal
General Psychology
May be explained as under:
S Conception”. The resul-

account of the pro
cess of maturation doe
tegory of acquired
or learned behaviour s
.
about by factors like fatigue,
etc., are purely transitory in
are quite unstable. As nges in the material objects,
and when, the fa i
Thus in comparison
with all other factor
the human behavi
our, the ch ang s that lead to changes in
and trai ning, etc.) are relative es brought by learning (experience
ly more enduring and
It must stable.
be noted
the word “relatively carefully that here we have deliberat
endu ely
lutely permanent changes”ring and stable changes” in place of “‘ause d
that learning brings in the behaviour of the lea bso-
changes in the b rner. It is true
Teactions in the material > as the changes brought about by che
objects. The habits we mical
acquire, the knowle
Pick up, the interest
e other occasion
e other set of Sim can be unlearned, modified
or replaced by som
ehavio ur. Therefore, ilar ordifferently acquired
in place of absolutel it is safe to use the w.
y permanent for
ehaviour on account the r
tion of learning may runof learning and con 5
sequently a proper
as below: defini-
Learning is a process
the Behaviour of a Le which brings Relativel
i y Permanent
arner through Experience or Changes in
Practice
t
Types of learning
J
Learning, defin ed
changes in the behavi as a process of
our off an organibr:in ging Telativel
sm, may be y permanent
number of catego classified ina
ries depending up
the behaviour in wh on
ich changes are th e domain or spec
introduced or jn ific area of
terms of the
Learning 171
of
methods or techniques that are employed for the introduction
behavioural changes. i
ion, the learni ng can be classi fied as
If we follow the former criter
sion), learning of motor
verbal learning (involving verbal expres, swimming, etc), affective
skills (such as walking, danci ng, typing
, etc.) and
learning (learning of habits, interest attitudes, appreciationem-solving;
eR learning (learning of concepts, principles, probl
as.
_ In the case of the latter criterion, we may categorize learning
tioning, operant conditioning,
trial and error learning, classical condi
through generalization, learning
chain learning, shaping, learning ate learning, insightful
through discrimination, serial learning, associ
learning, etc.
e (1970) for the purpose of
An alternative basis adopted by Gagn ng. By taking into considera-
classifying learning is worth ment ioni
t
he has classified learning into eigh
tion, a specific hierachical order cond itio ning ), S.R. learn ing.
sical
types, namely, signal learning (clas ), chain learning, verbal
(instrumental and operant conditioning epts,
discrimination, learning of conc
associate learning, multiplening of principles and problem-solving.
multiple discrimination, lear
somewhere:
s of learning are discussed
_ Many of these various type e. However a few are discussed
in this text at the proper plac
below:
ion of
this type helps in the acquisit
Verbal learning: Learning geof we speak, the communication devices.
verbal behaviour. The langua arning and rote mem~
ing.
we use, are the result o
orization which is a typ’ sour
, symbols,
learning. Signs, pictures
individual as an essential instrument for
etc., are employed by theess of verbal learning.
engaging him in the proc
of motor skills may be
or lea rni ng: The learning of all types how to swim. riding a
Mot
of learning. Learning
included in such type ing a plane, playing the piano, hitting a
fly
horse, driving a car, , adding and multiply-
g a geometrical design handling various instru-
moving target, drawin d
ming experiments an s
ing long digits, perfores of such learning. Acquisition of varioucy
ts are the exa mpl ing spe ed and acc ura
men
jearning helps in acquir
‘skills through such a sort of confidence
of these skills and creates sat
in the field of operat ion isfaction. The art
ease and
in him to per form the task with great
‘through a systemati
e and planned
skills can be acquired anised actions.
of these fix on of a series of org
ati
way of the acquisition and app rop ria te lea rning methods
ses by mak ing use of some
or respon
and devices.
ning: A concept in the form of a mental image:
Concept lear lized idea about the things, persons or events. For
denotes a gen era brings to us
e, our CO ncept of “tree” isa mental image that
mpl
exa
12 Genera! Psychology
the similarities or common ‘properties of all the differ
We will call a thing tree when it has some
ent trees we kaoa:
specific characteristics, sa
image of which we have already acquired in our
mind on ag ns
of our previous experience, perception
or rich imagination.
formation of such concepts on account of previ
training or cognitive processes is called ous experience,
concept learning. Such typo
of concept learning proves very
useful in recognizing, naming an
identifying the things. All of our behaviour, verbal, symbolic, motor
as well as cognitive, is influenced
by our concepts. Thus what we
Say, understand, reason and judg e is, to a great extent, controlled
do,
the quality of our concept lear by
ning.
Problem Solving: In the ladder
behaviour, problem-solving denotes of learning and acquisition of
type oflearning requires the a higher type of learning. Such
use
ing, thinking, power of observatof the cognitive abilities like reas
ion, discrimination, generalizati on-
imagination, ability to infer on,
and
ways and experimenting, etc. Base draw
d on the grounds of earlier 7
experiences, effect of coaching,
and acquisition of knowledg
e,
sets, etc., an individual
may
serial learning, associate

learning, etc., developed
gists may also help in by the psycholo-
this directi
Serial learning
Serial learning consists of such
presented learnin
with such type of learning
presented at the beginn arning material, the

items
Temember than those in ing and the end of the list are easier to
the middle, and this app
lables, actual words or ears true whether the
items are nonsense syl
poems: longer Passages such as
; Yeti)
173
Learning.”
Paired-associate learning
in such a way that
` In this learning, learning tasks are presented
associations. The name of a
they may be learned on account of their on account of its association
village like Kishanpur is remembered name Ganga by learning it
with the name of Lord Krishna or a girl’s s.
iation with the river Gange
in the form of making paired assocmay; thus, be learnt or remem-
ing
Much of the verbal or motor learn of paired or multiple association.
bered on account of the technique
ociate learning the learner
In having practice of such paired-ass or nonsense syllables like
words
may be presented a series of paired
the following:
Paired nonsense syllables
Paired Words
PN—PF
Dog—Animal NLP—JDS
Parrot—Bird RJBP—RNYS
Cat—Milk TIPBK—GMPRK |
Motor—child
for a brief
r (two words or syllables)
The learner views the pai s. He is then presented with one
second
spell, usually less than five asked to recall the other.
The practice with
ber of the pai r and known as associate
mem
ps in building what is
such procedure then helpaired associate learning is the acquisition
of
learning. An example paired with their
abulary items that are presented in the
of foreign language voc The matching itemsalso lay emphasis on
mother-tongue equivalents. of the achievement test
objective type questi ons
such type of learning.
Theories of learning
s an individual
ocess of learning? How doe des and similar
habits, int ere sts , att itu
n a subject of
h que stions have always bee
is life ? Suc
s and as a resulta
inv est iga tio n bef ore psychologist broad sense these
enquiry and ng. In a
have comè into bei istic
number of theories classified into two major heads: Behaviour
theories may be
ive theories.
theories and cognit of behaviourism.
belong to the, school ween stimulus and
Behaviouristic theories bet
in terms of association
They interpret learning
cat egory we may incrie’ lude theories like Thorn-
res pon se. Und er this s contiguity theory
trial and s error learA ning, Guth i
dike’s
gi Sie theory of Halt’s drive reduction theory of learning, classical and
f
ioning. nthe \sohdol.-a
operant condit he r ha nd! belong. to re
Cognitive theo
ries, on th e ot
. In esplacph
psycthhoesloe gyth e of pu
ho lo gy an d co gn iveoach
itpr eo ri em asize the
yc
GeJ stalt. ps Or instrumen ta l ap 1
mechanical
derstanding and ot her cognitive. factors
role of purpose: insight, un
174
General Psychology
in the process of learning.i Under thisi category, the theories
theory ofinsightful learning, Lewin’s ies like,»
man’s sign learning, etc., may field theory of learning, Tol
be included.
As far as this text is concerne
important theories like Thorndik d, we would like to discuss r aH
e’s theory of trial and error,
conditioning, operant conditio classi
ning and insightful learning
Trial and Error .
T,heory of Learning: The
Edward L. T. ike
(1874- famous 1 Soi
theory of trial and error lea 1949) is known as the propagator of t i
performed on chickens, rats rni ng. It is the result of his
and cats. For illustration experimen
, let us narrate
He put a hungry catin
for exit which cou a puzzle box. The
co ld be opened by correctly re was only one door
fish was placed Outsid manipu
i lating a latch. A
e the box. The sm
this way, it made a number of random

movements. In one of the
,
came out and got its y chance, the latch was manipulated. The
reward. ca
me
Se TE
LEDA
Fig. 12.1 Tnorndike’s cat is try
ing to come out
For another trial, the

process Was
hungry and placedin the same Puzzle boxrep eated. The Cat was kep
, The fish and t
again worked as motive for getting out of its smell
random movements the box: it again made
and frantic efforts. Bu
in coming out. On subsequent trials such tIncthis time, it took less timie
orrect Tesponses, biting
,
Learning 175
‘clawing and dashing were gradually diminished and the cat took less
time on eyery succeeding trial. In due course, it was in a position to
manipulate the latch as soon as it was put in the box. In this way,
gradually, the cat learned the art of opening the door.
The experiment sums up the following stages in the process of
learning:
1. Drive: (in the present experiment it was hunger which was
intensified with the sight of the food).
2. Goal: To get the food by getting out of the box.
3 Block: The cat was confined in the box with a closed door.
4. Random movements: The cat, persistently, tried to get out

of the box.
5. Chance Success: As a result of this striving and random
movement the cat, by chance, succeeded in opening the door.
6. Selection (of proper movement): Gradually, the cat recognised
the correct manipulation of the latch. It selected the proper
way of manipulating the latch out of its random movements.
7. Fixation: At last, the cat learned the proper way of opening
the door by eliminating all the incorrect responses and fixing
only the right responses. Now it was able to open the door
without any error or, in other words, learned the way of
opening the door.
cat as “Trial
Thorndike named the learning of his experimental nothing but
ng”. He maint ained that the learni ng is
and Error Learni
ing out of the
the stamping in of the correct responses and stamp the correct
h trial and error. In trying for
incorrect responses throug error
solution the cat made so many vain attempts. It committed tried to
after error before gainin g success . On subseq uent trials, it
of manipu lating
avoid the erroneous ways and repeat the correct way and connecting”
ing
the latch. Thorndike called it “Learning by select the proper responses
as it provides an opportunity for the selection of
and correct or associate them with adequ ate stimuli . In this refer-
has writte n— “Learn ing Is connec ting. The mind is
ence, Thorndike p. 122).
man’s connection system .” (1931,
tion of connection in
As a result learning is caused by the forma
the nervous system betwe en stimu li and respo nses. There is a definite
action. This
association between sense impression and impulses to these bonds
is
. Since it
association is known as a bond or connection weak ened in the making
s which are stren gthen ed or
or connection m, is sometimes, called a
and breaking of habits. Thorn dike’ s syste
y ism”’.
“‘connection
“bond psychology” or simpl
Thorndike propounded the following laws of learning on the basis
of his theory:
HG General Psychology
1. The law of readiness : The statement
runs as under:
“When any conduction unit is ready to
conduct, for it to do
so is satisfying. When any conduction unit
is not in readiness
to conduct, for it to conduct is annoying. When any conduc-
tion unit is in readiness to conduct, for it not to do so is
annoying.”
This law is indicative of learner’s state to Parti
ing process. Readiness cipate in the learn-
accor
ding to Thor
action. It is very essential for learning. If thendike is preparation for
child is ready to learn,
ctively and with greater satisfaction than
if he is unwilling to learn. It warns us not to make the child learn till
he is ready to learn and also not to miss any opportunity of provid-
i already, prepared to learn.
earning situation and the
2. The Law of Effect: In the

words of Thorndike, the stat
the law runs as under: ement of
“When a modifiable connec
tion between s
is made and is accompani
ed or follow
affairs, that Connection’s
strength is incr
accompanied or foll
faction, the Progress on the pat

pleasant experiences have a h of learning is blocked. All
last the
a long time, while the unpleasaning influence and are remembered for
t ones are soon forgotton. The
fore, the satisfaction and diss re-
obtained as a result of some learatisfaction, pleasure or displeasure
ning ensure the degree of effe
ness of that learning. ctive-
3. The Law of Exercise: Thi

and law of disuse. The statements law has two Sub-parts—law of use
under: s regarding these sub-parts run as
Lawof use; “When a modifiable conn
situation and response that conn ection is mad
ection’s streng th is, eothbetween a
being equal, increased.” er things
Learning 177
Law of disuse: “When a modifiable connection is not made be-

tween a situation and response, during a length of time, that connec-
tion’s strength is decreased.”
_ In this way, law of use refers to the strengthening of connection
with practice while the law of disuse to the weakening of connection
be
or forgetting, when the practice is discontinued. In brief, it can
said that Law of Exercise as a Whole, emphasiz es the need of repeti-
tion, practice and drill work in the process of learning.
and law of
All these three laws—law of readiness, law of effect things in
exercise, cast a great influe nce in makin g us learn so many
our life. The laws imply the following proverbs and maxims:
make him drink.”
“You can lead a horse to water but you cannot
“Nothing succeeds like success.”
“Practice makes a man perfect.”
ise and effect, Thorn-
. In addition to the laws of readiness, exerc of the following impor-
dike’s idea of connecti onis m prov ided some
tant laws:
The law implies
(i) Law of multiple response or varied reactions:with a new
n situation
that when an ind ividual is confronted
he responds in a variety of ways before arriving at the
correct responso.
by a total attitude or
(ii) Law of Attitude: Learning is guided the task properly
org ani sm. The lear ner perf orms
‘set’ of the s the task.
tude tow ard
if he has developed a healthy atti
ogy: An individu al res pon ds „ t o to new situation
aa new
(iii) Law of Anal
by him in similar situa-
on the basis of the responses made
onses by comparison of
tions in the past. He makes resp
analogy.
of law runs thus—
(iv) Law of Associative Shifting: The statement
learner of which he is
from the
“We can get any response to which he is sensi-
situation
capable, associated with any which is possible can be
tive.” In other words, any response clarified his stand
linked with any stimulus. Thorndike which he demonstrated
in
through one of his experiments stand up at command. He
can be trained to
how a cat the
bit of fish is dangledibefore
concluded that first of all, a
cat while you say ‘stand up’. After enough trials, there will
u would not£ need the help of the fish.
bea stage when yo
The oral signal or command will alone evoke the response.
The idea put through this Jaw gave birth to a new theory of
learning known as Theory of Conditioning.
rndike’s contributions in the
Practical implications of Tho ,
field of learning
enough educational
Thorndike’s theory of trial and error has
significance. It tries to explain the process of learning, carefully on
ne General Psychology
the basis of actual experiments performe
human learning d. Not only the animal’s put
also, to a greater extent follows the path of
error. A child while confronte trial
so many possibilities for its d wit h a mathematical problem, an
solu tion , before he arrives at the t
one. Even the discoveries and cor rec
ledge are the results of inventions in various fields
trial and error process. of know-
For example, let us tak
e the discovery made
the form of his wel
l-known princ by Archimedes in
problem given by his Emperor. pri iple. He was confronted with a
i
of the law of floating attempts and this led to the formulat

bodies, ion
But the excessive use of
caring for the development the method, trial and
error. without
ed under any circumstance of understanding should
s. We can not be encourag
as mechanical and bli not reduce the human
nd learning
be supported by rea fol ded as advocated by this the
son, understanding and ory . It ant
Practice coupled with insight. Trials an
more effective than ins igh t, wil l make the process of
either of the method learning
s adopted alone.
As far as Thorndike’
useful implications s laws of learning
in the following way are concerned, they
s: carry
1. If one wants to lea
it by fully realisin rn a thing, he must be
qui
g its importance to him. An inst te willing to learn
on the other hand , for teaching effectively, must ructoror a teacher
learner a to learn
b y brii nging the try to prepare the
Operation. mechanism of motivation into
2
He must try various solutions of the Proble0 mhisbefo
task independently.
correct One. But in every case he re arriving at a
ne shou
sh ld be carefu
time and energy by rep
eating his mistakes and
l not to waste his
Proceed blindly.
179
Learning
_ In short, Thorndike’s theory of trial and error learning along with

his laws of learning have contributed a lot in the field of learning.
It has made the learning purposeful and goal-directed and has
emphasized the importance of motivation. It has also given an
impetus to the work of practice, drill and exercise and highlighted
the psychological importance of rewards and praise in the field of
learning.
Theory of classical conditioning

g
Ivan Pavlov and Conditioning: In his laboratory, while studyin
the functioning of the digestive system, a Russian psychologist named
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) encountered an unforeseen problem: the
eating but also
experimental dogs salivated not only upon actual brought it, or
when they saw the food, noticed the man who usually
this
of their feeder. Pavlov began to study
even heard the footsteps the type of
Phenomenon, which he called “Conditioning’’. Since
different from the
conditioning emphasized was a classical one—quiteat the later stage—it
ologists
conditioning emphasized by other psych r standing the
has been renamed as classical conditio ning. For under of the type
conditi oning, let us have an idea
nature of the process of
of experiments performed by Pavlov.
kept a dog hungry for a few
In one of his experiments, Pavlov
days and then tied him on to therollexp erimental table which was fitted
ed devices. The dog was made
with certain mechanically cont
ns were excl uded as far as it was possible
comfortable and distractio dog but
from view of the
to do. The observer kept himself hidden
J Tuning fork
Í \
Cup for Recording
Tube from salivary glands measuring saliva device
experiment conducted by Peslov

Fig. 12.2. Diagrammatic view of tho
was able to view the experiment by mean
s
ment was made to give food to the dog of a set of mirrors. Arrange-
Every time the food was presented through automatic devices.
to the dog, he also arranged Tor
the ringing of a bell. When the
food was presented to the dog
an
mouth of the dog. The activity
of presenting the food acc
with a ringing of the bell was ompanied
repeated several times and
the amount
After several trials, the dog was given no food but
rung. In this case the bell was
also the amo
unt of saliva secreted was
and measured. It was foun recorded
d that even in the abse
natural stimulus), the ringing nce of food (the
ed the dog to secrete the
of the bell (an artificial stim
saliva (natural response). ulus) caus-
Rega nesnntweionsl
Natural or
. Sin unconditioned
{Presentation of foo Gua: +.
d) S response
PAR {Salivation)
s
Z
Conditioned
A response
7 aaa
Ultimately
Anificial or Pi
conditioned
stimulus (Ringing (General
e
the bell) alertness)
Ri
Fig. 12.3. Diagrammatic Pre
sentation of the
experiment
The aboye experimen

essential elements of the t thus, brings into the picture the four
conditioning process. The
natural stimulus, tec
hnically known a first element is a
i.e., food. It result
s in a natural TES
(CR), the fourth elemen

t is the chain of t
However, as a result of
conditioning, one le
our to form Condit
ioned respons
stimulus.
Learning 181
of the bell, sight of the light of a definite colour etc., can evoke a
natural response. When both the artificial or natural stimulus
(ringing of the bell) and natural stimulus (food) are brought together
several times, the dog becomes habituated or conditioned to respond
to this situation. There is perfect association between the types of
stimuli presented together. As a result, after some time natural
stimulus can be substituted or replaced by an artificial stimulus and
this artificial stimulus is able to evoke the natural response.
John Watson and Theory of Conditioning: John Watson (1878-
1958), the father of behaviourism supported Pavlov’s ideas on
conditioned responses. Through his experiments, Watson tried to
demonstrate the role of conditioning in producing as well as elimi-
nating the emotional responses such as fear.
In one of his experiments, he took an eleven-month-old child
named Albert as his subject. The baby was given a rabbit to play
with. The baby liked it very much and was pleased to touch its fur.
He watched carefully the pleasant responses of the baby. After some
time in the course of the experiment, a loud noise was produced to
frighten the baby, as soon as the baby touched the rabbit. The baby
the loud
was frightened. Each time he tried to touch the rabbit,
Noise was produced and he responded with fear. After some time
ied it.
he began to fear the rabbit, even if no loud noise accompan
to fear the rabbit through condition ing.
In this way he learned
Peter, who was
In another experiment of his, a childfirstnamedthe rabbit was placed
afraid of rabbits was used as a subjec t. At
far from the boy so that it would not pose a threat, but gradually
and closer.
on each successive day, the rabbit was brought closer was eating
the table where Peter
Eventually, the rabbit was placed ong associated the animal with the
and then on the boy's lap. Havin
andhe began to touch
pleasure of eating, the child’s fear vanishedgh a simple treatment of
its fur and play with it. In this way, throu
rabbit.
conditioning he learned not to fear the
From these experiments, Wats on and Pavlov, etc.» concludedof
that all types of learning be _explained through the process
can
is can be understood from the
conditioning. What this process
following:
process whereby an, artificial or conditioned
It is a learning
lus when both natural
stimulus is able to behave like a natural stimu kind of learning,
and artificial stimuli are presented together. In this
responds to an
association plays @ great role since the individual
assoc iates it with the natur al stimulus.
artificial stimulus because he
Watson and
The conditioning theory of learning put forward by behav-
ioning of the Respo ndent
Pavlov actually involves the condit
iour through a process of stimulus association and substitution. Here
the responses of the learner become so much conditioned —behaving
in the same way Or respon ding simila rly toa similar situation —that
stimuli for evoking d
the relate
he does not care for the natural
natural response. As a result the new
like the original stimulus and is able
Subs A tituted stimulus tin5 aves
to evoke the desired response.
Principles of classical conditioning
The theory of classical
Watson gave birth to a num Conditioning emphasized by Pavlov ang
ber of important concepts
in the field of learning as
und
and princip!
er:
Extinction: Jt was
not
stimulus (ringing of the bel ed f
l) is presented alone a number of tim
ti
es
behaviour often appear

This phenomenon—thes agai
reappearance of an
led spontaneous rec

overy. The process o
makes us believe that so
mehow the learning 1
may become so str ime
ong that there will goe s by, the suppression
Possibility of Spontaneo , ultimately, be
us recovery. no mor
Stimulus Genera
lization
appearance oflight, sou

nd of the footsteps
associated with its getting of of the feeder, etc.,
boy Albert showed fea the food.
ut merely at the r not onl y after it
Sight of a rabbit, touching the rabbi
even Santa Claus’ a
whiskers. Res
a particular state of learning generaliza
behaviour in which antion referring to
individual once
condi tioneway
the same d to inrespond to a specific stimulus is made to respo
re Sponse to other stimuli of nd in
similar nature.
Stimulus discrimi
nation
Stimulus discrimination is
€re in sharp contrast to Te the opposite of stimulus generalization.
learns to react different sponse in a usual fas
ly in different situations. Fo hion the subject
may be made to salivate onl r example, the dog
at the
y at the Sight of the green light and not
red or others, Goin
at the sight of particula intg further, the salivation might be elicited
r ensity or brightness of the
green light but
Learning 183
not the other. In this way, through the mechanism of stimulus discri-
mination, conditioning may help us in learning to react only to a
single specific stimulus out of the multiplicity of stimuli and enabling
us to distinguish and discriminate among a variety of stimuli present
In our environment.
Implications of classical conditioning

see our Bay ey life, we are usually exposed to simple classical
san ioning. ear, love and hatred towards an object, phenomenon
vent are created through conditioning. A father who, after
returning home from his office, always rebukes and punishes his child
without caring to know the basic reasons may condition his child to
fear him, or develop anxiety reactions at the time of his returning
home. The child may further develop a feeling of hatred towards his
father or even a lot of discontent and hostile attitude towards his
home. Similarly, a teacher with his defective methods of teaching or
improper behaviour may condition a child to develop a distaste and
hatred towards him, his subject and even the school environment. On
treatment
the contrary, affection, a loving attitude and sympathetic at
by the parents at home or by the teachers
given to the child
the process of
school may bring a desirable impact on him through
conditioning.
ated with the
From the beginning most of our learning is associ
A child learns to call his father ‘daddy ’ and his
process of conditioning. proces s of condi-
mother ‘mummy’, his dog as ‘Montu’ throug h the
ponse associ ation and substit ution. As a result
tioning i.o., stimulus-res
lizati on, he may attribu te the name of daddy to all
of stimulus genera
s and call all dogs by the
adult males, mummy to all adult female of stimulus discrimi-
lly, he comes to the stage
name Montu. Gradua ize and attribute
and recogn
nation and then learns to discriminate
objects. This pheno-
different names to different persons, animals and
mination goes on up to
menon of stimulus genera lization and discri
meet a person and dislike him
quite a late stage in our life. Often we individual reminds us of
that
or her at first sight merely because not like to mix with people
someone else we do not like. We ordo caste and often develop a
belonging to another faith, religion
them even if we have not
feeling of hatred and enmity towards
directly experienced anything unpleasant.
one’s behaviour, to a great extent,
What is termed as abnormality in
may be taken as learned. This learned pattern of one’s behaviour is
ple, a child may be condi-
acquired through conditioning. For exambeco me so frightened of dogs
tioned to deve lop dog phob ia. He may
to venture out alone. In
after being bitten by one that he is reluctant
a more complex case, a youn g woma n who has had several unfortu-
me so worried in the
nate encounters with adult males may beco
le to have normal social
presence of any adult male that she is unabfactory sexual ones.
relations with adult males , much less satis
Thus, much of our behaviour in the shape of interests, attitudes,
habits, sense of application or criticism, moods and temperaments,
etc., is fashioned through conditioning. The proces
s of conditioning,
not only helps us in learning what is
desirable but also helps in
eliminating, avoiding or unlearning of so many
undesirable habits.
unhealthy attitudes, Superstitions, fear and phobia
s through decondi-
tioning. An individual who hates a
particular person or object may
be made to seek pleasure in its
company. Another individual who
thinks it a dangerous sign if a cat crosses
his way can be made to
give up his false belief.
Operant conditioning
d included in the category of conditioning

rs alot from the classical conditioning ,
ad
salivating. In each of such »instthe dog waits for food to arrive

before
ances, the subject has no control
over the happening. He
js
stimulus situations. Thus, the mad e to behave in res
environment, the organism behaviour is said to be initpon se
iate
to the
simply responds, d by the
{Skinner revolted against “no
in the evolution of behavi stimulus, no response” mechanism
our. He argued that in pra
In our life, we cannot ctical situations
environment. Man is not always wait for
a
manipulate the things in thevictim of the environment, He
environment with his own may often
Therefore, it is not alwa initiative-
stimuli or cause for evo
king a response, Q
own stimuli. The organism
a child, or an individual “doe
s
ment and
er, it “operates” on the environ-
in turn the envi
the environment responds ronment responds to the activity. How
to the activity, rewarding or
determines whether the behavi
our will be repeated, mai not, largely
avoided. ntained or
From where Skinner got the
that can arise at this stag cue for such j
e. Definitely, it Was
observations of an earlier psycholo
gist named Edward Lee Thorndike
Through his experiments, for pro
pagat .
theory of learning, Thornd i i
ike concluded that the
mized movements) leads to
repetition of an act and the
of S-R associations. These con clusio s
experiments to find the consequen ns made Skin
ces of the reward:
Maintaining behaviour. Based
Concluded that “behav on the findings of h
iour is shaped and
quences. It is operated by the org
anism and
185
Learning
named as operant
ae The occurrence of such behaviour was
that plays the part in learning
ehaviour and the process of learning ng.
d by him as opera nt condi tioni
such behaviour was name
agated through his theory of
For understanding what Skinner prop
to build a base by defining and
operant conditioning, let us try by him for bringing out his
explaining some of the concepts used
theory.
r
Respondent and operant behaviou
theories of learning assumed the
_ As we have seen the earlier ssar y pre-requisite for evok-
as a nece
existence of a known stimulus of the
first time, got the idea that most
ing a response. Skinner, the kno wn stim uli. He defi ned
ed to the
responses could not be attribut uli whic h
one “elicited” by known stim
two types of responses —the the othe r “emi tted ” by the
viour” and
he called as “respondent beha ed as “Operant behaviour”. Examples
unk ,own stim uli whic h he call ing one’s
include all reflexes such as jerk
of respondent behaviour may the pupi llar y cons tric tion on
pin and
hand when jabbed with asalivation in the presence of food.
account of bright light or
the response
our the stimulus preceding
_ &Inthe respondent behavi the behaviour. On the other hand, in the
sing
is responsible for cau our is unknown
the sti mulus causing such behavi
ope ran t beh avi our aviour. Here it
know the cause of the beh our which are
and it is not important to the beh avi
the consequences of
is not the stimulus but the operant behaviour
is controlled by the
and hen ce Examples of such
more important ces instead of stim uli.
seq uen
strength of its con ing one’s hand, arms
the behaviours like mov
behaviour may include toy in favour of the
other,
child abandoning one and
or legs arbitrarily, @ and walking about
a letter, standing up
eating a meal, writing vities.
similar other everyday acti
a set of acts which
ran t: Ski nne r con siders an operant as ¢.g.> raising its head,
Ope ng
sm's doing $ omethi
constitutes an organi a lever, ete.
g
walking about, pushin reinforcement is
r an d Rei nfo rce men t: The concept ofrcer is the stimulus
Reinforce A reinfo
tation of a reward. probability of a respon
se
identical to the presen or re mo va l inc rea ses the
rc— er
pos s
iti ve
whose presentat ion in fo
thinks of two kinds of re
re-occurring. Skinner
and negative- en-
ulus the introduction or presour
A positive reinforcer is any stim of a par tic ula r beh avi .
of whi ch inc rea ses the likelihood rei n-
tation d as positi ve
tact, etc., are classifie
Food, water, sexual con any sii mul us the removal or with-
nforcer is aviour.
forcers. A negative reises the likelihood of a particular beh
drawal of whi ch inc rea neg ati ve rein-
se, etc., are said to be
Electric shock & loud noi
forcers.
The Schedules of Reinforce
ment: Skinner put forward the
Planning of schedules
of idea of
behaviour of the organism. reinforce ement of conditioning the operant
The im portant schedules are as
1. Continuous Reinfo under:
rce
reinforcement schedule Wher ment Schedule: It is hundred per cent
reward every correct e provision is made
response of the o to reinforce or
learning. For example, i
answer he gives to a student
the questions
2 Fixed Interval
Organism is reward Reinfor cement Schedule:
ed for a re In this schedule the
time e.g., every 3 Sponse made only after a set interval of
minutes or
every 5 minutes. How many times he
Matter; it isS onl uring
y on the expiry this fixed interval of time
Presented with som of the fixed interval, does not
e reinforcement. that he is
Variable Reinforcement Schedu

at Varying int le: When Teinforcement
erva
erv al]ls of time or after a Varying num is given
ble Teinforcement schedu ber of respon ses, it
le. In this cuse rei
individual does not kno nforcement
= Or irregular. The
1S going to be Tewarded an w when he
conseque
ntly he remains motivated
thro
most ugho
comutmo the learning process in the wait of reinforcement. The
e least resistance ous

during learning. The to extinc n and the schedule, thus,
refore, learning tio of ow
i every correct respon
se is rewarded, b
the reinforcemen forgotten when
number of correc
rTesponse iss remarkt responses or at varying given after a varying
ably resistant to e interv
interval reinforcem i n. Howeals
xtinctio of time, the
ver, the fixed
en
1n terms of performanc t sc he dules are found to
e as the indi provide the lowest
vidual may soon learn yield
to respond
,-hUC«T«~SS
187
Learning
forcement arrives.
correctly only w hen the time or turn of rein emen t after a fixed
gett ing rein forc
Similarly, he may lose interest in s. Weig hing all these
interval or fixed number of cor
rect response
with 100 per cent sche dule, prac-
properly, Skinner sugges ts to begin lly arri ve at the
dule and fina
tice the fixed interval or fixed ratio sche results ning or
in lear
variable reinforcement sc hedule for better
training.
ioning
Defining operant condit reby
rs to a kind of learning proc
ess whe
Operant conditioning refe freq uent by reinforce-
e probable or more
a response is made mor ng of ope ran t beh avi our , the beh aviour
ment. It helps in the learni d with a known stimuli.
that is not necessarily associate
ditioning
ssical and oper ant con
Distinction between cla d on respondent
t conditioning is base
Classical or respondendeals with responses that invariably follow
it
behaviour. Specifically, t hus elicited e.g., blinking
at a bright light.
mul us and are food, and so
a specific sti the test of
ng at an ele ctr ic shoc ! k, salivation to the stimulus for
jumbli to
importance is attached
forth. In this greater po nse. That is why it is also called a type S
eliciting the desired res
conditioning.
ps in conditioning Or
oth er ha nd , ope ra’ nt conditioning hel emitted (rather than
On the t is
learning of operantnism behaviou r— behaviouropetha rant behaviour on his
own
se em s to ini tia te rni ng.
elicited). Th e or ga typ e of lea
stimulus. In this
explicit, preceding se T:ath er tha n the stimulus.
ce d onthe respon con-
much emphasis is pla That is why, it is also namedC as type R
ble m Y wit h tthe tra iner or
, the pro
ype S conditioning li for evoking desired response.
r imu ponses
teacher is to select app R type conditioning, out O: f many res ner
han d in wit h the trai
On the other the problem
which an organism
is cap
opriate response:
s and then fix
is to evoke only the appr
or teacher reinforcement.
the help 0 f suitable
them properly with may thus
types of conditioning
twee n these two
The difference be r:
unde
be summarized as
Operant conditioning
nt Conditioning
Classical Responde opearnt
respon- 1. It helps in the Jearning of
the learning of behaviour.
1. Ithelps in our.
dent behavi is called type R conditioning
ioning to 2. It
is cal led type S condit of the becau se of the emphasis on the
. It
as iz e the importance se. respo nse.
em ph ing desired res
pon
stimulus in elicit gi nn in1 g 3, Here beginning is made with the
th is type of coo nditioning be speci- respon ses as they occur “naturally”
3, In the help of
is ine ma de wi th
cert am or “unna tural ly”, shaping them into-
i tha t bring nce.
fic sti mul existe
responses.
= General Psychology
4. Here Streng
th
usually determ of ConditioSening ‘
js 4. Here
Of the Conditioined by the Magnitude strength itio
of suri ieni,ng is
ned response shown by the
i.e., the
classica] Expe tate with whthic
e respon eran
t resp
case occurs asa rehsultan Opera e rei onse
the dog), ri me nt of Pavlov wi of
th ment. of some rein nforce-
Skinner’s ex
periments re
garding °per
B.F. Skinner ant conditio
conducting co nd uc te d ning
the ex i
NOWn as Sk
inner's Box.
Y
activated, ora Y) 5
light or a prspesses the lever, th
ecial e F
ri
Sound js Produce“fdeedear meohanim s
bs water) is released n d a sm al P For
with a reco nf experiment into
the food cu
lever pressird ing system
ngs against Which produces s, the leve p. cted
the length of “* graphical r is ee the
time the rat tracing o
ungty ra N > iN one is in the bo
t in the aboy of x.
described box. his experiments, placed
In this experi Ie
aha ment pressi a
d result in th
goining g toto the fo 5 od gnal food pallet. The cle produs
Or each of hi cu p, it will be g to the rat that if it ick somo
in ic at in
s ropi attempts fo rewarded. The rat wasTesponos 2y
Socee response ha r pressing rewar a
the lever.
»
bility of the wa it s ag vi ng been a arded, Th e a
repetitiaio n rewarded wh “was repeated an
ich furt
Press respher increase d
onse and sod onth.e wh en
pro this
In is
art of pressing the leve
r as desire
experiments
wi
th pi ons,
&xperiment ha
d to called “Pigge Skin
eons box”. ner made use xot
h Peck at a ligh A pi
i
With the as conseque
nt ly
ic key mounted geonon int i
theory of he lp Of of such experi re warded by
receivin
the wal
Operan t COnd mei nts, Skinner g ain.
Tesponses
]j e Pressi itionin or learning put forwgrar d ie
ng of th
e |ever bu g not on
o ex series of t also for learly $ the simp t
responses ning the mos
Operant beh: g as
iour.
Operantemisphas ized
organism’s oi ng a sot of eaac
rlier is correlated with
1Oning som thing. Hence th ts that constitutes
at random” Start with the Tesponse e process of
s as they o erant condan
i-
may be made a In Case they do not occur occur naturally”
for Shaping them naturally,
into existence. then attemp orts
How it can be done
Learning 189
will be explained later on in this chapter under the heading
‘Shaping’.
Once a response (as desired by the trainer, experimenter or
teacher) occurs, it is reinforced through a suitable reinforcer (Primary
or Secondary, positive or negative) In due course this response gets
conditioned by constantly reinforcing it. In Skinner’s experiment a
pallet of food worked as a positive primary reinforcer for the hungry
rat. He got the reinforcement after emitting a certain response
(pressing of the lever as desired by the experimenter). The Secondary
reinforcement may also produce the same results as brought about
by the primary reinforcement. It isa sort of neutral stimulus which
acquires the reinforcing properties (rewarding value) after getting
Paired or associated with a primary reinforcer (e.g., food or water).
The clicking of a sound and lighting of a bulb in Skinner’s experi-
ment may work as secondary reinforcement if they are paired with
the appearance of a pallet of food.
The important thing in the mechanism of operant conditioning is
the emitting of a desired response and its proper management
through suitable reinforcement. Here the organism is to respond in
such a way as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. The subsequent
reinforcement gradually conditions the organism to emit the desired
response and thus learn the desired act.
Shaping
There are situations specially in case of the acquisition of com-
plex behaviour and learning of difficult skills, etc., where there may
arise very remote chances of the occurrence of the responses in a
specific way at random (natural occurrence). In such cases waiting for
an organism to behave in a specific way at random (the natural
occurrence) may take a life time. For example, the chances fora
pigeon to dance in a specific way are extremely remote. The same
holds true for a child learning Russian or even table manners. In
these situations, where the desired responses do not occur at random
(or naturally) efforts are made for eliciting the appropriate responses.
It is done by building a chain of responses through a step by step
process called “shaping.”
f his experiments for shaping the behaviour of a pigeon—
to Aa f walk a a figure eight—Skinner watched its activity and
gave it a small amount of grain (reward) when it moved in the
g
proper direction. At first the pigeon got his reward for simply turnin
right
the
jts head in the right direction, then for taking a step in
direction, then for making the correct turn, and so on, until it had
learned to do a complete figure eight.
ing, in this way, may be used as a successful technique for
Shap
king indi Ai iduals learn difficul
2 t 2 and comple
= x behaviS our and also A for
m ADE desirable modifications in the behaviour. Behaviour
modification technique and aversive therapy used in treating the
190 General P§ychology
problem behaviour and abnormality have come into existenc
the use of the shaping of beha e through
viour mechanism.
Implications of the theory
of operant conditioning
Theory of operant conditioning
training or learning by bringing forw has revolutionized the field of
ard the following practical ideas
and implications:
1. A response or behaviour
gent) upon a specific known stimulis not necessarily dependent
i. It is more correct to think(contin-
a behaviour or Tesponse is depend that
fore, for training an organi ent upon its consequences. There-
Tesponse, he may be init sm to learn a particular beh
iate aviour or
the reinforcing stimulus. Hisd to respond in such a way as to produce
turn he should again behaviour should get the
act in such a Way that reward and in
on. Therefore, the lea
rning
he is rew arded and so
be so designed as to create or training process and environment
minimum frustr ation and maximum satis- must
faction to a learner to
desired training or lea pro vid e him Pro per reinforcement for the
rning.
more. Goin g in the same Way, we

learn the desired will be able to make the
behaviour, individual
history. We learn
ve been rewarded fortoapp speak
roxi-
p. 87).
ner.
motivation for a lea 1 y important sour
rner. Verbal praise ces
the trainer or teache ,
r, feeling of success, po si ti ve facial expression of
s of
Learning 191
and the opportunity to do the work of one’s liking all constitute

good motivator. In this way operant conditioning provided an
external approach to motivation.
_ 5. Operant conditioning lays stress on the importance of schedules
in the process of reinforcement of the behaviour. In trying to train
or learn a behaviour, therefore, great care is to be taken for the
proper planning of the schedules ofreinforcement.
6. This theory advocated the avoidance of punishment for un-
learning the undesirable behaviour and for shaping the desirable
behaviour. Punishment proves ineffective in the long run. It appears
that punishment simply supresses behaviour and when the threat of
punishment is removed, behaviour returns to its original level. There-
fore, operant conditioning experiments suggested appropriate alter-
natives to punishment in the form of rewarding appropriate behavi-
our and ignoring the inappropriate behaviour for its gradual extinc-
tion.
7. In its most effective application, theory of operant conditioning
has contributed a lot towards the development of teaching machines
and programmed learning. The theory of operant conditioning has
led us to think that learning proceeds most effectively if—
(i) the learning material is so designed that it creates less oppor-
tunities for facing failure and more opportunities for gaining
success,
(ii) the learner is given rapid feed-back concerning the accuracy
of his learning, and
(iii) the learner is able to learn at his own pace.
These principles originating from operant conditioning have re-
volutionized the training and learning programmes. As a result,
mechanical learning in the form of teaching machines and computer
ions.
assisted instructions have replaced usual class room instruct
Theory of insightful learning

The views propagated by behaviourists in the form of an associa-
respons es for underst anding learning faced
tion between stimuli and behavio ur
or
a great difficulty in explaining the learning process
succes through trial
involving higher cognitive abilities. The chance conditioning may
and error or associat ion through connect ionism and
habits
account for simple acquisition of knowledge, skills, interests
ity characte ristics, but it is absolut ely insuffic ient
and other personal
to account for problem solving, creativity and acquisition of other
similar cognitive behaviour including insight (learning that appears
to come suddenly).
iourists, the cognitive
Dissatisfied with the approach of behav
sychologists tri ed to see learn ing as a more deliberate and conscious
ring
psy t
effor on the p art of the individual rather than being a product of
ee General Psychology
X
mere habit formation 3
OF stimulus response
ccording to them, machin“ e lik
ike
e m mechanism.
merely receive or in a ]
ma
Processes (inter-acts ke responses to the stiSar s
and muli, but he definitely
Tesponse is determined doe S something) what he receives and his
by that i
Thinki ng on this lin
Gestaltists, Wo e, a
lfgang Kohler
theory known as insightf
ul lear
gists consider th ing as

e proc
thing cannot bess of ene
t parts but only e und
the basic idea
behind thi h by study of it ers tality, is
: as a to
In the practica
with the nature l se nse, Gest
of perception. alt Ps ychology is primaraily
.
concer er-
ned
ceives the thin Ac co rd in g to it, an s
g as a whole indi
Response Theori viourists an vidul Po
while the Beha
analogous with st s define Percep
taking photograph ti on in such make it
s. They thinak wa y as to
that sensation comes
Gestalt Psyc
exploratory an hologis -
int erpret learni: ng as a
d creative ent sive,
simple stimulus-res
pon
erprise instea d of triFal and purpo r or
earner, while eas
and after seeing lea rning, a ating
and evalua
cribe the percep y

tion of the wh ole SY used the term “ins
Situat ion by the le ight” to oe
in responding arner and firs
ofall, used th to the proper t
i in si g relationships.
K describe the Kohler, és.
ntali yof exAp periments on ch learning of his TERE
out a book Me
experiments, es in 1925 whic imhpanzees and
Island. These Conducted duri was the resuelte
o.n
ar ©
e given below:
(i) In one expe
riment, Kohler
Side a Cage anda
banana wa ut the chimpanz i
a hehe from thee , Sultan, in-
e roof of the
Learning 193
cage. A box was placed inside the cage. The chimpanzee

tried to reach at the banana by jumping but could not
succeed. Suddenly, he got an idea and used the box as a
jumping platform by placing it just below the hanging
banana.
Fig. 12.4 Kohler's experiment on chimpanzee
(ii) In another experiment, Kohler made this problem more

difficult. Now it required two or three boxes to reach the
bananas. Moreover, the placing of one box over the other
` required different specific arrangements.
(iii) In a more complicated experiment, the banana was placed
outside the cage of the chimpanzee. Two sticks, one longer
than the other, were placed inside the cage. One was hollow
at one end so that the other stick could be thrust into it to
form a longer stick. The banana was so kept that it could
not be picked up by any one of the sticks. The chimpanzee
first tried these sticks one after the other but failed. Sudden-
ly, he got a bright idea. The animal joined the two sticks
together and reached the banana.
In these experiments, Kohler used many different chimpanzees
Sultan, who was the most intelligent of Kohler’s chimpanzees, could
solve all the problems. Other chimpanzees could solve the problems
only when they saw Sultan solving them.
These experiments demonstrated the role of intelligence and coge-
nitive abilities in, higher learning such as problem-solving. Ths
apes, somewhat higher animals, did not resort to blind trial and
error mechanism adopted by Thorndik e’s cat or simple habit for
or Watson’s Albert. They rea m
tion as in the case of Pavlov’s dog problem, (i) organising their e
intelligently by (i), identifying the
ceptual field and (ii) using insight (the term coined by Kohlen oe
General Psychology
Teach a solution. Once ar: uat PORRE
the sit ion is percei;ved as a wh
perceptual field is
pro perly organised, a problem ole a nd the
through flashes of insight. becomes solva ble
In human beings
of times on different we come Across such type of learni‘ ber
ng
come to know that occasions. For example, a student may EA
answer in the 9’s table, the it in the
is always 9 (e.g, 9X5= sum
ing of a new meaningfu 45, 445~9 etc.) of the digits leavin’
l relationship is, The ge Ear
learning. then a result of his
insig
Though Kohler
sudden “aha” or seemed to
factors given a bolt of lightning, it
below: is bound to depend the
upon
(6) Intelligence: Insightful solution

gence of the learner. depends upon eDi ic intelli-
The More intelligent
STeater will be
his insight. the individual T
is,
(c) Learning si
tuation: How
i
initial efforts, ial and error, But thi ing has to pass through jas
in the form of sim s Stage
© way for insightfu ple trial and doe s not last
error mechanlon g. T. ef
l learning. ism, op
(e) Repetition
Solution of a Pa and G
rticular ty;
found in one si Wanding similar
tuation helps him to type of solution.
identical Situat
ions, react insigh The hee
tfully in o
e theo
ry of
The greatest insightful learning
contribution
of
, Moreover, th
tion as a whole
e emphasis on the importan
in thi ce o
Learning 195
parts or stanzas for its effective memorization. Similarly, a problem

required to be solved should be presented as a whole and after
grasping it as a whole, it should be tried for the solution on a piece-
meal basis.
The theory of insightful learning requires the organisation of the
perceptual field and learning material in the form of a “Gestalt”
i.e., as a Whole. Based on this phenomenon, we cannot treat any
learning related with a subject or skill as the mere collection of iso-
lated facts, information or unrelated behavioural acts. This fact has
contributed much in the field of organisation of the curriculum,
scheme of studies, work-plan and procedure of panning the schedule
of learning or teaching ofa skill or behaviour. What we see today
in the form of an emphasis on unity and cohesiveness (in the form
of Gestalt) within the learning acts.or experiences in any scheme of
studies or learning is nothing but a pattern of learning borrowed
from the Gestaltist theory of insightful learning.
TRANSFER OF ‘(RAINING OR LEARNING
Meaning
We learn so many things and perform many tasks in our life.

Sometimes when we learn or perform a new task, we find that it
has been influenced by some of our previous learning or training.
The learning of addition and subtraction helps the child in learning
multiplication and division. Learning of Mathematics helps in solving
the numerical problems in Physics. Similarly, if one has learned to
play tennis one finds it easier to learn to play Ping Pong or bad-
minton. In this way learning or training in one situation influences
our learning or performance in some other situation. This influence
usually refers to the carry over of Jearning from one task to another.
The learning or skill acquired in one task is transferred or carried
over to other tasks. Not only the learning of the tricks ofa trade or
the knowledge and skill acquired ina particular school subject is
transferred to other situations, but also the habits, interests and
attitudes get transferred and try to influence the activities of the
individual in future. Crow and Crow express it in the following
words:
“The carry-over of habits of thinking, feeling, or working, of

knowledge or of skills, from one learning area to another usually
is referred to as the transfer of training—’’. (1973, p. 323)
Sorenson also takes the same stand when he explains the meaning
of transfer in the following words:
“Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge, traini
habits acquir ng, and
ed in one situation to another situation.” (1948,
p. 387)
In this way wecan take transfer as a process
influence is exercised over our new learning or by which some
previous learning or training. perfo rmanc e by our
Types of transfer
Ther
e is no guarantee that learning
field will always help the learning in anot in one situation or in ope
her situation or field. Some
the child finds it difficult to pro

nounce PUT
transfer of training or learning also
negative and adverse affects besi involves the possibilities of
des the
Consequently, transfer is said to
have the three following forms:
(i) Positive transfer (ii) Negative transfer,
(iii) Zero transfer.
positive when something previously learned
benefits performance or learning
ina new situation. Similarly,
something previously learned
hind
when
ers performance or learning in
it negative a
learning makes transfer. In
case the previous
no difference at all to the perfor
mance or learning
to be zero transfer from the previous
Sometimes it is also pos sible that some previous

partly help and partly interfer learning may
a new situation. In learning e with the performance or learning 1n
to
a person learns so many thin play a game of tennis, for example,
learning to play base-ball. gs which are likely to be
transferred in
s of the position of one’s

game rather than on the spectat
one’s attention on the
iti
base-ball comes to a fast
The style of using the bas
er rate of s
e-ball b
tennis racket. A similar
thing
psychologists. Among
or components theory of general
mentioning.
According to the theo ry of identical eleme nts or
pagated by Thorndike, the tran components pro-
sfer— positive or nega
situation to another is possible to the tive
extent that there are—from one
common
Learning 197
or identical elements in the situations. For example, in learning type-

writing and the piano the transfer takes place on account of the
identical aspects in the two situations like the use of two hands
required for pressing the keys with eye finger coordination, etc.
Similarly, in the case of learning cycling and driving a car, the trans-
fer does take place on account of the presence of common elements
like steering movements, knowledge of the rules of the road,
necessity of having proper visual perspective by looking ahead, etc.
The presence of these common elements in the situations may bring
either type of transfer—positive or negative. In case the presence of
common elements help us to make an association in such a way that
learning in one situation helps the other, the transfer is positive but
in case the association so formed brings interference with the new
learning, the transfer is negative.
Theory of Generalization put forth by Charles Judd advocates the
transfer of generalizations in the new situations in place of identical
elements as suggested by Thorndike. While explaining the transfer
mechanism, this theory says that as a result of certain experiences
an individual may arrive at some conclusions or generalizations in
the form of general rules, law or principles like : “‘In touching the
fire, we get burnt”, “The green or unripe fruits are sour or bitter
in taste” etc. It is these generalizations, principles or rules that are
put to use (through the transfer process) by the individual in the
coming new situations (Judd, 1908).
The transfer of training or learning can also be explained on the
basis of the Theory of ideals put forward by W.C. Bagley.
According to this theory, transfer of learning or training takes place
in the form of ideals. The experience we have, the generalizations or
conclusions we arrive at, all do transfer if they are imbibed as ideals—
of some value or desirable—by the individual. For example, as
experimentally demonstrated by Bagley (1922) the ideal of neatness
developed on the basis of stress laid on doing things quite neatly in
school is likely to be transferred in performing all other activities in a
quite neat and clean way. Similarly, the attitudes and values like love
for wisdom and honesty, thirst for knowledge, tolerance for other’s
Opinion, spirit of enquiry, etc. When inculcated in children, in
general, as ideals and not simply in one area or at one time in one
Situation, are likely to be transferred to situations outside the school.
Therefore, if we wish to seek positive transfer from one situation to
another we must strive for the formation of general attitude for an
ideal.
All the above theories seem to hold divergent opinions regarding
the explanation of transfer from one situation to another. But in
actual sense these differences are probably more than real. All these
theories are complimentary and not contradictory. In one Way or
the other each one of them tries to explain the mechanism of trans-
fer. By synthesizing the viewpoints of all these theories we can place
ourselves in a positionto know how transfer of learning or trainin
takes place from one situation to another. E
me General Psychology
SAMMARY
Learning is defined as a Process which
changes in the behaviour of a learner throubrings relatively pormat
It can be classified into some specific gh experience or pra (i)
categories depending URT cal
the methods or techniques employed for bring
ing behavio ae
changes; like trial and error, conditioning, insigh
learning (i.e. learning in terms of sequence seriestful learning, ae
) associate re
(learning through making associations or bonds), and
(acquisition of one behaviour linke chain an (i)
the specific area of the learning ind which
chain-wise with others) an ed:
like verbal learning, learning of motor changes are ag are
skills, affective amaa
(learning of habits, interest etc.) and cognitive
concepts, principles, probl learning (learning
em-solving etc.),
Thicory of Trial and Error Learning propagated by Thorndike
mphasizes that we |earn through
a trial
i and error mechanism . In
may commit so man:
earn the proper way. Thorndike

Certain important laws also propagated
of learning like /aw of readines
learn if he is ready to learn), /aw of exercise (i.e. s (i.e. one an
repetition or drill) and Zaw of effect (i.e. the effect learning naa
decides the fate of or consequen
Classical Conditioning was first expe
Ivan Pavlov through the Conditioning
rimentally demonstrated by
ofa dog to salivate when it
heard a bell. Ina normal way
Supposed to salivate (without conditioning) the
in the dog bes
stimuli like food. However, when presence of some proper nain
both natural and artificial sim
(e.g. food and ringing of
of times, the dog learned the bell) were presented together a num
(by forming an associat ber
ion) that it will si
ings.
became so strong asto proSubs equently the artifici
duce salivation even al whe
stimulus (be A
accompanied by the natural n it was no
stimulus (food).
may be adjudged as the produc

snake may be seen to have t of conditio. ning. One who fears the
snake. Just eyen a piece
fear from any
of rope, picture o
the name ‘snake’ may
evoke the
evoked by the
Stimuli in such a generalized way
zation. is referred to a
i
to inhibit the responses to all oth . O „One specific stimulus
er stimuli. and
Learning 199
In operant conditioning, learning is dependent on its consequences.

Those behaviours that are reinforced are likely to be repeated.
and those that are not are unlikely to be repeated. A reinforcer
in any event brings satisfaction and increases the likelihood
that a response will be repeated. The success of operant condition-
ing depends upon the right choice of reinforcement schedule. The
appropriate reinforcement of the step-by-step successive approxima-
tion of the desired behaviour called skaping, may result in learning
the most complex behaviour. The techniques of operant conditioning
have been found to be quite useful today in the field of behaviour
modification, programmed learning and computer assisted instruc-
tions.
Insightful learning, advocated by Gestaltists, emphasizes that
human learning is not so mechanical, blind or habitual as explained
by trial and error or conditioning theories. It is always purposeful
and goal directed and is essentially based on one’s cognitive powers.
Kohler, on the basis of his learning experiments performed on apes,
concluded that (i) a learner always perceives the situation in a Gestalt
form (as a whole), (ii) evaluates all the relationship and factors
involved in the situation and (iii) consequently, arrives at an insight-
ful solution.
Whatever is learnt through various methods of learning is influenced
by the previous or subsequent learning. This influence or carry over
of learning from one situation to another is termed as Transfer of
learning or training. It is positive when one learning helps the other
and negative when the effects are adverse. According to the theory
e
of identical elements propagated by Thorndike, the transfer—positiv
—from one situation to another is possible to the extent
or negative
that there are common identical elements in the situations. Contrary
and theory of
to this two other theories, the theory of generalization
ation (generali zed rules or
ideals emphasize the transfer of generaliz learn-
principles) and ideals (the ideas of some value) in the coming
of these
ing situations in place of the identical elements. None an
theories is able to explain transfer in its total aspects. However,
view of all these theories may help us in this direction.
eclectic

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Murphy, Gardner, An Int
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Horrocks, Psychology in
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Rachlin, H., Introd
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Woodworth, R.S., Psychology, London: Methue
13
MEMORY--REMEMBERING
AND FORGETTING
What is memory?
Learning occ
basis of our Survival
as
Society. However, our well as the develo
best efforts in learni
Producing) at a later
Stage is known as “M
emory”.
v SN grees to the above meaning of the ter
m memory wia
store’ our experiences, and
In this way, memory

is regarded as a special
e what has been previousl ability of our mng
through learning and the y experienced or acquir
e
use of its reproduction n, at some later Stage to enable us to mak
or revival. The jud e
Must reflect “an ideal revival” nse, a good memory

as Stout put
However, the term mem

not be termed in so simple aory or the process of memorization can-
manner as to be view
of reproduction or revival
of past experiences ed merely in terms
quite a complex process whi or learning. It is
ch
tion, recall and recognition asinvolves factors ik e learning, reten-
explained below jn
the process of memorization
. the mechanism of
203
Memory—Remembering and Forgetting
of the process of memorization

Mechanism
Our mind possesses a special ability by virtue of which every
ry images or traces which
experience or learning leaves behind memo ed leaves
are conserved in the form of ‘engrams’. Thus what is learn
ms composed
its after-effect which is conserved in the form of engra
the memo ry traces by our
of memory traces. This preservation of of the learned
known as retain ing
central nervous system or brain is depen ds upon the
or experienced act. How long we can retain
. When we try to recollect
strength and quality of the memory traces use of the
s or learni ng, we make
or repeat our past experience of our memo ry
revival
memory traces. If we are successful in the some how or the other,
traces, our memory is said to be good. But if,
be able to reproduce:
the memory traces have died out, we will not In this case it is.
learning.
or make use of our past experiences or
has been learned or in other’
said that we are not able to retain what
words we have forgotten.
the primary condition.
In this way, for memorization, learning is
remembering. At the second
If there is no learning there will be no
learn ing exper iences are retained pro-
stage we should see that these
s or images so that they can
perly in the form of mental impression
third and the fourth stage in the
be revived when the need arises. The
can be called Recognition and Recall.
process of memorization ological process than
psych
Recognition is a much easier and simpler can be explained by
these two terms
recall. The difference between
the following example:
class mate. You have
Suppose, Mr. Ram Nath has been your
exper ience s have been retained
passed happy times with him. The old told only the name of
. Now if you are
in the form of memory traces have experienced
what you
the gentleman and you can recollect all nalit y, it is said that you
ibe his perso
in his company and can descr this case memory
ience. In
have been able to recall your past exper form. But if the memo ry
in a prope r
traces are said to be retained then recall
tion is poor,
traces are very weak and therefore, reten may not be possible.
(perfect reviva l of the past exper ience s)
Recognition is nothing.
In such cases ‘recognition’ is possible.
objec t or situa tion as having been known to
but the awareness of an dy experienced object or
alrea
the person. Here the presence of the the above example, the
thing makes the task of recol lecti on easy. In
photographs or the actual presenceces. of Mr. Ram Nath may facilitate
past expe rien
the task of recollecting easily concluded that the
From the above discussion it can be
learn ing or experiencing some:
process of memorization begins with
thing and ends with its reviv al and repro ducti on. Therefore memory
exper ienci ng something,
is said to involve four stages i.e., learning or l.
final ly its reco gnit ion and recal
its retention and
ry
Remembering and memo
d
As emphasize abo ve, memory denotes the ability or power of
our mind to retain and reproduce our learning. This power or
204
General Psychology
ability thus helps in the pro
cess
e the word ‘remembering’ in placof memorization. Many times we
terms carry the same meaning. e of ‘memorization’. Both of
these
and remembering Levin Whil e differentiating between
says “Memory can be mem ory
filling cabinet in the brain, likened to a giant
for future reference. Reme with data sorted, classified and
mbering depends on how cross-filed
about coding its input.” the bra in goes
(1978, p. 297).
processes out
memorization or remembering is a ver
the directives of the
memory i.e., power or b hat
our mind. ability o
a
800d or poor memo practical sense, w hen we say that a person has a
ry we always wei
what has Previously h it in
gh
P. 542-43), been learned” (Woodwterms of “remembering
orth and Marquis 1948
It is in this Sense tha
Spite of their being as nou t the terms memory and remembering, in
In the Present tex n and verb, are used as
t, as the reader wil synonymous terms.
terms interchangeably l find, we would be
, using these
Types of memo
ry
term memory. Let memory,

us see What we mea short-term memory and long-
n by these types:
_ Immediate Mem
ory:
is that memory
which
ith speed and ac

curacy,
setting it rapidly after
Short-Term Memory:
though not nearly as shoThis type of
rt-lived as th
further distinguishing memory
it fr
below should also be taken om short-term memory th e thi . For
into account: ngs given
Memory—Remembering and Forgetting 205
(i) Where the retention time is less than one second in immediate
memory, the information temporarily stored up in short-
term memory may endure as long as thirty seconds or so,
even if the material is not being rehearsed.
(ii) Whereas the sensory image in immediate memory decays
regardless of the learner’s action, rehearsal by the learner
can keep material in short-term memory indefinitely.
(iii) The span of immediate memory exceeds the short-term
memory span. Whereas five to nine items (“the magical
number, seven plus or minus two”) can be held in short-
term memory at any one time, about eleven to thirteen
items are available for recall in immediate memory for at
least a half second. However, some people are able to retain
much more information in their short-term memories by -a
process called chunking, which groups information by coding
it e.g. the number 143254376 can be remembered by listing
under three heads: 143, 254, 376.
Long-Term Memory: Unlike short-term memory, long-term
memory has a seemingly limitless capacity to store information,
undergoes little or no decay, and requires little, if any, rehearsal. In
addition to these characteristics, long-term memory codes informa-
sion according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics. It is
this memory that helps us to remember a number of things on a
relatively permanent basis. Remembering our identifying data like
our name, father’s name, date of birth, date of marriage, etc., is the
simplest example of our long-term memory. With the help of our
long-term memory we can store, retain and remember at our ease
at record notice most of the things in our life and can thus make
things in our life quite easy.
The study of memory
The experimental study of memory is done to know the facts

about the process and nature of memorization, the individual differ-
ences in memory, and learning about the economical methods and
best possible outcomes of the process of ‘memorization. Let us dis-
cuss the materials, apparatus and techniques used for the studies of
memory.
Material: Materials used in most experiments on human memory
consist of simple verbal materials like serial list, paired associate lists
and connected discourse.
TENT,
A serial list is composed words (for example RAT, CAP,
PAINT, etc). or number (e.g. 29, 57, 36, 72, etc.) or meaning]
nonsense syllables (e.g. NAL, SOK, PAB, KAZ, etc.) rape
A paler ae, 1 ou of a series of paired (but not
necessarily related) words, digits or non-sense syllables presented
sequentially (e.g. CORN-MUSIC, BOX-CAT; FOOD-BOOK, etc).
In the material called connected discourse, we may
include ex-
cerpts of actual blocks of language, either written or spoken . These
might be entire sentences, Paragraphs or longer passages
from any
piece of literature or lecture.
Apparatus: Various techniques are used for
the memorization material before the learner. The the presentation of
self may experimenter him-
simply read it loud or may use a tape-
purpose and the subjects may then be required to sayrecorder for this
or write what
they remembered. In most of the experiments, howev
material is presented visually with the help er, the verbal
memory drum. (See Fig. 13.1). For example, of an instr ument called
the words of a serial
list may be presented one et a time for a specif
a window-like opening of this drum to ied duration through
be
The subjects are asked to recall as many words opera ted systematically.
as possible. The list
is presented again and again while the exper
and how many trials it takes to learn imenter plots how long
developments have replaced the age-o a task. Recent technological
with sophi ld memo ry drum apparatus
sticated electronic computers.
Fig. 13.1. Memory drum
Measures and Criteria: Memory—good or bad—can be inferred

through retentivity and the amo unt of Tetention may be measur
directly if we know how much
ed
using the formula: material was learnt originally
by
Amount of Retention =Am
ount learnt—Amount for
gotten.
What is actually retained by
the experimenter by testing the lear ner can be made known to
the per:
reproduction i.e., in terms of reco formance of the learner through
of recognition and recall make gnition and recall. Therefore, test
s
retentive power or memory.
the usual direct measures of one
’s
Two most commonly used
are tests of simple recognition procedures for measuring recognition
and multiple-alternative Tecognit
ion.
In simple recognition tests, the learner may be presented with a

photograph or an item to decide whether or not he has seen it
before. In a multiple alternate recognition test one has to recog-
nize a particular person or item seen before out of several pictures
or items presented to him.
The important methods employed in the measurement of recalls

are free recall, probed recall and serial recall.
In free recall methods we ask a subject to recall in any order as
many items as possible from the list they have seen or recall anything
in any way from a stanza or poem read. In probed recall, we may
provide the subject with a cue for suggesting the appropriate item.
For example, in a paired-associate list consisting of a BOX-CAT, we
by
may ask: tell us what word appeared with BOX in the list seen
shape of
you? For the items of a serial list, this cue may be in the
the location of the item in the list: top, bottom, middle and so forth.
In the method of serial recall, we ask the subject to repeat the items
during
in exactly the same order as was previously presented to him
the experiment.
for
In addition to employing tests of recognition and recall
Measuring one’s retention power, we may employ certain other
methods. Two of such important methods devised by the psycho-
logist Ebbinghaus are known as Learning Method and Saving
Method.
In the /earning method, the subjects are shown a list of verbal
r
material (words or nonsense syllables). They try hard to remembe
this material by taking the syllables one by one over some trials.
the wordsor
After each trial they are required to write down
red. The subjects will differ in terms of having
syllables they remembe
more or less trials in learning the list correctly. One’s power of
may then be judged in terms of the number of trials
retention
(e.g. 12 non-
required to reproduce a standard list of verbal material
sense syllables like NAL, SOK, BAP, etc., in the Ebbinghaus’s
The better the retentive power, the less will be the trials
study).
list.
required for remembering the complete
Saving method comes into the picture after making the subjects sub-
learn all the words or syllables correctly after certain trials. The
ject may then be given a period of rest. Naturally during this period,
they are sure to forget, more or less material. For relearning they are
provided with trials. The individuals will differ in requiring more or
less trials for such relearning and reproducing the complete list. The
number of trials or repetition saved in the second learning (relearn-
ing) are then considered as a measure of the power of retention. If,
for example, a subject had 10 trials to learn all the 12 non-sense
syllables correctly in the first learning and took 7 trials to learn again
in the second learning session he had a saving of 3 trials. His reten-
tion power will definitely be better than that of another who needed
8 trials again or had only 1 saving, assuming
of course, that he too
had 10 trials in the first learning.
Economy in memorizing
The problem of having economy
in memorizing something nes
persuaded many Psychologists to devis
e various methods of memori
zation. All these methods aim at poin
the available time to best advantage. ting out the way of utilizing
Some of these methods are
described below:
1. Recitation method: In this
matter once or twice and then triesmettohod the learner first reads the
look ing at that material. In this
recite and recall that without
Continuous self-appraisal. The way,
to time and notes the points learne
which h
these points due attentio
unnecessarily repeating th
the recitation method is
avoid them by close attention.
2. Whole and part methods: There are two

a thing, for example take a methods of memorizing
again from the beginning
poem . One i
method of memorization till the enda
. In the other method—p
poem is divided into parts art method, the
a nd each part is memorized
separately.
Both these methods have
Which of the two would
„pro
ound better than the part method in

& requiring less time, say, a short
difficulty. These difficult portmethod and tries to locate the areas of

method. After that the subject ions are attended through the part
once again comes to the whol
and is able to reme mber it successfully. e method
3. Spaced and unspac

ed m ethods (methods of
and massed practice) distributed
In the spaced or dis buted
subject is not required tri practice method of memorizat
continuous sitting, After
to mem ori ze the assigned materialionin, the
memorizing it for some one
provided and in this way the prip nciple of«work
time, some rest is
in this method. For example, if one and rest’ is followed
by this method, then in the one has to mem
emoorize a piece of poetry
Tepeating it. After some timbeg inning he Will be
e he will be given somadv ised to go on
e rest. A gain he
Memory—Remembering and Forgetting j 209
will memorize it and take rest. In this way with repeated intervals
of work and rest he will be able to have mastery over the assigned
piece.
On the other hand, in unspaced or massed practice method of
memorization the subject has to memorize the assigned material at
one sitting without any interval or rest. Hence in this method the
memorization work is done continuously without interruption till it
1s mastered.
Many experimental studies have been done to assess the relative
value of these two methods. Although in the case of short lessons it
has been thought not to have any interval yet in general, the results
have been in favour of the spaced method. It has been observed that
instead of working continuously without taking rest, it is better to
distribute the hours of work in few sittings and introduce the
periods of rest in between these sittings. This helps in removing the
monotony caused by long periods of study. Attention also does not
flag and fatigue is avoided. The subject gets a fresh start after a
period of rest and thus his interest can be maintained in the task.
Which of these methods is the best and appropriate is a difficult
question to be answered. Definitely, all these above methods are
known as economical and can be found fruitful on one or the other
occasion. But we cannot say for certain that any method can be
necessarily advantageous under all circumstances. In fact the economy
in the use of a particular method depends more on the abilities
of the individual and the nature and extent of the material to be
memorized than the method itself. Besides the adoption of a parti-
cular method of memorization there are so many external and
internal factors lying within the environment and individual himself
which affects the process of memorization and consequently helps or
obstructs the progress of an individual on the path of memorization.
Therefore, care should also be taken to secure the appropriate
conditions and situations for getting best results in memorization.
Training in memory
Whether memory can be improved by training or not is a contro-
versial issue. But its improvement or training 1s a commonly
expressed desire on the part of every individual. Every one of us is
keen to improve his sense organs and muscles etc. But the improve-
ment of memory as such is not possible. In this connection the
advice given by Mr. Morgan and Gilliland seems to be quite value-
able. They write that “Memory training is not like muscle training.
You can make a muscle develop by any kind of use. Memory is not
helped by any kind of exercise.” (1942, p. 210).
Therefore, mere repetition of materials for the sake of a memori-
zation in the form of mental exercise does not yield enduring and
effective results. Now again we come to our basic question—can it
be possible through any meansto have some improvement in our
ao General Psychology
memory? If possible, what are the specific points which should
kept in mind in order to achie be
ve best results in the task of
memorization?
ing the improvement of memory,

en into the following four questions. for
Can learning be improved
?
Can the power of retention
be improved ?
Can recall be improved ?
and lastly,
Can recognition be improv
ed ?
i Let us try to answer the
se questions.
For theretention it is said that it
inherited and theref ore, canno is, by all means, native and
most
t be improved by training. At the
we can try to protect retent
iv.
but it is hardly Possible to
improve it by
“recognition” also it i
The remaining two consti

observed to be improved by tuents—learn ing and recall, have been
training. Let us see how the
improved. First of all we y can be
will consider the improveme
The following Suggestions nt of recall.
direction: may bring fruitful
results in this
I. While trying to recall Something,
excessive anxiety, fear and have yourself free from
memory. other emotional factors that try to block
2. Never think that you wou
ld
Have confidence in yourself. Be quit not be able to recall something.
e normal and avoid nervousness.
After that, apply your ener
gies to the task of recallin
concentration. g with full
the bath room;

; y have put it in the cup-board of
and so on,
place.
4. Do not engage yourself in figh
time. If you find it difficult ting to recall a thing for a long
to recall, then give it up
being and attempt it afresh, after for the
you have relaxed for some timetime
.
-
After haying given due consider
come to the most important factor ofatio n to the Process of recall we
memory i.e., learning. Improv
ment of memory to a large extent e-
rests upon this factor which can
be
improved by training. Now, how can learning be improved? In trying

to answer this question, we come to the conclusion that improvement
in the task of learningormemorizing demands the necessary improve-
ment in:
(i) the techniques and methods of learning.
(ii) the learning situations and environment.
(iii) the learner's state of mind.
Improvement in all these aspects demands a lot of seriousness on
the part of a learner. The following suggestions can prove helpful in
this direction:
1. Will to learn: There must be firm determination or strong will
to learn in order to achieve success. Where there is a will there is a
way. Materials read, heard or seen without the mood to concentrate
are difficult to remember later on.
2. Interest and attention: Interest as well as close attention are
essential for effective learning and memorization. One who has no
interest in what one learns, cannot give due attention to it and
consequently will not be able to learn it. Mr. Bhatia emphasizes this
fact in the following words:
“Interest is the mother of attention and attention is the
mother of memory; if you would secure memory, you must
first catch the mother and the grandmother.” (1964, p. 194)
Therefore, every care should be taken to create the desired inte-
rest in material by making its purpose clear and linking it with one’s
natural instincts and urges. Again all the factors causing distraction
should be reduced to a minimum so that full attention can be paid
to the material in hand.
3. Adopting proper methods of memorization: There are So many
economical methods of memorization but all are not suitable on all
occasions for all individuals. Therefore a judicious selection should
be made in choosing a particular method in a given situation.
4. To follow principle of Association: It is always good to follow
the principle of association in learning. A thing should never be
learnt ina complete water-tight compartment. Attempts should be
made to connect it with one’s previous learning on the one hand and
with so many related things on the other. Sometimes for association
of ideas special techniques and devices are used that facilitate learn-
ing and recall. The letter VIBGYOR has proved an effective aid in
remembering the colours of the spectrum. In a similar way many
associations may be formed and material to be learned can be easily
remembered.
5. Grouping and Rhythm: Grouping and Rhythm also facilitate
learning and help in remembering. For example a telephone no.
567345234 can be easily memorized and recalled if we try to group
it as 567 345 234.
Similarly,
rhythm also proves as an aid in learning
Children learn effectively the multi and memorizing.
plication tables in the sing
fashion. The arrangement of the material song
i
Thirty days has September,

April, June, and November,
All the rest haye thirty-one,
Excepting February alone,
To which they twenty-eight assi
gn,
Till leap year gives it twenty-nine.
6. Utilizing as many senses 4s poss
ible: Senses are said to be the
than one of the senses. Therefore

the help of audio-visual aid mate attempts should be made to take
rial and receive impressions
as many senses as possible. through
73 Arranging better learning
situations: Environmental
effect the learning Process. factors also
Therefore, due care sho
arrange better learning situ uld be taken to
ation
atmosphere and stimulating envand environment. A calm and quiet
ironment proves effective
learning. when
Besides the external factors

hich affects his learning and
| health and environmental
ing as well as reproduction
y. Therefore, due attention should
> i nt’s hea
as mental. Their emotions lth—physical as well
tensions should be removed should also be trained and emotional
as far as possible.
9. Provision for change and
change of work, rest and proper rest: Adequate pro
sleep should be made as vision for
ing fatigue and monotony. it helps in remov-
more and retain it for a jongA fresh mind is hecessarily able to Jearn
time than a tired and dull one,
10. Repetition and Practice:
and continuous practice Last but not least is the
whi ch add s to effective
repetition
understanding alwaysmemhel
intelligent repetition with full orization. An
learning effective and end ps in making
frequently are remembere uring. The things repeated and practised
be taken for drill work, d prafor a long time. Therefore due care should
memorization and learning. ctice and Teview etc., in the process of
What is forgetting?
As a matter oflame-excuse we Often he: ar
me. Ihave really forgot ao the comments
s “Fy“Ex
. cus
ten it.” A student comp
lains and repentes
over forgetting the material he remembered. A house-wife feels

ashamed of her forgetting when she forgets to add salt in the vege-
table cooked. Therefore, in general, the term forgetting seems to be
a part of our day-to-day speech. But in order to be more specific and
scientific in our approach, let us study some of the definitions given
by eminent writers.
1. Munn. “Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary, of
the ability to recall or recognize something learned earlier.” (1967
p. 425).
2. ‘Dreyer. “Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an
experience, when attempting to do so, or to perform an action pre-
viously learned.” (1952, p. 99).
3. Bhatia. “Forgetting is the failure of the individual to revive in
consciousness an idea or group of ideas without the help of the
original stimulus.” (1968, p. 203).
In all these definitions, forgetting is termed as failure. Let us see
how it affects the failure of an individual.
The power of long retention and rapid reproduction (recall and
recognition) makes a good memory. It counts towards the success of
an individual in the task of learning or memorizing. Forgetting on
the other hand, counts towards the failure. “I have forgotten implies
that I have failed to retain or to be able to recall what was learned
or experienced by me earlier.’ In this way forgetting is just the
opposite side of remembering and essentially a failure in the ability
of reproducing.
Ebbinghaus’s curve of forgetting

The studies made by the psychologist Ebbinghaus (1885) present
the earliest systematic work in studying the phenomenon of forget-
ting. He himself worked as a subject for the studies and described his
results by sketching a curve of forgetting.
What he did was memorize a list of his nonsense syllables and
then test himself at intervals from 20 minutes to a month to see how
much of the list he remembered. The results in terms of the percent-
age of material forgotten with the lapse of time were found in the
following order:
Time elapsed Amount forgotten
20 Minutes 41%
One day 66%
Two days 12%
Six days 15%,
Thirty-one days 79%
He tried to Plot the above data on a piece of graph paper as
shown below:
Percent
forgotton
15 20 25 30 31
(20 minutes)
Time elapsed in days
Fig. 13.2. Ebbinghaus’s curve of forg

etting
form of the above curve of forgetti and the presentation in the

ng, Ebbinghaus concluded that
(i) amount of learnt material :
for gotten depends upon the time
lapsed after learning, and
(ii) the rate of forgetting is
very ra pid at first and then graduall
diminishes Proportionately y
as t he interval lengthens.
Types of forgetting
There are certain types of forg
ettin g and
described in a number of ways based on its thesnatu
e may be
it is classified as Natural and re and
Morbid
; i
earlier learning. e other specific part of his
Still another view relate
getfulness as physical or psdychotologi
the cause of occurring,
cal. In case one Classifies for-
loses his memory
-Memory—Remembering and Forgetting -215
on account of the factors of age, diseases, biological mal-functioning

of the brain and nervous system, accidents, consumption of liquor
or other intoxicating materials, etc., it is said to be physical or
organic forgetting. But, in case, loss of memory occurs due to
psychological factors like stress, anxiety, conflicts, temper provoca-
tion, lack of interest, aversion, apathy, repression or similar other
emotional and psychic difficulties, the resulting forgetfulness is
termed as psychological.
Theories of forgetting
As to the nature and types of forgetting, it occurs universally, to
a lesser or greater extent, with all human beings. How and why it
does happen, has been a subject of extensive research and investiga-
tion resulting in a number of theories. Some of the main theories are
described below in brief.
The trace decay theory: According to many psychologists, time is
the cause of much forgetting. What is learnt or experienced is for-
gotten with the lapse of time. The cause of such natural forgetting
can be explained through a process known as decay of the memory
trace, It says that learning results in neurological changes leaving
certain types of memory traces or engrams in the brain. With the
passage of time through disuse, these memory traces of learning
leads
impressions get weaker and weaker and finally fade away. It
us to conclude that the older an experience, the weaker its memory
and as time passes, the amount of forgetting goes on increasing.
The experimental results as well as day-to-day functioning in the
of the
field of learning and remembering have come in the way theory
of the above mention ed trace decay theory. Thus the
validity
rm
has proved a failure in many instances of forgetting in long-tenot
learning to ride a bicycle where forgetti ng does
memory such as
decay theory
occur even after years of neglect. Similarly, the trace in explaining
through its disuse mechan ism has proved a failure
theory has provided
morbid or abnormal forgetting. However, this
good results in explaining forgetfu lness in the case of short-term
Drill, practice , rehearsa l or repetiti on of a learning always
memory. as readinga
results in preventing decay. The reverse 1s also true
poem one, for example, without repeating it or thinking about it,
is likely to result in the death of his merhory trace before coding in
long-term memory can occur.
ng
The interference theory: The second major theory of forgetti
holds the mechanism of interfer ence respons ible for forgetti ng.
ng effects of
Interference is caused on account of the negative inhibiti of
one learning experience on another. We forget things because learnt
such interfer ence. The interfer ing effects of things previou sly
and retained in our memory with the things of our recent memory
can work both ways, backward and forward. The psychological term
used for these types of interference are retroactive inhibition and
proactive inhibition.
216 ' 7 General Psychology
In Retroactive inhibition the acquisit
kward to impair the ion of new learning wor ks
retention of the previously lear ned material.
our memory works forward

to disrupt the memory of wha
or learn afterwards. For t
example, one may experi we acquire
difficulty in learning a sec
ond language when vocabu ence great
first interferes or learning lary from the
account of the previously a new formula may be
hampered on
learned formulae in one’s
memory.
In both types of the above inhibitions, it can be eas
Similar experiences when
they follow each other pro ily seen that
duce more inter-
or both the short-ter

explaining the cases of m and long term memory. However, ior
abnormal or morbid
forgetting we shoul
memories into the unconscious

sciously the conflicts and thus try to avoid at least con
tha
t bother us. This kind -
well motivated and intention of forgetfulness is
and to some extent, the al. We usually intend to see
world around us—as qui ourselves—
te pleasant and
are dead and gone. We for

get to attend a marriage
‘© not want to attend. Sim
ilarly, most of us tend
party which we
to forget the names
Apart from Causing abn

ehaviour of an individua ormal forgetting, an impaired emotional
l does also play its par
t in disrupting his
experienced, learned or though

t before hand. During thes
e emotions
one becomes so self-conscious that his thinking is paralysed. That is

why a child fails to recall the answer to a question in the presence
of a teacher whom he fears very much. Similarly, many of us cannot
do well before the interview board or in an examination due to inter-
view or test phobia. An actor, orator or musician may also fail mise-
rably in his performance on the stage as he becomes panicky and
forgets his prepared dialogue, speech or art.
SUMMARY
Memory refers to a special ability of our mind to conserve or

retain what has been previously experienced or acquired through
learning and then at some later stage to enable us to make use of it
by its reproduction or revival (in the form of recall or recognition).
immediate
Human memory can be classified into certain types like
memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Immediate
memory or sensory memory helps an individual to recall something
ly brief
asplit second after having perceived it. It has an extremeseconds).
retention time (i.e. trom a fractio n of a second to several
Short-term memory is also temporary, though not nearly as short
lived as immediate memory. Here the time of retention may endure
upto thirty seconds and may so be further increased through rehear-
sal. Long-term memory, unlike short-term memory, has a seemingly
limitless capacity to store information, undergoes little or no decay,
tion
and requires little if any rehearsal. It is also able to code informa
according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics.
ry one needs the use
For performing experiments to study memo
list, paired associate
serial
of simple verbal materials in the form of presentation of
discou rse. For the visual
list and connected memory drum is
verbal materi al an appar atus name d
memorizing can be exhibited
generally employed in laboratories. The material
through the window-like opening of the drum to be operated syste-
inferred through the
matically. Memory—good or bad—can be
in turn can be directly
amount actually retained by the learner which and recall. Special
of recog nitio n
Measured through some tests methods devised by Ebbinghaus may
methods like /earning and saving
also be used for this purpose.
achieved by utilising proper
Economy in memorizing may be nued
recitation method in place of ccnti
methods of memorization like ial.
same mater Simil arly, one has to make a judi-~
re-reading of the
methods and distributed v/s
cious choice out of the whole v/s part
massed practice methods.
Training in memory aims to achieve a good memory. We can
bring improvement in our recall process by freeing ourselves from
harmful emotional factors, build our sel f-confidence and make use of
differ ent ass oci ati ons wit h a coo l and pat ient mind. Moreover, proper
a
] entionon and
e lts in lon1 g ret easy reproduction.
memorization alw ays resu ntion,
Therefore, the factors like learner’s will, his interest and atte
learning methods, utilization of
the principle of association, e
and rhythm, suitable learning enviro e
nment, repetition and practice3
emotional and mental state of the
attended carefully for Setting learner, etc., always need to
better results of the process of
memorization.
Forgetting is the tempor
ary or long-
reproduce the things tha
t have been pr
upon its nature and int
ensity, it may
morbid (abnor mal), general and specific, ical
physical
and psychological.
The psychologist Ebbinghaus is kno
an experimental study of forgettin wn to be the first man to eA
on the graph paper by plotti g.He put the results of his
ng the amo study
i e elapsed. Th © curve so obt ` unt forgotten as a function of
tim
Orgetting”’. ained was named as “cu‘‘cu rverve 0 of
Natural forgetting
of Trace decay whic can be properly explained i through the t heory
h holds th at we forget on
the memory traces account of decay of
with th e lapse of time.
. The repression theory is hel
ting. According to d better in explaining morbid
forget-
to remember e by pressing theory, we forget the thing, we do not want
this
them in our unconscious mind.
later learning. Retro-active inhibition

is the result
ming in the way of earlier
learning.

ted Readings
Adams, J.A., Learning
and Memory: An Introduction,
Dorsey Press, 1976. Homewood, Illinois“
Bartlett, F.C., Remembering:
New York: Cambridge,
A Study in Experimental
1932, and Social Psychology,
Bhatia, H.R., Elements of Educatio
Orient Longman, 1968. nal Psychology (3rd Indian repr
int) Calcutta:
Cermak, L.S., Huma
n Memory—Research and
Press, 1972. Theory, New York: Ronald
poets. M and James, Drever
(Ed.), Experimental Psychology,
=, .1030> London: Methuen,
Deese, J. & Hulse, S.H
Mc
.,
Graw Hill, 1967 (ChaptThe Psychology of Learning (3rd ed.
er 8—11). ) New York:
Drever, James, A
Dictionary of Psycho
Ebbinghaus, H., On logy, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1952.
Memory, New York: Dover,
1964.
Higbee, K.L., Your Memory: How
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hal it works and How to Improve it, Englewood.
l, 1977.
Hunter, Jan M.R., Memory, Lond
on: Penguin Books, 1964.
Memory— Remembering and Forgetting 219
Klatsky, R.L., Human Memory, San Francisco: Freeman, 1976.

Levin, M.J., Psychology A Biographical Approach, New York: McGraw-Hill,
1978.
to Psychology, New York:
Morgan, J.B.. and Gilliland, A.R., An Introduction
Macmillan, 1942.
Munn. N.L,, An Introduction to Psychology (2nd Ed.) Delhi: Oxford & IBH,
1967.
London: Oxford
Ryburn, W.M., Introduction to Educational Psychology (Reprint)
University Press, 1956.
1957.
Skinner, B.F., Verbal Behaviour, New York: Appleton Century, Crofts,
y Tutorial Press, 1938.
Stout, G.E., A Manual of Psychology, London: Universit
Wickelgren, W.A., Learning and Memory, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, 1977.
Woodworth, R.S., and Marquis, D.G., Psychology (Sth ed.) New York: Henry
Holt, 1948.
i4
INTELLIGENCE
In our day-to-da
cular child or individual
is ver
is something left that can weigh more. In

psychology the term used
is intelligence. In ancient India our great rish is named it Viveka.
Defining intellige
nce
Int elligence as a concept
by the different psychologist has been understood in different wa
s and consequently there
variety of definitions. Let stands a wi
us start With the reproduct
Woodworth and Marqui ion of a few.
It is the use of intell s: “In tel li
ectual abilities fo
accomplishing any task.”
(1948, p. 33).
Stern: “Intelligence is
Sciously a general capacity of an individual con
to adjust his think ing to new
mental adaptability t requirements It E penra
© new problems and conditions .oflife.”
p. 3). (1914,
Terman : “An individual is
to carry on abstract thinki intelligent in proportion as
ng.” (1921). he is ablo
Wagnon: “Intelligence
relatively new and changingis the capacity to learn and adjust to
conditions.” (1937, p. 401
Thorndike: Intelligence ).
may be de fined as “the power of
Tesponses from the point of view of tr uth or fact.” (1914 good
).
Apart from the above given
can further be cited. All these defin ition s, more of such definitions
give an incomplete picture because definitions, when taken separately,
they partl y emphasize
that:
—intelligence is the ability to learn.
—it is the ability to deal with abstractio
n.
Intelligence 924
—it is the ability to make adjustment or to adapt to new

situations.
—it is the ability or power of making appropriate responses to
certain stimuli in a given situation.
In view of the weaknesses of the existing definitions, David
Wechsler, author of the adult intelligence test, tried to providea
somewhat comprehensive definition of the term intelligence by saying
that “Intelligence is the aggregate or global capacity of an individual
to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with
his environment.” (1944, p. 3). In his further attempt Wechsler also
provided a criterion for defining intelligent behaviour in terms of
the four characteristics i.e., intelligence involves awareness, it is goal-
directed, it is rational, and it has value. Taking the cue from this
criterion Stoddard tried to define intelligence as “the ability to under-
take activities that are difficult, complex and abstract and which are
adaptive to a goal, and are done quickly and which have social value
and which lead to the creation of something new and different.”
(1943, p. 4).
However, both these so-called comprehensive definitions have
also come under severe criticism due to difference of opinion among
Psychologists.
However, leaving aside the nature of the terminology and
language used in defining intelligence, there seems to be some agree-
ment among the psychologists as below:
or
—Intelligence must be understood as the mental capacity
mental energy availab le with an individ ual at a particu lar time
;
in a particular situation.
—This mental capacity helps him in the task of theoretical as
well as practical manipulation of the things, objects or events
present in one’s environment in order to adapt or face new
possible.
challenges and problems of life as successfully as
energy
—Judgment about one’s capacity or fund of _mental
terms of the
him can only be conside red in
available with
quality of his behaviour or performance.
may have some work-
Keeping in view all these basic factors, we
able definition of the term intelligence as under:
Intelligence may be regarded as a sort of mental energy (in the form of mental
or cognitive abil ities) available with an individual to enable him to handle his
environment in ter! ms of adaptation and facing novel situations as effectively as
Possible.
Evaluating on the basis of the above workable definition we can

call a person intelligent in proportion to his being able to use his
mental energy in handling his actual life problems and leading a
life.
happy and well contented
Theories of intelligence
With the help of definitions, we are able
intelligence operates—what type of beha to understand how
viour of an individual ane
him intelligent or unintelligent. But
it does not explain what is oat
structure of intelligence or in other
words, what are the differ jaki
componen ts or, elements of intelligence. The
theories of
pee
propagated by psychologi
this question. Below we sts from time to time have tried to ans
examine some of these theories:
1. Unitary theory or monarchic theor
origin, holds the view that intelligen y: This theory, oldest in
ce’ consists of one factor
namely a fund of intellectual competen
the activities of the individual. ce, which is universal for all
the conclusion that there

is nothing lik
intelligence. Therefore
the unitary theory stands
rejected.
2. Anarchic theory or mul
tifactor
was E.L. Thorndike. theory: The main propa gät
As the name sugges
i Ty of intellige ts,
nce, con sidter 5
thing as general intell

ige
highly independent Specif nce (a singl
ic abilities wh
area and completely

uns
Murphy puts it, “there uccessful
isa certai
p: 358). This brings us to
common factor Tunning the conclusion that there should be @
phenomenon gave thr oug h al
birth to anot
factor theory.
activities and a specific factor

fs’ which it shares with none,
In this way, he suggested that there
called general intelligence—a sort is something which might be
of general mental energy, running,
Intelligence 223
through all different tasks but in addition to this general factor there
are specific abilities, which make an individual able to deal with
particular kinds of problems. For example, an individual’s perfor-
mance in Hindi is partly due to his general intelligence and partly
to some kind of specific ability in language which he might possess
i.e. g+sı or in mathematics his performance will be due to g+s2; in
drawing it will be due to g+s3 and so on and so forth. The factor g
(in lesser or greater degree) will enter in all specific activities. The
total ability or intelligence of such an individual (symbolized as A),
thus, will be expressed by the following:
+2 193+ .+..=A
gts
This two-factor theory of Spearman has been criticized on various
grounds. The main reasons are given below:
(i) Spearman said that there are only two factors expressing
intelligence but as we have seen above there are not only two but
several factors (g, S1, 52, $3 - - - - ete.).
ability.
(ii) According to Spearman each job requires some specific
This view was not proper as it implied that there was nothing com-
as those
mon in the jobs except a general factor and professions suchgroup. In
of nurses, compounders and doctors could not be put in a
exclusive.
fact the factors $1, 52, 53, 54-...etc., are not mutually
They overlap and give birth to certain commo n factors.
led to a new
This idea of overlapping and grouping consequently
theory called Group Factor theory .
common to all of the
4. Group factor theory: For the factors notactivi ties comprising a
intellectual abilities, but common to certain
Prominent among the
group, the term ‘group factor’ was suggested.
an American psychologist.
propagators of this theory 1s L.L. Thurstone l abilities, he came to the
While working on a test of primary menta
have in common a primary
conclusion that certain mental operations onal unity and which
factor which gives them psychological and functi
ions: These mental
differentiates them from other mental operat are a number of groups
. So there
operations constitute a group factor
own primary factor. Thur-
of mental abilities each of which has its such factors. They
stone and his associates have differentiated nine
are:
of verbal rela-
(i) Verbal factor (V); concerns comprehension
tions, words and ideas.
which the subject
involved in any task in
(ii) Spatial factor (S): ect imaginatively in space.
manipulates an obj ,
nu merical calculations
(N): ability to do
(iii) Numerical factor y. i
rapidly and accuratel
g the ability to memorize
or (M): involvin
(iv) Mem ly- fact
quickory N
whenever the subject is
(v) Word Fluency Factor (W): involved at a rapid rate.
asked to think of the isolated words
(vi) Inductive reasoning factor
(RI): ability to draw inferenc
Conclusions on the basis es on
of specific instances.
(ii) Deductive reasoning factor
generalized results.
(RD): ability to make use of
(viii) Perceptual factor (P):
ability to perceive objects acc
(ix) Problem-solving abi urately.
lity factor (PS): abilit
blems with independe nt efforts y to solve pro -
The weakest link in the
the concept of common group factor theory was
factor. It did not take that it discarded
to realise his mistake and Thurstone very long
to reveal a general factor
group factors. in addition to
5. This theory was propagated by G.H.
psychologist. It assume
s that the mind
Thompson, a British
utilize some bonds, the

among them. It is also
Possible that some oth
bonds, then the tests hav er tests sample different
e nothing i
The sampling theory i
seems to combine vy
points as: arious theoretical view-
(i) It appears to be
except that he conced similar to Thorndike’s multifactor the
es to the practical ory
ike ‘g’, usefulness of a conc
ept
Vernon’s Hi
i erarchi ical Theory: British psyc
suggested a hier archical structure for hologist P.E.
gence as illustrated tłne organisation of one’s Vern on
intelli-
in the figure given bel
ow:
G
|
1-major group
factor
Ved
KM
2-minor
group
factor
3-specific
factors
Fig. 14.1. Vernon's hierarchical etructure of

human intelligence
Intelligence 225
Consequently, as Vernon (1950) suggested we could think of mind
as a kind of hierarchy where ‘G’ is the most prominent mental ability
(i.e. an overall factor measured through intelligence tests). Under ‘G’
we have two major group factors, called Ved and KM, representing
two main types of mental abilities. Where the first major group
factor, Ved, is concerned with the verbal numerical and educational
abilities, the other major group factor KM is related with practical,
mechanical. spatial and physical abilities. These two major factors can
be divided into minor group factors and ultimately these minor
factors may be further sub-divided into various specific factors related
with minute specific mental abilities.
Guilford’s theory involving a model of intellect

J. P. Guilford and his associates while working in the psychologi-
cal laboratory at the University of Southern California developed a
model of intelligence on the basis of the factor analytical research
studies conducted by them with the help of a number of intelligence
tests. They arrived at the conclusion that every mental process or
intellectual activity can be described in terms of three different basic
dimensions or parameters known as Operations—the act of thinking;
contents—the terms in which we think (such as words or symbols);
and products—the ideas we come up with (Guilford, 1961).
Each of these parameters—operations, contents and products—
can be further sub-divided into some specific factors or elements as
described below:
I Operations II Contents III Products
Evaluation (E) Figural Factor (F) _ Units (U)

(i.e. concrete material
Convergent perceived through Classes (C)
Thinking. (C) senses) ý
a Relations (R)
Divergent Symbolic (S) |
Thinking (D) (i.e. material in the form Systems (S)
of signs and symbols). 3
Memory (M) Transformation (T)
Semantic (M) As
Cognition (C) (i.e. material in the form Implication (I)
of verbal meaning or
ideas)
LA neetneny eee MaA te CE RRS Pal rh
The above classification in terms of the parameters and specific
factors can be represented diagrammatically as given on the
next
page.
In this way, according to the model of intellect
presented by
Guilford, structure of human intelligence can be viewed in terms of
the three basic parameters along with their divisions into specific
number of factors. There could be 4x5 x 6=120 factors in ali which
may constitute the human intelligence. Each one of these factors ie
trigram symbol i.e., at least one factor from each catego
ry
three parameters must be necessarily present in any specific o oe:
intelle
tual activity or mental task.
Classes
Relations
PRODUCTS
Fig. 14.2. Guilford’s three dime

nsional model of tha
structure of the intellect.
Conclusion about theories

of intelligence
in hierarchical order as suggested by

‘model as designed by Guilford.
(i) General factor g (common to all tasks) as advocated
Spearman in his two factor theory. by
Intelligence 227
(ii) Group factor ‘G? (common to the tasks belonging to a

specific group) as advocated by Thurstone and others in the
Group factor theory.
(iii) Specific factors sı» s2, etc. (Very specific to the task as advo-
cated by Thorndike in his multifactor theory).
Nature of intelligence
_ The problem regarding the identification of the true nature of
intelligence can be solved by taking into consideration the different
aspects given below:
—Defining intelligence for the understanding of its meaning.
—Discussing various theories explaining its structure in terms
of various constitutes or factors.
—Describing various other aspects and characteristics related to
intelligence and its functioning.
We have already covered the first two points, above in the
present chapter, let us now concentrate briefly on the last point
through the headings mentioned below:
The effect of heredity and environment on intelligence

The relative importance of nature and nurture has been investi-
ion of
fated by different sociologists and psychologists. The conclus
their studies reveals that intelligence is the product of heredity and
of an
environment. Both are necessary for the intellectual growth the
individual, and one cannot be conside red more essentia l than
other.
of intelligence is not
Distribution of Intelligence: The distribution
unifo rm among the human beings . It resemb les the distribution of
It is a
health, wealth, beauty and similar other characteristics. which
is gover ned by a defini te princi ple
normal distribution that are at the averag e, a few very
states that the majority of the people
bright and a few very dull.
exists wide individual
Individual Difference in intelligence: There intelligence. Truly
with regard to
differences among individuals individuals
Speaking, no one of us even the identical twins or the t of
nurtured almost insimilar environments have equal amoun gh
sment of intell igence throu
mental energy flowing in them. The asses
has given us enoug h groun d to believe that not only the
Various tests in the same indi-
intelligence varies from individual to indivi dual but
situation.
vidual from age to age and situation to
grows in age, so
Intelligence and Changes in age: As thece childtests. Now the question
does the intelligence as shown by intel ligen
arises—at what age does this incre ase cease ? The age of cessation of
mental growth varies from individual to individual. However in a
majority of cases» intelligence reaches its maximum, somewhat at
h
the ageof 16 to 20 in the individual. After that the vertical growt
of intelligence ceases. But the horizontal roith acrumnlasion-ol

knowledge and acquisition of skills—continues throughout the li
span of an individual.
Intelligence and Sex differences: Various studies have been con
ducted to find out whether women are less intelligent than men an
vice versa. The result of these researches hanes in
one way
other. In some of the cases no significant difference has been or the
found.
Therefore, it is proper to think that difference in sex does not contri-
bute towards difference in intelligence.
Intelligence and racial or cultural differences:
race, caste, or cultural group is superior to anothWhether a particular
the hypothesis has er in intelligence—
been examined by so many research work
In the U.S.A. it has been a burning problem for centuries. ers.
results of earlier studies which take the White The
in comparison with the
s to be a super ior race
Negroes have been questioned. Now
been established that intelligence is not the birthright it has
of a particular
race or group. The ‘bright’ and ‘dull’ can
be found in any race, caste
or cultural group and the differences which are
plained in terms of environmental found can be ex-
influences.
Assessment of intelligence
We are familiar only with that intelligence of an
is manifested by him through an intelligence individual which
test or tests. Psycholo-
place of measurement as measurement of intelligence is not possible

in the same way as we
piece of cloth or temperature of our body j
in all its meaning and applicat . In is because, intellig ence
ion is not a thing, it is only an idea,
abstraction. Therefore, we can only have its assessment and an
measurement in physical terms. Moreover not the
, in the case of measurin g
intelligence we cannot have such abso
lute scales as are otherwise avail-
able for measuring physical entities i.e., piece of cloth or temperature-
Here as Griffiths observes “the
standard of measurement is a grou
performance” (1983, P- 138). Therefor p
e, when
of an individual with the help of an intelligencewetestmeasure intelligence
we try to inter-
pret the resulting score in the
light of the norms established (gro
perf ormance) by the author of the test. In up
is determined relatively to the class this way one’s intelligence
ified group to which he belongs.
So where in the case of a piece of cloth
absolute measurement is
possible, we have relative measurement
in the case of intelligence
measurement.
Classification of intelligence test

s
1. As far as the administrative point
of view is concerned the
intelligence tests can be classified into two
broad categories namely:
(A) Individual tests: In which only one individual is tested at a
time.
Intelligence 229
(B) Group tests: In which a group of individuals is tested at the

same time.
2. Another way of classifying the intelligence tests is based on
the form of the test. Accordingly there are two types of tests:
(a) Verbal Test or Language tests
(b) Non-verbal tests or Non-Language tests
language.
(a) Verbal or Language tests: These tests make use of or oral
Here the instructions are given in words (either in written
ge as well as
form or both). Individuals are required to use langua
is loaded
paper and pencil for giving the responses. The test content
with verbal material.
(b) Non-Verbal and Non-Language tests: These tests The involve such
which the use of langua ge is not necessa ry. use of
activities in in
and respon se except
language is eliminated from test content
giving directions.
Performance
The typical examples of such non-ve! rbal tests are :
ar e given below
Tests. The principal characteristics of these
of material
(i) Test contents of these tests are in th e form
objects.
the tester either
(ii) What an individual has to do is indicated by signs.
through oral instru ctions or by panto mime or
does or performs
(iii) Individual’s responses depend upon what he
rather than by anything he says or writes.
tests are individual tests. As Dr. Pillai
(iv) Generally these
tests, chiefly
observes, ‘‘These cannot be used as group testee at
vise the indivi dual
because it is necessary to super
neces sary direc tion. ”
work and give him
of tests in intelligence
If we try to have a final picture of all types
ways of classifying them as
both the
we will have to keep in view can be rep-
mentioned above . All these types of intelligence tests
resented diagrammatically as follows:
Intelligence Tests
Group Tests
Individual Tests
elnce
Fa ammaPerforma
|
Verbal
oNon-TVerbal
(eae
Verbal Tests Tests
Tests (a typi- Tests
cal form of
Non-Verbal
Tests).
s one by one.
Now we will discuss these type
an General Psychology
Individual verbal tests
The tests involving the use of language and administered to a
individual at a time belong to this category. As an
tests we can quote Stanford-Binet Scale. example, of ge
the original Binet-Simon
It is the revised tora F
test. Actually, French
Binet is the father of intelligence tests constru Psychologist, Al He
ction movement. Of
along with Theodore Simon Prepared
a test as early „as in j
consisting of 30 items (arranged
in order of increasing difficulty
graded for different levels. The
test included such items as:
At age 3—Point out to
nose, eyes and mouth.
At
tanford Binet Scale and widely used as an

individual intelligence test.
The tests in this scale are
age 2 to 22 years. The taskgrou s
ped into age levels, extending
from
Various tests range from simple to be performed by the testee in these
manipulation to abstract reasonin g.
Binet Tests have been adopted in
was made by Dr. C.H. Rice in 1922 India too. The first such attempt
tani Binet Performance Point Scal when he published his ‘‘Hindus
Bine! test along with some perf e”. This was an adaptation
ormance tests in addition of the
Man ovigyan Shala of Uttar Pradesh . The Rees
Standford Binet test. Th is has made a Hindi Version ©
named as Budhi Pariksha
test is divided into several age-groups
Anooshilan. and
The other common Verbal
India) is Samanya Budhi Pariksha
Individual Intelligence test (use
d n
Indian adaptation of the well (Pt. 1 and 2). This test is
kno at
has been prepared by State Bureau wn test of William Stephenson.
Guidance, of Educational and Vocational t
Gwalior (M.P.)
Individual perfo rmance

tests
As Mentioned earlier,
tests of intelligence for the c
t
this classification. In
t
the form of performance and
language is not used at all.
which require responses in terms of motor In ne
are included. Generally the activities, activitie
an individual is tested are of the on which the performance 0!
following types:
(i)
Block building or cube const
to make a structure or design byructi on: Where the subject is oe
means of blocks or cubes supplie
to him. The examples of tke tests, invo
are Merril Palmer Block Building, lving such type of activities
der’s Pass-along test, etc.
Koh’s Block Design Test, Alexan-
Intelligence 231
of such types
(ii) To fit the blocks in the holes: Test material there are holes
board in which
provides numerous blocks and a the blocks in
blocks . The subjec t has to fit
corresponding to these
les are Seguin Form
these corresponding holes (in the board). Examp
Board Test and Goddard Form Board Test.
of a series of mazes
(iii) Tracing a maze: Test material consists sheet. The subject
ate
of increasing difficulty, each printed on a separ from entrance to exit.
is required to trace with pencil, the path
such type of activities.
Porteus Maze Test is an example involving
etion: In picture arrange-
(iv) Picture arrangement or picture compl n pictures whereas
ment tests the task is to arrange in series the give lete the
is required to comp
in picture completion test the subject out of each picture. ‘The
picture with the help of given pieces cut
test is a good exam ple of such test which
Healy pictorial completion
intelligence of the subject without
provides a good estimate of the j
making use of language.
stress on one or the other
As seen above, these tests try to lay of
using one or two tests a group
types of performance. Instead of into a scale or batte ry, are used
either
performance tests, organised
a comp rehe nsiv e pict ure of an individual’s mental ability. Some
for
of the popularly known scales are:
(i) The Pinter Patterson Scale.
(ii) The Arthur Point Scale.
Performance Tests.
(iii) Alexander’s Battery of
scale quite popular in U.S.A.,
The Pinter Patterson Scale: This use with deaf children and with
for
was designed in 1917 mainly It is quite a comprehensive scal
e
ical ly bac kwa rd chil dren . in
linguist Mare, Foal Pict ure Boar d, Segu
which includes 15 sub-tests: the Two Figure Board,
re Board,
Form Board, the Five Figu the Diagonal Test, the
Tria ngle Test,
the Casuist Board, the Test, the Feature Profile-
Manikin
,
Healy Form Board, Puzzle Test the Cube Test. The performan
ce
test, the Adaptation Board, and ks are given for the performance
mar
on this scale is timed and the ed with the established norms given
are add ed up and com par
which eral intelligence.
t the subject’s gen
in the manual to interpre
has been developed by
The Arthur's Point Scale: This scale
ur by adopting a poin t scale rather than the
Madam Grace Arthfor the method of scoring. Its new revised vers
ion
median mental age
sub-tests:
includes the following
(i) Know cubes.
Board.
(ii) Seguin Form
ure Board.
(iii) Two Form Fig
Board,
(iv) Casuist Form
(vy) Manikin,
232
General Psychology
(vi) Feature Profile,
(vii) Mare-and Foal,
(viii) Healy Picture Completion,
and
(ix) Koh’s Block Design Test.
The Alexander’s Battery of Per
been formance Tests: This scale has
desi i i
Printed on cards and the subject is to

the space in manipulate the cubes within
the wooden hox wit
in reversed order i.e., if plac
colour, they have to be shifted to the le J
colour, The Opposite side indica ed
Performance is eva ted by ri
task and the time taken.
at present consists of 17 graded

matching the colour of the Patterns rds and there are coloured coe
but the cubes are coloured ha
The subject is required to
the time limit to earn the he pattern one by one within
the marks if the tim maxi mum marks or to get deductions
e limit is exceeded. in
The cube Construction tes
t consists of 26 cubes, so
me coloured on
the top side is colour

Consisting of nine cubesless, Similarly,
in which all the sides are coloured the
but t
Possible and the Sco

ring is done in te
the time taken,
In India too, attempts for constructing such

been made. Dr. Chander Mohan Bhatia’s batteries hare
deserves special mention. He has work, in this regard,
tests known as ‘Bhatia’s developed a battery of performa
Battery of Performance nce
Tests’.
It contains the following five
sub-tests:
(i) Koh’s Block Design Test.
(ii) Alexander’s Pass-along Test.
(iii) Pattern Drawing Test.
Untelligence 233
(iv) Immediate memory test for digits (with an alternative form

suitable for illiterates).
(v) Picture construction Test.
The last three tests in this battery have been constructed by Mr.
Bhatia himself while the former two represent adaptation of the
Scale available in Alexander’s Battery.
in two
Wechsler Bellevue Intelligence Scale: This scale is available
WISC is used for childre n and the other WAIS
forms. The one form
individual test which has a unique quality of
for adults. It is an
.
being named as verbal and performance scale simultaneously
sts make up a
The scale consists of eleven sub-tests. Six sub-te listed below
verbal scale and five performance scale. These tests are
in the order in which they are administered.
Verbal Scale:
1. Test of General information.
2. Test of General comprehension.
3. Test of Arithmetic reasoning.
es.
4. Test of distinction between similariti
5 . Test of Digit span.
6. Test of vocabulary.
Performance Scale:
7. Digit symbol Test.
8. Picture completion Test.
9. Block Design test.
10. Picture arrangement test.
L1. Object assembly test.
are added to give an idea of an
The scores on these sub-tests
individual’s intelligence.
nce tests
The group verbal intellige
ate the use of language and are applied
The tests wh ich necessit
time come under this category. Some
to a group of indi viduals at a gory are:
to this cate
of the earlier tests belonging
in World War I).
(i) Army Alpha Test (developed
loped in World
(ii) Army General Classification Test (deve
War ID).
group verbal tests. In India too,
Today we have so many const ruct such tests. Some of the
popular
made to
attempts have been are:
tests of this nature
1. C.LE. verbal Group Test of
Intelligence (Hindi) constructed
by Prof. Uday Shankar.
2. The Group Test of General Mental Ability
Yogyata Pariksha) constructed by Dr. (Samuhik Mansik
S. Jalota (Hindi).
3. Group test of intelligence, prepared by
Bureau of Psychology,
Allahabad (Hindi).
4. Prayag Meth
a’s Grouped Intelligence Test (Sam
Pariksha, Hindi). This test has uhik Budhi
been published by Mansayan,
Delhi.
5. General Mental Abilities Test, prep
Panjab University (Punjabi). ared by Dr. P.S. Hundal of
6. Group verbal intelligence
Pillai of the Kerala University test prepared by Dr. P. Gop
ala
(Malayalam).
7. Samuhik Budhi Pariksha (Hindi), prepa
mali, Vidya Bhavan G.S. Teachers red by Shri P.L. Shri-
College, Udaipur.
8. Samuhik Budhi Ki Jaanch (Hin
Mohsin, Educational and Vocational Guid di), prepared by Shri S.M.
ance Bureau, Bihar, Patna.
The group non-verbal intellig
ence tests
These tests do not necessitate
cable to the group of individuals t he use of language and are appl
i-
at a time.
Still in these tests, material does ñot conta

in words of numerical
figures. It contains pictures,
di
printed in a booklet. The subject is
required to do such activities as
to do is explained clearly by the

ally through clear demonstrations so as to make the
The examples of such type of tests

are:
(i) Army Beta Test: It was
for testing the intelligence of thosedevel oped in World War I in U.S.A.
soldiers who were either illiterates
or were not used to English langu age.
(ii) Chicago Non-verbal Test: This non-v
most useful for the young children aged 12 erbal test h as been proved
and 13 yea:TS. i
235
Intelligence
test was developed
_ (iii) Raven's Progressive Matrices Test: This
r non-ve rbal group test of intelli-
in the U.K. Itis a very popula ts’ ability:
has been desig ned to evalua te the subjec
gence. The test
s or designs.
(a) to see relationship between geometrical figure
n in order to select the
(b) to perceive the structure of the desig
appropriate part for compl etion of each pattern.
C.LE. non-verbal group test of intelligence

test is printed by CLE.
Originally prepared by J.W. Jenkins, the
. The test contains such
for adaptation into Hindi medium schools
items as instructed below.
s on the left hand side
Below in the figure there are three design hand side there are five
which are similar, but on the right on
the three designs given
designs of which only one resembles design.
underl ine that
the left hand side. Please
of intelligence
C.I.E. non- verbal group test
Fig. 14.3. An item from
and I.Q.
Concept of mental age
s, men-
h the various intelligence test
` Intelligence, assessed throug , is always expressed in terms of T.Q.
tioned in the preceding pages an psychologist William
ie. Intelligence Quotient. It was the Germ
in the form of a ratio i.e,
Sterm who first initi ated this term
Mental Ase____ measure of the rate of mental development of
Chronological Age k 3 $
an individual. To do away with the decimal point the ratio was
again multiplied by 100 and thus the formula to calculate I.Q. was
A
given as: Le= 100 (where MA stands for the mental age and
CA for chronological age of the individual whose intelligence is being
tested).
t of mental age was introduced earlier by a French
The concep of the
psychologi st Al fred Binnet. It was based upon the EN
as their ‘mental age”. If some child excel

s
certain tasks from the performance of the in his performance of
majority of the children
of his age, he is said to Possess a higher menta
l age. If, for instance,
a child of eight years has his performa
determined tasks equal to that of the major nce on certain adequately
then he had the mental age (MA) ity of the ten-year-olds,
child of eight years showing his perf of 10 years, whereas, another
Majority of the 6-year-olds, on
ormance equal to that of the
the same tasks could be said
Possess the mental age of 6 to
years.
The constancy of LQ.

As mentioned earlier,
intelligence goes on growin
years of age, but I.Q. for
most individua ls remains cons
g upto 16—20
I.Q. provides a ratio
for knowing h ow bright an
tant . Primarily
individual is as
1.0.=6/5=1 iy 1.0.=8/10=80
ageEI
Mental
1.0 =4/5=80
|
123456789
01112131415
Chronological age
Fig. 14.4. ] thetical growth

Hypo
g've a constant curves which
1.Q.
237
Intelligence
compared to some of his own age. Actually, it is an

index which
com an individual
is independent not only of the particular score which
also of the partic ular age at which
makes on a particular scale but nts us with
it. It is thus a measu re which acquai
he happens to make of an indivi dual,
the relative brightness or intellectual possib ilitie s
more or less permanently.
intelligence but the whole
It is true that an individual grows in
s of his own age) also grow at the same
group (the other individual I.Q., a measure of
rate as that particular individual does. Thus s of an individual
ectual possib ilitie
defining relative brightness or intell
ary circumstances accident
remains practically constant. Under ordin is supposed to remain
I.Q.
or disease excepted) an individual’s
throughout the age limits covered
constant throughout life or at least
I.Q. is referred to as constancy of
by the scale. This property of
T.Q. by psychologists.
The classification of 1.Q.
mental level as expressed in
In accordance with the individual’s different investigators to
made by
terms of I.Q. attempts have been ories. In the revised Standford
classify them under different categ classification has been presen-
this
edition of the Terman Merril test
ted as follows:
Category
IQ.
Mentally defectives
Below 70
70—75 Bord erline or Feeble minded
75—90 Dull and Backward
. Low average
90—95
95—105 Average
Superior
105—125
Very superior
125—140
Geni us
140 and above
based on the Indian made intelli-
However in Indian conditio: ns, found on the basis of researches in
an d
gence tests or adaptations
ca tion seems to be more acceptable
this area, the following classifi
(Shanker Udai, 1984, p. 15)
LO. Categories
Idiots
0—25
Imbeciles
25—50
50—75 Morons or Feeble minded.
75—90 Borderline or dull
90—110 Average
110—125 Superior
125—140 Very superior
140 and above Genius
238
General Psychology
In the above classification, children having I.Q.
and labelled as idiots, imbeciles, morons (Feeble range upto 0
(excepting a minde d) and dali
few borderline cases) are termed Mentally
children, while those possessing I.Q. 140 or retarde
more are termed genius
or gifted.
Judging in this way all the mentally retarded childr
possess sub-normal intellectual capacities en essentially
i.e., they are basically less
capable of intelligent behaviour than
normal children.
Diagnosis of such sub-no
simple task. Intelligence testi
1. They are dependent and find it difficult

or their affairs. In to manage themselves
some of them mental deficiency is
great that they are incapable of prot so
ecting themselves against
common physical dangers.
2. In comparison with children of
their own age their rate of
intellectual development is too
slow.
3. They find it difficult to
shift fro m one type of activity to
another and are not easily
bored wi th a routine job.
4. They are very poor at followin
g general verbal instructions,
unless these are repeated at
frequent intervals.
5. They are essentially slow
learners. Experimentally it
proved they take longer to has been
learn a skill.
They are very poor at abstraction.
terms of concrete objects They can only think in
and situations.
7. They lack too much in the power of observation, thin
and reasoning and ability king
to generalize.
8. The
he areas of their interest, aptitudes and choices are too
limited.
10. They are socially as well as

lities. They do not quite emotionally maladjusted persona-
realize their rights and obliga
towards others and often have tions
deficient moral judgment.
Intelligence 239
11l. They are essentially incurable in the sense that they cannot
be endowed with more intelligence and made normal.
Similarly, in the case of genius or gifted, the results of the
intelligence tests in terms of I.Q. can provide a workable base for
segregating the gifted from the averages. Further support may be
provided by making use of the results of other related and useful
tests and devices like aptitude tests, interest inventory, naturalistic
observation, anecdotal records, opinions and reports of friends and
teachers, self analysis, sociometric techniques and personality tests
involving overall assessment of the behaviour.
SUMMARY
Intelligence may be understood as a sort of mental energy avail-

able to an individual to enable him to handle his environment in terms
.
of adaptation and facing novel situations as effectively as possible
on the structu re of
The theories of intelligence try to throw light
intelligence. Unitary theory holds that intellig ence consists of only
y to
one factor i.e., a fund ofintellectual competence. Quite contrar of
this, multi-factor theory considers intelligence a combination
numerous separate elements or factors, each being a minute
es that
element of an ability. Spearman's two factor theory advocat
tasks can be categor ized into certain definite
all the intellectual
Each group has a unique commo n factor known as group
groups.
nine of such
factor. Thurstone and his associates had discovered
Vernon’ s hierarc hical theory suggest s a hierarchical
group factors.
in the shape of G, an
structure for the organisation ofintelligence various
ng into two major group factors and
overall factor branchi
factors. Guilfor d tried to illustra te his viewpoi nt through a
specific
and interacted basic
model of intellect involving three interrelated
rs—o pera tion s, conte nts and produ cts.
paramete
We may have more
am comprehensive picture of the concept of
its nature like:
intelligence by know ng certain important facts about is a joint product of
ly distrib uted in nature; it
intelligence is normal with age and its vertical
both heredity and environment; it grows
age of 16 to 20, it shows vide variety of indivi-
growth ceases at the culture ,
sex, races,
dual differences but however the differences in a factor in causing
are not found to be
caste and colours etc.,
differences in intelligence.
Intelligence cannot be measured in the same way as we measure
y be assessed.
a piece of cloth or temperature of our body. It can onl
This assessment is carried out through intelligen ce tests categorized as
individual and group tests involving the use of verbal or non-verbal
material.
In individual tests, we test an individual at a time where in group
tests, a group of individuals may be tested at the same time. We have
a large variety of such individual or group tests, some of which are
240
General Psychology
Paper-pencil tests and thus require the
essential use of language, the
others are language free tests. The typical examples of such non-
useful in the cases of individuals who

as foreign language speaking have language handicaps such
groups, illiterates, deaf and
mentally retarded or culturally dumb,
deprived individuals.
For interpreting the scores earn
use of the concept of mental ed on intelligence tests we make
age and [.Q. Mental age of a
signifies a particular mental leve
l which is normal for the majo child
children of his age. In a standardized rity of
test of intelligence, we can read
= Chronologica - l Age X10

> 0. . ThisThi ratii o a measure of de fining
relative brightness or intellectual
possibilities of an individual remains
practically constant throughou
t one’s life or at least throughout
age limits covered by an inte the
referred to as Constancy of 1.0. lligence test. This property ofI.Q. is
The I.Q. Scores of individua
ls may be emp
loyed in classifying them
as above average, average and
below average. The individua
ls having
termed as mentally retard
ed while those having I.Q. 140 or above
are termed genius or gifted.

ted Readings
Binet, A and Simon, T, The
Will
Development of Intelligence in Children,
iams & Wilkins, 1916, Baltimore:
Brody, E.B. and Brody,
N., Intelligence: Nature, Determinants and Conseq
New York: Academic uence,
Press, 1976,
Butcher, H.J. «+, Human
Intelligence— Nature and Asse
1968. ssment, London: Methuen,
Cronbach L J., Essentials of
Psychology Testing (3rd ed.)
Row, 1970. New York: Harper &
Drever, J and Collins,
Oliver & Boyd, 1948. M., The Performance Tests of Intelligence Edinburgh:
Griffith, J.H , The Psycholog
y of Human Behavior, London
Guilford, J.P., The Natu
, George Allen, 1933.
reof Intelligence, New York: Mc Graw-Hill, 1967
Pillai, N.P.. Pillai. K.S. and Nair, .
Trivandrum: Kalaniketon, 1972. K.S., Psychological Founda
tions of Education,
Shankar, Udai, Exceptional Children,
(2nd ed.), Delhi: Sterling 1984,
Spearman, C.E., The Nature of Intelligence and Principles
of Cognition,
Macmillan, 1923, London:
Intelligence 241
Spearman, C.E., The Abilities of Man, New York: Macmillan, 1927.

Stern, W., Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence, Baltimo re
: Warwick
and York, Inc. 1914.
Stoddard, G.D., The Meaning of Intelligence, New York: Macmillan, 1943.
Terman, L.M. and Macmill, M.A., Measuring Intelligence, Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1937.
Thomson, G.H., The Factorial Analysis of Human Ability, London: London
University Press, 1939.
Thorndike, E.L., Educational Psychology (Briefer Course) New York: Columbia
University, 1914.
Thurston, L.L., Primary Mental Abilities, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
Vernon, P.E., The Structure of Human Abilities, London: Methuen, 1950.

Wagnon, M.J. (Ed.); Readings in Educational Psychology, New York: Houghton
Mifflin, 1937.
Wechsler, D., Wechsler Scale of Intelligence (WAIS, WISE), New York:
Psychological Corporation, 1939.
Wechsler, D., The Measurement of Adult Intelligence (3rd ed.) New York:
Williams and Wilkins, 1944.
Wolfie, D (Ed.), The Discovery of Talent, Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University
Press, 1969.
Woodworth, R.S., Psychology—A Study of Life, New York: Century, 1932.
Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, [D.G.; Psychology (Sth ed.), New York: Henry
Holt & Co. 1948.
15
APTITUDES
Meaning and nature of aptitudes

It isan observable fact that people differ from one another and
within themselves in their performance in one or the other fields of
human activity such as leadership, music, art, mechanical work,
teaching etc. Ramesh goes to a commercial institute in order to learn
typing and shorthand. He progresses rapidly with his typing and
shorthand and gets the diploma in due course. Later on, when
he 1s
offered a stenographer-cum-typist job he carries it out satisfactorily-
Suresh although not in any way inferior to the former in general
intelligence, who also gets admission to this institute, progresses
very
slowly and even after getting the diploma proves himself an
ineffi-
cient typist as well as stenographer. Similarly Radha profits from
musical training while Sunita having almost the same intelligence
Radha under similar circumstances, makes little or no progress. as
In this way in many spheres of every day life we usually come
across individuals who under similar circumstances surpass other
persons in acquiring certain knowledge or skills and prove themselves
more suitable and efficient in certain specific jobs. Such persons are
said to possess certain specific abilities or aptitudes, besides general
intellectual abilities or intelligence, which help them in achieving
success in some specific occupations or activities.
Therefore in a simple way aptitude may be considered a special
ability or specific capacity besides the general intellectual ability
which helps an individual to acquire a required degree of proficiency
or achievement in a specific field. However, for having a clear under-
Standing of the term aptitude let us try to consider the following
definitions given by different scholars:
Bingham: “Aptitude refers to those qualities characterizing 4
person’s way of behaviour which serve to indicate how well he can
ene meet and solve certain specified kinds of problems” (1937;
p. 21).
Traxler: “Aptitude is a condition, a quality or a set of qualities
in an individual which is indicative of the probable extent to which
he will be able to acquire under suitable training, some knowledge;
skill or composite of knowledge, understanding and skill, such as
243
Aptitudes
ati-
ability to contribute to art or music, mechanical ability, mathem(1957,
cal ability or ability to read and speak a foreign languag e.”
p. 49),
teristics
_ Freeman: “An aptitude is a combination of charac
indicative of an indiv idual’s capacity to acquire (with training) some
responses, such as the
specific knowledge, skill, or set of organized an, to do mechanical
ability to speak a language, to becom e a musici
work.” (1971, p. 431).
nature of aptitudes.
All these definitions reve al the predictive de for teaching we
When we say that Ram or Radha has an aptitu
to acquire proficiency
mean that he or she has the capacityor ability
in teaching under appropriate conditions.
aptitude for music we
Similarly when we say Mohan has an that if he were to
or ability reveals
mean that his present condition this
in line. In this way the knowledge
learn music he would succeed ss of an indiv idual.
succe
of aptitude helps us in predicting the future area of
train ing or exper ience s, in a particular
under suitable
activity.
re of aptitudes
Something more about the natu
Are Aptitudes inherited or it acquired? Like so many other
personality traits or characteristics, is difficult to say for one or the
product of heredity or environ-
Other aptitude that it is an absolute be inborn. For example
aptitudes may
ment. Certain aspects of many may have a musical throat and
a
a person showing musi cal apti tude
work or watc h repa irin g may
person showing aptitude for typing this is one j side of the pictu j re.
hav e lon g and dex ter ous han ds. But
mus ic may
! *s aptitude for
It is also equally possiblei o 0
ng 10 the company
be the result of his livi the creation of his father or
mother
be
aptitude for typing work istmay
.
hap pen s to be a typ
who indivi-
to conc Jude that the aptitude ofan
Therefore, it is safer all probability, dependent upon
ment is, in
dual at a particular moironment.
both, heredity and env
ievement
from ability and ach
How aptitude differs e thing. You
ability do not mean the sam
Aptitude and present h
e a car but you may have a hig
may have no present ability to driv
ns that you r cha nce s of bei ng a
aptitude for driving— which mea receive the proper trai ning .
successful driver ate good provided reyou reference and tries to predict
tude has futu
In this way while apti of an individual in an area or
the degree of ‘attainment or success ability concerns itself only
activity after adequate traini ng— the es-
—the potentiality or capability poss
condition
with the
ee
present
resent mom ent drre OL sdtsor past
tivosucces
speoure and doesinot -
Hara ima te of one’s fut failure.
try to make any est
Contrary to the forward-looking nature of aptitude and present-

oriented characteristic of ability, achievement is past-oriented. It
looks to the past and indicates what an individual has learned or
acquired in a particular field.
But by this differentiation it should not be concluded that
we can
measure an individual’s future accomplishment in any area
of activity
with the help of aptitude measurement. Aptitudé tests, in all
their
forms, measure only the present ability or capacity of an
which can be exploited for making predictions about futureindivid ual
ments. attain-
Difference between intelligence and

aptitudes
Intelligence tests as they exist usually test
the general mental
ability of an individual; but aptitudes as
we have discussed, are
concerned with specific abilities. Therefore, where
ledge of intelligence of an individual we can with the know-
predict his success in a
number of situations involving mental funct
ion or activity, the know-
ledge of aptitudes, on the other hand, acqua
ints us with those specific
abilities and capacities of an individual
which give an indication of
his ability or capacity to succeed in a specia
fore, in predicting achievement in some l field or activity. There-
Courses or specialized instruction we need particular job, training,
to know more about one’s
piers (specific abilities) rather than his
intelligence or general
ability,
Difference between aptitude and

interest
To get desirable success in a given activ
both an aptitude for activity and an inter ity, a person must have
Interest and aptitude go hand in hand. est in it. Therefore, usually,
should never infer that interests and
But by this co-ordination, we
thing. A person may be interested aptitudes are one and the same
ina particular activity, job or
training but may or May not have
Cases, the interest shown in a particulartheOccu
aptitude for that. In such
is often the result of some pation or course of study
Other temptation or persuasion
ambitions of the parents, probably of like
getting an appointment or job
Provision of stipend or financial help, the prest
ige associated with the
work—rather than the personal aptitude.
have long and dexterous fingers and Similarly a person may
can
ọn a mechanical aptitude test yet he mayshow show
a good performance
in becoming a watch maker, Ther little or no interest
efore a guidance or section pro~
gramme must give due weightage to the measure
as of interest. Both are essential for of aptitude as well
the predi
an individual in a given activity, job or cours ction of the success of
e of instruction.
Measurement of aptitudes
Like intelligence tests various aptitude
measure aptitudes ofthe individuals in tests have been devised to
various specific fields or
245
Aptitudes
following
activities. Generally these tests can be classified into the them:
e tested by
types according to the specific nature of the aptitud
1. Mechanical Aptitude tests.
2 Musical Aptitude tests.
3. Art judgement tests.
4 Aptitudes tests 1.6.5 Tests to measure the
Professional
g, clerical, medical, legal,
aptitudes for professions like teachin:
rch work etc.
engineering, salesmanship, resea
re the aptitude
Yi Scholastic aptitude tests i.e., tests to measu
for different courses of instru ction.
on some of these
In the following pages we will throw light
above mentioned aptitude tests.
Mechanical aptitude tests

is also made up of many
Like intelligence, mechanical aptitude Freeman writes:
ing
components. While explaining its mean
‘mechanical aptitude’ is not
“The capacity designed by the terma comb ination of sensory and
a single, unitary function. It is
spatial relations, the capacity
motor capacities plus perception of
al matters and the capacity
to acquire information about mechanic
tion ship s”. (1977, p. 444).
to comprehend mechanical rela
to test the above mentioned
Therefore mechanical aptitude tests try
vidual in order to know his
abilities and capacities of an indiwell known mechanical aptitude
mechanical aptitude. Some of the
tests are:
Assembly Test.
(i) Minnesota Mechanical
,
(ii) Minnesota Spatial Relations Test
Form Board (1948).
(iii) The Revised Minnesota Power
Tests (Part I and III).
(iv) Stenquist Mechanical Aptitude
Aptitude Tests (Part I and ID
©) L.J. O’Rourke’s Mechanical
ical comprehension. °
: (vi) Bennet Tests of Mechan
de test.
(vii) S.R.A. Mechanical aptitu
tude Tests (Hindi) prepared by
(viii) A Battery of Mechanical Aptid. Usually these tests contain
Mano-Vigyanshala, Allahaba nature:
the items of the following
of mechanical :
(a) Asking the subject to put together the parts
devices.
ous shapes in their correct
(b) Asking to replaced. cut-. outs of vari
holes in the boar
246
General Psychology
(c) Requiring the ability to solve prob
lems in geometric terms.
(d) Asking questions concerning the basic
tools and their uses. information about
(e) Questions relating to the
comprehension of physical and
mechanical principles.
As an illustration Bennet
AA has 60 items in pictoria Mechanical co.
l form. They pres
Which would be the

better shears for
cutting metal?
Fig. 15.1.
Driver A B
Which gear will make the
most turns in a minute?
Fig. 15.2.
Clerical aptitude tests

Like mechanic
al,
According to Bingham,cleritical aptitude is also . 2 Composite function-
involves several specific abil
ities like:
247
Aptitudes
to perceive words and numbers
(a) Perceptual ability: Ability
with speed and accuracy.
t o grasp the meaning of words
(b) Intellectual ability: Ability
and symbols.
machines and
(c) Motor ability: Abilit y to use va rious types of e; punching
licator, Cyc lostyle machin
tools like typewriter, dup
machine etc.
aptitude tests are:
Some of the popular clerical
Examination.
(i) Detroit Clerical Aptitude workers.
for clerical
(ii) Minnesota vocational test chology
prepared by the dept. of psy
(iii) The Clerical Ability Test
ore.
University of Mysore, Mys Bureau
Clerical Aptitude Test Bat tery (English and Hindi),
(iv) ce, Patna (Bih ar).
of Edu. and Voc. Guidan Panchayat
prepared by the Parsee
(v) Test of Clerical Aptitude Bom bay —1.
Hornby Road,
Guidance Bureau 209,
rical a ptitude test.
Specimen item from a Cle
of pairs of numbers.
Samples done correctly
79542 79524
5794367 5794367
tly of pairs of names.
Samples done correc
John C. Lender
John C Linder
Investors Syndicate
Investors Syndicate
s below,
Now try the sample
— 66273284
66273894
—527384578
527384578
New York World.
New York World—
argil Grain Co.
Cargil Grain Co—C far as you can
t for sp ee d an d accuracy. Work as
This is a Tes
takes.
without making mis
told to begin.
page until you are
Do not turn the t, 1968,
chology by H.E. Garret
(Reproduced from Genera 1 Psy
p- 471).
de tests
Music: al aptitu
been n <devised for discovering musical talent.
Thes e tests have tests is described below:
portant musica | aptitude
One of these 1m
sure of Musical Talent:—
Seashore Mea
248
General Psychology
It gives consideration to the foll
owing musical components:—
(a) discrimination of pitch,
(b) discrimination of intensit
y of loudness,
(c) determination of tim
e interval.
(d) Discrimination of tim
bre.
(e) Judgement of rhythm
.
(f) Tonal memory.
Test items in this
The subject sits, listensbattery are Presented on phonograph records.
and attempts to discriminate. He
to mark his responses on is required
examiner. The instructions an answer form supplied to him by the
in these tests are of the fol
lowing nature:
“You will hear two tones whi
whether the second is higher ch diff er in pit ch. You are to judge
or lower than the first. If the second
is higher, record H:
if lower, record Lb
Aptitude for grah
pic art
These tests are devised to
two important tests discover the talent for
of this nature are: graphic art. The
1. The Meier Art Ju
dgement Test.
2. Horne Art Aptitu
de Inventory.
. h Meier Art Judgemen Tes
tional t t there are 100 pairs of rep
li pict ures in resenta~
for illustration. black and white. The one such pair is given below
Ín this pair the subjectis

required to select the orig
aesthetically superior work inal and.
on the basis of the shap
es of the bowls
Fig. 15.3.
Aptitudes © 249
“id
: One member y of each
é i an
pairpair is k
acknowle dged art masterpiei ce
poe Frs other is a slight distortion of the E S It is aiy
principle
RS aoe the original so as to violate some important altered
are informed regarding which aspect has been
pms ao | tp ore
the one that is better—m
plein: asked to choose from each pair in the above
more satisfyin g. For example
oS. Fimore artistic,
ee a pao oe the examinees are required to select the original
of the shapes of the
bowie S cdi rape work on the basis measure or
spins fee EPH Ta hails responses is taken asa
art is
Another important test of measuri ng aptitude for graphic to
Inventory . It requires the subject
e Horn Art Aptitude lines and figures . The
produce sketches from given patter ns of
ing to the
eated sketches of the subject are then evaluated accord
standard given by the author of this test.
udes
Tests of scholastic and professional aptit
for the studies of
For helping in the p roper selection of students Medicine, Law,
Engin eerin g,
specific courses of profession: s like
Business Management, Teaching etc., the various specific aptitude
tests are:
tests have been designed. Some o! f these aptitude
by D.L. Zyve-
(i) Stanford Scientific Aptitude Test
(aft er Hig her Sec. Stage): N.IE.
(ii) Science Aptitude Test
Delhi.
for Medical Students.
(ii?) Moss Scholastic Aptitude Test Aptitud e Examination.
Law
(iv) Ferguson and Stoddard’s
(v) Tale Legal Aptitude Test-
(vi) Pre-Engineering Abilit y Test. U.S.A.).
(Education Testing Service,
Analogical Test.
(vii) Minnesota Engineering
Test of Teaching Ability.
(viii) Coxe-Orleans Prognosis Shrivastav,
by Jai Parkash and R.P.
(ix) Teaching Aptitude Test
P.)
University of Saugar (M.
Shah’s Teaching Apt itu de test.
(x) Moss, F.A. & others, Geo
rge
t by
(xi) Teaching Aptitude TesPress.
Washington University
in aptitude testing
Contemporary trend specific
itude tests for measuring
Instead of utilising specific apt or area, the trend at present.
field
aptitude in very specific aptitude test battery to fin
d
ards multiple
has now been changed tow different professions requiring different
of peo ple for in the
the suitability in the relevant aptitude tests
abilities on the basis of scor es
eral Aptitude Test Battery
battery. The examples of such tests are Gent (DAT).
(GATB) and the Differen tial Aptitude Tes
GATB, developed by the Employment Service Bureau of USA,
has 12 tests. Eight of which are Paper-pencil tests
comparison, computation, vocabulary, arithmetic, as for name
reasoning, form
matching, test matching, three dimensional
space etc. The other four
require the use of simple equipments in the
shape of moving pegs on
boards, assembling and dissembling rivets
and washers. From the
scores obtained by the subject, the experi
menter is able to draw
inferences about the nine aptitude
factors: intelligence, verbal
aptitude, numerical aptitude, spatial
aptitude, form BEPOSBHODs
clerical perception, motor coordination,
finger
dexterity. The GATB has proven to be one dexterity and manua
of the most successful
multiple aptitude batteries particular
ly for the purposes of job
classification.
The DAT, developed by U.S. Psychologica
able in two forms. It includes l Corporation is avail-
tests for verbal reasoning, numerical
ability, abstract reasoning, spatial relations,
clerical speed and accuracy mechanical reasoning,
and two
spelling and grammar,) DAT has prov tests for language usages (for
ed more successful in predicting
academic success and found specially usefu
and vocational guidance to seco l for providing educational
ndary school children.
Utility of aptitude tests
Aptitude tests have a wid
the backbone of the guidan e
enable us to locate, with
ce services.
a reasonable de
of activity in which an ind
ividual is most
Secondly, they can be safely used for the purpo

and vocational selection. They help us in maki se of educational
of the candidates for various educationa ng scientific selection
l and professional courses as
well as for specialized jobs as Munn
tude testing is, in fact; that it enables puts it. “The chief value of apti-
us to
© not yet have the ability to perform certa pick out from those who
in skills, those who, with a
reasonable amount of training,
will be most likely to acquire the
skills in question and acquire
ficiency.” (1967, p. 117) them to a desirable level of
. pro-
Therefore aptitude tests properly antic
ipate the future potentia-
ities or capacities of an individual
(irrespective of the fact whether he
possesses those future capacities befor
e the train
y help us in making selection of those individualing or not) and ae
for a particular profession and cours s who are best fitte
are likely to be more benefited by e of instruction or those who
experiences.
the preprofessional training oF
In this way any reasonable guidance and couns

or the entrance examination to the specia elling programme
lized, academic and pro-
fessional courses or the selection procedure
for specialized jobs is
251
Aptitudes
required to give pro per weightage to Aptitude testing. Aptitude

testing when combine d with the other information received through
Interest Inventory, Personality tests, Intelligence tests and cumulative
record etc., can help, to a greater extent, in avoiding
the huge
„human as well as material resource s by placing the
wastage of
individuals in their proper places and lines of work.
SUMMARY
ic capacity or special
JfAptitude may be considered as a specif
ability, besides the general intellectual abilit y of an individual, indi-
cative of his probable succes s in a releva nt field after getting proper
so many other personality
opportunity for learning or training. Likejoint product of both here-
traits, aptitudes have been adjudged as a
dity and environment.
Aptitude differs a bility and achievement in terms of its.
from
the future success of an indi-
forward looking nature i.e., p redicting sing the present position
ty limits itsel fin disclo
vidual where the abili of the particular ability
posse ssion
of an individual with regard to the its past oriented nature merely
or capacity, the achievement with
ned or acquired.
indicates what an individual has lear
confused with interest. One may have
_ Aptitude should not be
may or may not have an apti-
interest in a particular act or job but
true. However for obtaining the
tude for that. The converse is also
one must have both interest as well
desired success in a given task,
as aptitude.
out through some relevant,
Measurement of aptitudes is carried Mechanical aptitude tests
specific aptitude tests. For example,
mechanical wor. k; e
Clerical aptitude tests
measure one’s aptitude for ing aptitude for clerical work; Musical
are employed for measur mpts to
measure of musical talent attethro
aptitude tests like Seashore tude ugh
for grap h ic art is test ed
discover musica | talent. Apti test. Similarly, we have various
the tests like Meier Art Judgement
me surement of scholastic and
standardized aptitude tests for the or
s for relevant specific courses ,
professional aptitudes of individual
medi cine law, busine ss manag ement
professions like engineering,
teaching, etc.
Aptitude tests have a wide range of application. They prove ionto
of guida nce services and select
be the backbone of all types
programmes. Through their adequate prediction values, they exhibit
in their proper places and lines of
their worth in placing the persons
work.
ings
References and Suggested Read
n: Macmillan, 1968.
Anastasi. A.» Psychological Testing. Londo
York: Psychological
Bennett, G-K., et al; Differential Aptitude Tests, New
Corporation, 1947
Bingham, W.V., Aptitudes and Aptitude Testin
g, New York: (Harper & Brothers
1937,
Freeman, F.S., Theory and Practice of
Psychological Testing (3rd Indian repri
Bombay: Oxford & IBH, 1971. nt),
Hull, C.L., Aptitudes Testing, New
York: Yonkers, World Book Co, 1928.
Long, L and Mehta, P.H., The First Menta
New Delhi: NCERT, 1966. l Measurement Hand Book of India,
Meier, C.N., Meier Art Tests II
Aesthetic Perception, IOWA, University
Towa, 1963 of
Munn, N.L., Introduction to Psychology
(Indian Ed.) Delhi: Oxford & IBH,
Seashore, C.E., Seashore Meas 1967.
ures of Musical Talents, New
Corporation, 1960, York; Psychological
Tane A.E., Techniques of Guidance
(Rev. ed.) New York: Harper &
Brothers,
16
PERSONALITY
Meaning and nature
The term “‘personality” stems from the Latin word persona, which
was the name given to the masks. actors wore and the characters
they portrayed. The meaning of the word personality in practice has
changed little since classical time for it is still quite common to hear
the comments such as “I do not know what he sees in her,
she has a very poor personality”, or “look at that young man, what
a fine personality he has”. Remarks like this make us believe that
personality is a thing or quality that is possessed by all of us and we
can paste such labels as fine, good or poor on it on the basis of
the physical makeup, manner of their walking, talking, dressing
and a host of other similar characteristics possessed by individuals.
However what is believed in this way is quite wrong as the psycholo-
gical concept of personality goes far beyond and deeper than mere
appearance or outward behaviour. How should it be given a proper
meaning or definition has remained a serious problem from time
immemorial before the psychologists.
Watson (1930) the father of behaviourism, taking clues from his
is the sum of —
behavioural studies, tried to conclude that “personality
activiti es that can be discove red by actual observa tions over a long
enough period of time to give reliable information”. In this way he
tried to mak e the word perso personality synony/mous to the consistent
very narrow
behaviour patterns of an individual. Indeed it reflected a
meaning of the term perso nalit y.
In the subsequent years, Morton Prince tried to give personality
a broad base by accepting the role of both environm ental and here-
in constitut ing what is named as personality. He
ditary factors
remarked : “personality is the sum total of all the biologica innatel
dispositions, impulses, tendencies. appetites and instincts of the
by expe-
individual and the dispositions and tendencies acquired
rience.” (1929, p-532).
This defintion of Morton Prince was criticised on the grounds
that it does not present any integrated and organisat ional view of
Personali ty cannot be described through merely summing
personali ty- If we do so
upthe various e! Jements involved
z ins one’s
č personality.
oe
ee not more than counting of bricks in describing a house.
The inability of various existing definitions to define personality

in some proper way made Allport to engage in discovering some
useful definition. After evaluating 49 such definitions, he arrived at
the conclusion that “personality is a dynamic organisation within
the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his
unique adjustment to his environment” (1948, p. 48).
Although Allport tried to give a comprehensive definition of
the term personality by recognizing the dynamic nature and
organisational aspect of one’s personality and emphasizing the role
it can play for making one adjusted to his environment, yet his
definition suffered from some serious defects. In emphasizing the
“dynamic organisation within the individual” he tried to view per-
sonality as something different from the individual as something
residing inside the individual and not the integrated whole of mind-
body relationship. Moreover by emphasizing merely on the theoretical
aspect and describing it in terms of behaviouralior dynamic concept,
the true nature of personality cannot be understood. The contem-
porary psychologists like R.B. Cattell and Eysenck are of such
opinion. They feel very strongly that if personality cannot be demon-
strated, measured and quantified it should be called philosophy or
art and not personality theory in psychology. Below we reproduce
their ideas in connection with the meaning of the term personality.
“Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person
will do in a given situation.” (Cattell, 1970, p- 386)
“Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation
of a person’s character temperament, intellect and physique which
ores Byhis unique adjustment to the environment” (Eysenck,
1971, p. 2
By character Eysenck meant conative behaviour or will; physique
meant bodily configuration and neuro-endocrine endowments, tem-
perament stood for affective behaviour based on emotions and in-
tellect implied the cognitive behaviour or intelligence.
The definition given by Eysenck has very strong points in its
favour. First, it tries to provide personality a physiological base and
gives a balanced consideration to the role of heredity and environ-
ment in building one’s personality. Second, it gives a complete picture
of the human behaviour by involving ail of its aspects— conative,
cognitive and affective. Third, it stresses the need for integrating and
organisation of the behavioural characteristics and /ast it aims at
making personality somewhat measurable and assessable and thus
gives it a scientific base. However, on the other hand, it does have
some weak points in the sense that human personality need not be
necessarily supposed to possess a physiological base and moreover
we cannot think personality is so static and fixed as advocated by
this definition. It is true that personality should be evaluated on the
basis of generality of the behaviour but on the other hand, changes
cannot be denied. The person who is an extrovert may turn into an
introvert depending upon so many intervening factors.
Personality 255
In this way, evolution of an ideal definition capable of explaining

the measuring of the term personality in all its aspects still needs
some extensive research. In fact the concepts like personality are
difficult to be explained as they have the identity like sound, electri-
city etc., the impact of which can be felt but the real nature of them
is always a matter of secrecy. Something about them can be known
by their utility or describing some of their characteristics and distin-
guished features. Let us seek the meaning of the term personality also
on similar lines.
Distinguished features and characteristics of personality

The results of various experimental studies and observations
have led to the identification of the following characteristics of
personality.
one
1. The personality is something unique and specific. Every
even
of us is an unique pattern in ourselves. No two individuals notperiod
identical twins, behave in precisely the same way over any
making
of time. Every one of us has specific characteristics for
adjustments.
its main
2. Personality exhibits self-consciousness as one of
characteristic s. Man is describ ed as a person or to have a persona-
conscio usness. In this
lity when the idea of self enters into his
writes, ‘‘We do not attribu te persona lity to
connection H.R. Bhatia
a dog and even a child cannot be described as a personality because
p- 371).
it has only a vague sense of personal identity.” (1968,
3. Personality includes everyth ing about a person. It is all that
patterns i.e.,
a person has about him. It includes all the behaviour the conscious
conative, cognitive and affective and covers not only
unconscious also.
activities but goes deeper to semi-conscious and
traits or characteristics
4. It is not just a collection of so many
the bricks only how
which is known as personality. By counting
wall of a house ? It needs something more and
can we describe the of some psy-
organi sation
actually personality is more than this. It is and functions
behav iour charac terist ics
chophysical systems or some we canno t say
elepha nt,
as a unified whole. Just as to describe an legs. In the same way by
that it is like a pillar only by exami ning its
we canno t pass judge -
looking through one’s physique or sociability lly into
we go carefu
ment over one’s personality. It is only when t we can form an
all the aspects—bi ologi cal as well as socia l—tha
idea about his presonality.
in process of
5. Personality is not static, it is dynamic and ever ality is
cation . As we have said earlier that person
change and modifi that is needed for
all that a person has about him. It gives him all
his enviro nment. The proces s of makin g
his unique adjustment in struggle against
adjustment to environment is contit:uous. One has to hout the span of
the environmenta l as well as the inner forces throug
It one has r to bring modification and change in
his life. As a resu
one’s personali patterns and it makes the nature of personality
ty
tic one.
dynamic instead of a sta
256
General Psychology
6.
Every personality is the product
Both contribute Significantly towards of heredity and environment.
the development of the child’s
personality.
7. Lear
ning and acquisition of expe
growth and development of personal riences contribute towards the
ity. Every personality is the end
product of this process of learning
and acquisition.
8. Personality should not be
equated with one’s characte
Character is an ethical concept. It r.
individual. While personality, repr esents a moral estimate of the
as a psyc
hological concept, is a more
comprehensive term which encircle
of the constituents of one’s pers s in its sphere the character as one
onality.
9. Personality may further be
which can be called a system of differentiated from temperame
emo tio nt
of emotional disposition repr nal disposition. This system
esents only the effective
Personality and so Personality side
must be taken as much beyond of one’s
that of
10. Personality should be
individual self. The word “egvie wed as different from the
ego or the
Part of one’s personality whi o” is generally used for that unified
However, as the Psychoana ch in ordina ry language we call “I”.
lyt
Freud explains, it is only a smaic view of personality advocated by
Personality, therefore, sta ll aspect of one’s total per
nds for more than what sonality-
the ego carries.
11. Every person’s personality has
that is aiming to an end one more distinguishing feature
—towards
this view frankly in his book
opinion that a man’s Personal “Individual psychology”. He is of the
ity can be judged throug
h a study and
While going through all

nitions and characteristics ofthat has been said in terms of
personality, we may acce the defi-
definition of the term pers pt a workable
onality as under:
Theories of personal
ity
The search for understanding the mean
ing and nature of perone
will be rather incomplete if we
do not mention some importa
interact. The theories of personality

in general can be classified into
four broad categories as given ahead:
Personality 257
A. Theories adopting type approach

The viewpoint of Hippocrates, Kretschmer, Sheldon and Jung
belong to this category.
B. Theories adopting trait approach

Theories like Allport’s theory and Cattell’s theory of personality
are based on trait approach.
C. Theories adopting type cum trait approach

_ Theories like Eysenck’s theory of personality can be put under
this category.
D. Theories adopting developmental approach

Theories like psycho-analytic theory of Freud, theory of
indivi-
dual psychology by Adler, Carl Roger’s Self theory, and learning
theories of personality can be included in this category.
Let us summarize the viewpoints of the above mentioned theories:
Type approach: Theories adopting type approach, advocate that
human personalities can be classified into a few clearly defined types
and each person can be put in one or the other type depending upon
his behavioural characteristics, somatic structure, blood types, fluids
in the body, or personality traits. Based on such approach, the
physicians of ancient India broadly categorized all human beings f
into three types. This classification Was based on the three basic
elements of the body i.e., pitt (bile), bate (wind), and kuf (mucus).
Almost the same approach was followed by the Greek physicians
like Hippocrates, one of the disciples of the great philosopher Aristo-
tle. In the subsequent years many more scholars and psychologists
tried to divide persons into certain types depending upon their own
specific criterion. Let us describe a few of such approaches.
Hippocrates’ classification: According to Hippocrates the human
body consists of four types of humours of fluids--Blood, yellow bile,
phlegm (mucus) and black bile. The predominance of one of these
four types of fluids in one’s body gives him unique temperamental
characteristics leading to a particular type of personality summarized
as below:
Dominance of fluid Personality Temperamental
typeah eC
in the body. characteristics,
type.
Blood Sanguine
ng Light hearted,
happy, hopeful and
optimistic,
accommodating,
Choleric Irritable, angry but passio-
Yellow bile nate and strong with active
imagination
Phlegm (mucus) Phlegmatic. Cold, calm, slow or sluggish,

Indifferent.
per sits Melancholic Bad tempered, dejected, sad,
: depressed, pessimistic,
deplorable and self-involved,
Kretschmer’s classification: Kretschmer classified all human

beings into certain biological types according to their physical
structure and has allotted definite personality characteristics associat-
ed with each physical make-up as follows:
Personality types Personality characteristics
I. Pyknic (having fat bodies). Sociable, jolly, easy going and good
natured. n
II. Athletic (balanced body). Energetic, optimistic and adjust-
able.
II. Leptosomatic (lean and thin). Unsociable, reserved, shy, sensitive
and pessimistic.
_Sheldon’s classification: He, too like Kretschmer, classified human
beings into certain types according to their physical structures and
attached certain temperamental characteristics to them as
under:
Personality types (According to somatic Personality |
or body structure) characteristics
Name Description Characteristics
(i) Endomorphic Person having highly developed Easy going, soci-
viscera but weak somatic able and
structure (Like Kretschmer’s affectionate
Pyknic type).
(ii) Mesomorphic Balanced development of viscera Craving for mus-
and somatic structure. (Like cular activity.
Kretschmer’s athletic type) self assertive,
2A loves risk and
i adventure.
(iii) Ectomorphic Weak somatic Structure as well Pessimistic, un-
as undeveloped viscera (Like sociable, and
Kretschmer’s Leptosomatic), reserved.
Ectomorphy Mesomorphy Endomorphy
Fig. 16.1. Sheldon’s three basic somato-types

Personality 259
The approach adopted by the above psychologists to have classi-

fication on the basis of seeking correlation between structure of the
body and personality characteristics, is lopsided. It is somewhat
misleading. There does not exist such perfect body-mind or body-
heart correlation as the propagators of these approaches have
assumed.
Jung’s classification: He divided all human beings basically into
two distinct types—Introvert and Extrovert—according to their social
participation and the interest which they take in social activities.
Later on he further sharpened his two-fold division by giving sub-
types. In this process he took into consideration the four psychologi-
cal functions—thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition, in relation
to his previous extrovert and introvert types. Diagrammatically, we
can represent this division, along with the main characteristics of
each sub-type as below:
Introvert thinking type I Thinking Extrovert thinking t) pe
(i) more theoretical (i) realistic and practical
(ii) afraid of external realities (ii) support theory with facts.
(iii) absorbing in his own intellectual
pursuits.
Extrovert sensational type Extroyert Intuition type
(i) good taste and enjoyment (i) optimistic
seeker.
(ii) demand constant emotional sensation.
(ii) Risk taker and change
seeker,
(iii) fluent in speech.
(iv) interested in athletics
III Sensation (Empiricism) IV Intuition
Introvert Intuition type
Introvert Sensational type
(i) concerned with probabilities
(i) cool and alloof.
then actual (Prophet type).
(ii) mot! dnteresicg in external
(ii) better in writing than speaking.
(iii) moody and temperamental.
(iii) interested in books, magazines etc.
II Feeling Extrovert Feeling type
Introvert Feeling type d
er (i) helpful nature,
(i) day dream and admire
(ii) feel for others
(ii) strong feelings, likes, dislikes. others.
ss (iii) more social.
(ii) go on suffering but do not expre
their feelings to others.
The class: ification has been criticised
on the grounds that in
or classes as suggested by Jung do not
general, such different types characteristics prescribed
exist. Most of us, on the basis of typical
for extrovert and introvert, may belong to both of the categories, as
This brings complication and hence this
may be called ambivert. or
type of approach does not give a clear picture of the classification
description of personality.
Trait approach
In trait approach the personality is viewed in terms of traits. In
our day-to-day conversation we label our friends and near ones with
traits such as being honest, shy, aggressive, lazy, dull, dependent,
etc. In the real sense, traits are defined as relatively perma-
nent and relatively consistent general behaviour patterns that
an individual exhibits in many situations. These patterns are said to
be the basic units of one’s personality that can be discovered through
observing one’s behaviour in a variety of situations. A person if he
behaves honestly in several situations, after having generalization
may be labeled as honest and honesty or laziness becomes a beha-
vioural trait of his personality.
G.B. Allport (1897-1967) was the first personality theorist who
adopted trait approach in providing a theory of personality. Accord-
ing to him, an individual develops an unique set of organized tenden-
cies or traits, generally, these traits are organised around a few cardi-
nal (primary) traits. Allport’s theory of personality thus rejected the
notion of a relatively limited number of personality types in favour
of descriptions of highly individual Personalities made up of a large
number of traits.
Cattell’s theory
The most recent advanced theory of personality
approach has been developed by Raymond B. Cattell, a based on trait
British born
American researcher. He has defined trait as a struct
personality inferred from behaviour in different situationsure of the
and des-
cribes four types of traits:
(i) Common traits: the traits found widely distributed
population like honesty, aggression and cooper in general
ation.
(ii) Unique traits: unique to a person as temperamental traits,
emotional reactions.
(iii) Surface traits: able to be recognized by our manifestation of
behaviour like curiosity, dependability, tactfulness.
(iv) Source traits: Underlying structures or sources that determine
one’s behaviour such as dominance, submission,
emotionality etc.
The theory propagated by Cattell intends to give
dimensions to personality so that the human behaviour,certain specific
related to 4
particular situation, can be predicted. Cattell has
adopted factor
analysis as a technique for this work. We shall try to
understand
how he has done it in a non-technical way.
(1) Cattell began’by attempting to obtain a complete
possible human behaviours. In 1946 list of all
he formed a list of over 17000
traits and by eliminating similarities and synonyms reduced them tO
a list of 171 words (dictionary words) related with personality and
called these trait-elements.
261
Personality
(2) The next step was to find out how they are related. He found
that each trait element correlated high with some and low with
others. In this way he managed to form some specific groups and
Sard them Surface Traits. These surface traits identified “were 35 in
number.
(3) Again he went on examining these surface Ẹtraits in terms of
their intercorrelations. There was overlapping. The removal of such
overlapping gave him the desired basic dimensions which he called
Source Traits i.e., the real structural influence underlying personality.
obtaining source traits (which are 15 in number) he
_ (4) After is known as
tried to use them to predict behaviour employing what
specification equation.
= — — Sn Tn
Response = s171+-5272+53T3+
individual is predicted
In this way the response or behaviour of an e trait (T) modified
from the degre e to which he exhibi ts each sourc
nse(s).
by the importance of the trait for that respo
Let us clear it by an example.
Suppose that academic performance Read(AP) is predictable from two
source traits called Intelligence (1) and ing habits (R), then
AP = silt sR
more important for this
Now also suppose that In telligence is 5:3); then we might
behaviour than Reading habits (in the rat io of
have an expression such as
AP =5/+3R
performance (A.P.) for
Thus in order to predict Academic ence and scores on reading
his inte llig
an individual we need to know
habits.
ity
ell, devised the Sixteen Personal
In addition to this in 1950, Catt fact ors, whi ch
of an inventory, these
factor questionnaire in the form ks” of pers onal ity.
lding bloc
he claimed, may work as a “bui
(twelve independent and four partially
These sixteen factors produced
the personality structure, are
independent), involved in
below:
v/s Outgoing,
A Reserved
Less intelligent V/S More intelligent.
B
Affected by feelings VIS Emotionally Stable.
G .
Submissive V/S Dominant.
E
Serious VJS Happy-go-Lucky.
F
G. Expedient V/S Conscientious.
Timid ` V/S Venturesome.
H
Tough-minded v/S Sensitive.
I
L Trusting V/S_ Suspicious.
262
General Psychology
M Practical VIS Imaginative.
N Forthright V/s Shrewd.
(0) Self-assured V/S Apprehensive.
Qı Conservative VJS Experimenting.
Q2 Group-dependent VJS Self-sufficient.
Q3 Uncontrolled VJS Controlled.
Q4 Relaxed VIS Tense
Type-cum-trait approach
This approach tries to synthesize
ting from the trait approach the type and trait approaches.
The Eyesenck theory of personal it yiel ds definite personality
ity reflects such an approach. types.
Eysenck’s theory of Person
ality
While Cattell has tried to give
traits, Eysenck gave it more dimensions to Personality by
specification by grouping trai giving
definite types. ts into
How the individual behavi
our is organised and gets
a definite type is revealed the shape of
by the following illustration
:
Type Level
Persistence Rigidity Subjectivity

Shyness Irritability
Habitual response level
Specific response level
Fig. 16.2. Organisation of individual's beha

viour
We have four levels of behaviou

r organisation.
(i) At the lowest level we have spec
ific responses.
They grow out of Particular resp
example ‘blushing’ is a specific response onses to any single act. For
.
£
263
Personality
(ii) At the second level we have habitual responses. If the indivi-

dual reacts in a similar fashion when the same situation reoccurs we
get habitual responses. For example the responses like:
(a) Noteasily picking up friendship.
(b) Hesitant to talk to strangers etc., are habitual responses.
(iii) At the third level we have o. rganisation of habitua l acts into
traits. The behaviour acts which have similarities are said to belong
example the habitual
to one group called trait. In the above
(a) and (b) etc., give birth toa group or trait called
Tesponses no.
Shyness’.
traits into
(iv) At the fourth lev el we have organisation of these
correlated traits. The
a general type. A type is defined as a group of definite type just as
birth to a
traits which are similnr in nature give like persistence, rigidity,
r, the traits
in the Fig. 16-2 given earlie
a type which is ‘Introversion’.
shyness etc., have been grouped into
, we obtain a definite type. A
Now at this final stage, ultimately
as an Introvert if he has traits as
person, now can be classified systems as described at level
described at III level, habits and habit
at level I.
II and responds specifically as described
nct types:
Eysenck has given the following disti
(3) Neuroticism
(1) Introversion
Extraversion. (4) Psychoticism.
(2)
traits and characteristics with
He has also tried to link different
each of these types.
Developmental approach
a pproach take into consi-
The theories adopting developmental Or characteristics of one’s
deration, the developmental patt erns
n personality develop gradually
personality. How does the huma or
and development? What directs
from various stages of growth of the personal ity? What type of
energises the forces of development ired as a result of development
acqu
personality characteristics are of the views mentioned involving this
etc.? Let us try to discuss some
developmental approach.
ory of personality
Freud’s psychoanalytic the
e that the mind
Freud’s theory of personality is built on the premis
is topographical and dynamic: there are provin ces or divisions which
elated . The human mind has three
are always moving and interr semico nscious and
main divisions in the form of conscious,
unconscious.
of the human mind continuously clash and
These three levels ot th to oner or other types of behavioural
compromise to giv
ive e bir ty. ides Bes
leading to a particular type of personali
characteristics
this as Freud believes the anatomy of our person
ality is built around
the three unified and interrelating systems:
Id, ego and super ego
(see Fig. 16.3).
Super ego
fe]
oa
D
x
v
a
F]
na
v
c
5
g
D
w
x Ego
©
[A
s
a
fe]
a
o
3
&v
©
Id
Fig. 16.3. Relative

Position of Id, Eqo,
and Super ego.
Obviously, the Id cannot be allowed to disch

arge its energy wildly
r by a second system; the ego, functions as
a police man to check the unla wful activities of the Id. It is the
executive with Veto powers. It
acts with intelligence in controllfollows the principle of reality and
ing, selecting and deciding wha
appetites have to be satisfied and in t
satisfied. which way they are to be
The third system of personality is super
ego. It is the ethical
moral arm of the personality. It is ideali
stic and
realities. Perfection is its goal rather than pleasu does not care for
re. It is a decision-
making body which decides what is bad or
according to the standard of society, which it acceptgood, virtue or vice
s.
265
Personality
of personality play a significant
TheI above mentioned c onstituents vidual. Let us see how.
indi
role in deciding the personality of an to
a strong Or powerful ego are said
1. The individuals who have ity because in their case s ego is
have a strong or balanced personal supe r ego and Id.
betw een
capable of maintaining proper balance
poss esse s a wea k ego, he is bound to have
2. In case an individual In one
a maladjusted personality. Here two situations may arise.does not
be more powe rful than ego, it
situation the super ego may impulses.
for the repressed wishes and neurotic
provide a desirable outlet rds the form atio n of a
Consequently it may lead towa n Id may prove more powerf oral
ul than
ity. In ano the r situ atio
personal in unl awf ul or imm
engage himself
ego. The person, thus may formation of a delinquent persund the
onality.
activities lead ing tow ard s the t aro
buil
structure of the personality
In addition to the above Super ego, Freud tried to
provide an
concepts of Id. Ego and ty through his
sonali
elopment of human per energy. The sexual
explanation of the dev a life
hasized that Sex is
ideas about Sex. He emp are the basic needs which hav
e to be satisfied
needs of an ind ivi dua l t to know about
the personality. If we wan
gro wth of
for a bal anc ed of his sex needs and
individual, a knowledge
the personality of an suff icient to tell us all abo
ut a person.
isf act ion is
their status of sat ty depending on
hav e an adj ust ed or maladjusted personali or not.
He will sfied
sex needs have been sati
the extent to which his sex , tha t he linked the wholeI
emphasis on
So much was his by putting his
son ali ty with the sex beh our avi
‘development of the per theory, he outlined
psy cho -se xua l development. In this pment of
the ory of
psy cho -se xua l stages for the develo Here we
the five differ ent genital.
oral, anal, phallic, latency and ges
personality namely, ation about these sta
e the description or explan text.
would not provid in cha pte r two of this
n presented earlier
as it has already bee
onality
di vi du al approach to pers
Adle r' s in onality. He said
eu di an ’s structure of pers
adler oppo se d the Fr of human activities.
not the lif e energy or thee- centre n beings are motiva-
that sex is
e is the centre urg Huma towards
Actually, power mo tiv important or] power: ful. All of us striveit as ‘style
urg e to be He na me d
ted by the
h str ive s in a dif ferent way. be
of eri
sup ority but eac
life’. Therefore, W hat kind of
Ppersonality one possesses, can
goals of life he has
style of life i.e., the
understood by, studying his iving for achieving the
se goals.
f an d the wa y of str udy
set for himsel he gave birth to the individual approach in thedefstini te
In this way ed that th er e ar e no
d maintain
of a personality pattern an vidual is an unique pattern in
it y typ es or cla sse s. Ea ch indi own life style.
personal y has definite goals and his
himself because everybod
s self theory
Carl Roger’ ist, in 1947 brought
m Rogers, an American psycholog
Carl Ranso y of personality named Self-theory quite distinct from
theor.
out a new
the earlier theories of personality. He stressed the import
ance of an
individual’s self for determining the process
of his growth and
development, and unique adjustment to his
environment. There are
two basic systems underlying his personality theor
and the self.
y—the organism
Rogers considers them as systems
operating in one’s
phenomenological field (a world of subjective
and separate reality of each individual). The experi ence, the personal
“organism” is an
individual’s entire frame of reference. It
experience—both conscious and unconscious represents the totality of
second system the “Self” is the available with him. The
accepted, awareness part of
experience. The self as a system
of one’s phenomenal field can
perhaps best be under stood in terms of our concept of “I’’, “me” or
“myself”,
What we think as a personality ofan indiv
of the interaction between the idual is the product
above mentioned systems of one’s
phenomenological field. What we think
of the concept of selfisa long and of ourself or the acquisition
conti
have inherited a tendency to develop nuous process. Human beings
their “self” in the process of
inter-personal and social experiences
which they have in the environ-
ment. In other words, our inner
world—our natural impulses—intera
with our total range of experience to cts.
For example, if you say that you form the concept of our “Self”.
are a handsome person, you tend
to include in the Concept of your “‘self
”, the idea that you are hand-
Some. In a similar way, we are in
a continuous process of building
Rogers does not propose a set of specific stages in the develop-

ment of personality as Proposed by Freud in his theory, rather
advocates continuity of growth in he
terms of the continuous evolution
of the concept of
individual strives to “self” . Once a concept of self is
maintain it. In order to do this, formed, the
his behaviour. What is consistent with he regulates
immediately accepted and maintained the concept of his selfis
at
what threatens the image of self may be the conscious level while
deep in his unconscious. totally ignored or buried
The most unfortunate results in the

development of one’s
Personality lie in the cases where an
self-images. This false image is often indiv idual develops some false
so Strong that obvious reality
Can be stoutly denied. Inconsistency
false image, then may lead to abno between one’s actual image and
rmal
Similarly, the development of an ideal self ity in one’s behaviour.
able and unattainable to harmonise with
too inconsistent, unreason-
in maladjustment and serious
one’s real self may result
personality disorders,
Contrary to this, an individual’s adjus
tment, happiness, growth
and development all depend upon the union
and harmony between
267
P ersonality
ity
: : :
thei 5 nism (i.e. the experience or situa-
he image of his self and the orga sing the theme ofpsychological
tions he meets in his life). Stres a person normally
Rogers emphasizes that
personality theory,
th and realization of his indivi-
pon tare a great capacity for grow the
to advance continuously towards har-
ual potential and thus tries creat ing
self-actualization) jor
development of his self (ie. self and his real life experienceng
s.
mony between the concep t © f his sati sfyi
rity, self fulf ilme nt and
resulting in feelings of self integ into trouble
r the development runs
psychological growth. Howeve reason to incorporate and learn to live
when the self fails for some, feelings or behaviours. The goal of a
with its own new thoughts such cases lies in
rs advo cate s in his therapy, in
therapist, as Roge a more unified
what he or she is not, in
bringing the individual from
really is.
fashion, to what he or she
sonality
Learning theories of per
w developmental
rni ng the ori es of personality depicts ane phenomenologi-
Lea ic and
ent from psychoanalyt e
approach quite differ ty in the sense that they stress the importanc e
cal the ori es of per son ali personali ty. The not abl
ivity to understand es are
of learning and object elop personality theori
to dev
who are known d and Miller,
psychologists
Watson, Guthrie, Thorndike, Skinner, Dollar i
Pavlov, etc. Here we wou i
Bandura and Walters, lard
es developed by Dol
mention of the theori
dura and Walters.
onality
& Mil ler ’s le arning theory of pers
Dollard s of psycho-
lo gy of learning with aspect
By combinin g the ps yc ho 50) in the Institute’
and Neal Miller (19
hn Dollard theory
analytic theory, Jo provided their own
n Rel ati ons at Yale University tut e Fre ud’ s concept
of Huma ed to sub sti
this theory they tri t of
of personality. In h the pri nci ple of reinforcement, concept of
of a pleasure princi ple wit and learned skills,
con cep
o wit h the co nc ep t of learned drive .
eg rs, etc
mpeting reinforce
conflict with co
The theory
of personality
theory ang
learned. T i 1
factors: reflexe. rn al st imuli of great
s
are inte j
drives, which ysiological processes
th kn ow n ps nd it ioned) he acquiresn.
ioned and unco Drive reductio
wi it
impelled by dr iv es (b ot h co nd
they reduce driv es .
nt that ich in turn may give:
responsemas e to the emexentets (provides rewards) whthe individual to learn
ives or motives d set
an
Since our social environ-
ment is a maJ
ing new drives
personality in actual sense, did

not presi
personality. Instead, it emphasiz
ed habit
earning the ory

Albert Bandura and Richar
New approach to Personality d Walters in 1963 gave alt
in the shape of a social lea ogether a
This theory emphasizes that rning theory.
what one represents throug
lity is very much acquired h
through a Process of contin his persona-
Ing and restructuring of
his exp
uous structur-
eriences through social
type of social learning learning. Such
takes place in the sha
learning when one gets pe of observational
opportunity to observe
others considered as models the behaviour of
. These behaviours are
and produced by the indivi initiated, learned
dual at some later stage.
Such observational learning from social Sit
both real and symbolic uations may involve
models. Children, for
Social etiquette by watchi example, may learn
ng their parents and eld
direct instructions. What ers as well as by
is perceived through mas
s media on T.V.
Toles of one’s favourite hero or
i The imitation of the
such soci
€ picks up so many traits alandor observational learning. Consequently,
modes of his behaviour
modelling sources
ment of his unique
that are responsible for the formatio from so many
personality. n and develop-
ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY
WhA y we have named the topic as assessment of personalit and
Not simply as measurement of perso nality is a question which yneed
k s
is the measurement of personal question lies itself in a question—
culties which have to be fac ity possible? If not, what are the diffi-
ed while trying to measure
over it. it? Let us think
Difficulties in the measur
ement of personality
There arethree basic elements
ment upon which the success or involved in any process of measure-
are: failure of this process depends.
They
269
Personality
(i) The nature of the thing we want to measure.

we have to
(ii) Nature of the instruments with the help of which
measure it.
who is going to measure. Let us eval-
(iii) Nature of the person criteria.
uate the personality measure on the above
is so complex that it is
(i) The nature of the thing: Personality urement. First, because
hardl y possible to make it an object of meas
idea. It is an abstraction, and in
personality is not the thing, it is an
g in trying to give it a concrete
attempting to measure it we go wron
what exactly we want to
shape. Second, we are not clear about
s have reached no agreement
measure in personality. Psychologist is
in personality. Third, personality
about the dimensions or elements How can one meas ure a
not stati c.
a dynamic phenomeaon. It is and modification. Its
of change
thing which is ever in a process time to time and hence it is
cert ainl y diffe r from
measurement will
ent.
not proper to call it measurem
ement,
(ii) The nature of the inst ruments. The process of measur s and
nt requ ires the tool
of measureme
in addition to the object nt, we
sfac tory unit s of mea sur ement. In personality measureme
the sati as:
also encounter difficulties such n case of
g point) for reference i
(a) There is no zero (startin zero personality.
with
personality. No child is born the unit of
can measure it in terms of
(b) In measuring a rod we re we have
es etc. In measuring temperatu
length like centimeters, inch eme nt we do
but in psychological measur
units in terms of degrees of mea sur eme nt.
t or regular unit
not have any such equivalen u-
requir e such scales or measuring instr
(c) For measurement we and valid in terms of their results. In
able
ments as are exact, reli h satisfactory
the field of person ali ty mea surement we do not find suc
instruments.
a great extent, the objectivity,
(iii) The nature of the person. To of measurement depends upon
and validity in any process of the
reliability or objectivity on the part
the competency and impartiality
of measurement. But after all he is a
person who performs the task likes and dislikes, tastes and
having his own b eliefs,
human being,
we cannot check the Finfluence of his sub-
temperaments and hence per sonality measur eme nt.
tivity on any work of
jec s
In this way the actual measureme nt (which defines itselfin term ible
dity) of pers onal ity is not poss
of objectivity, reliability and vali
‘Also it is very diffic ult to go in search of all the constituents or
„of which are unknown. Moreover
elements of personality, most l aim of measure-
most essentia
prediction of the future status is the n. like pers onal ity such
eats =n case lon a dyna mishencPRER O isMeno
not justified to use the term
poss ible and e it
prediction js not mate or assessment of
measurement. We can only have an esti
personality :
Techniques and methods used for the appraisal -of assess-
ment of personality
The methods used for the assessment of personality are often
classified as (i) Subjective methods (ii) Objective methods (iii) Pro-
jective methods. But this classification suffers from so many draw-
backs. It is difficult to draw a straight line between subjectivity and
objectivity, even projective techniques cannot be saved from the
subjectivity and self-projection of the examiner. Actually speaking,
there is nothing like absolute objectivity in these methods. Objectivity
(if at all we can have it) is nothing but subjectivity pooled together.
Therefore it is proper to seek other ways of classifying the methods
Of personality assessment.
We can classify these techniques in the following five categories.
First, there are techniques, where we can see how an individual
behaves in actual life situations. The main techniques
in this category
are:
(a) Observation technique, (b) Situation tests.
Second, there are techniques by which we can find what an indivi-
dual says about himself. The main techniques in
this category are:
(a) Autobiography (b) Questionnaire and Personality
Inventory
(c) Interview.
Third, there are techniques by which we can’
about the individual whose personality is find what others say
under assessment. The
main techniques in this class are:
(a) Biographies (b) Case-history method.
Sociometric techniques. (c) Rating Scales (d)
Fourth, there are techniques by which we can find how
dual an indivi-
reacts to an imaginative situation involving
Projective techniques are included fantasy. All kinds of
in this class.
Fifth, there are techniques by which we can indirectly determine
Some personality variables in terms of physiological
machines and technical instruments. responses by
SOME IMPORTANT TECHNIQUES

1. Observation
Observation is a popular method to study the behav
of an individual in actual life situation. What iour pattern
person
characteristics the observer needs to know, are first ality traits or
and then he observes relevant activities of the subjec decided by him
t in real
situations. The observation can be done in two ways. In one life the
Observer does not hide his presence. He tather, becomes more
a part of the group under observation. While in the other,
or less
a position ata place where his presence is least he takes
disturbing to the
group but from where he can observe in detail the
behaviour of Ua
271
Personality
having a clear idea the observer
individual under observatio n. For phic cameras, telescope etc.
phot ogra
can make use of tape-recorder, results
rver can rely on the observed
To ascertain whether the obse situ atio n a numb er of times,
same
he can repeat observations in the vers and the
by a number o. f obser
or the subject may be observed
results may be pooled together.
2. Situational tests is
fici ally created in which an individual
Here the situation is arti t ed to the personality traits under
acts rela
expected to perform al, some situa-
testing. For exa mpl e to test the honesty of an individu ted in terms of
his reaction can be eva lua
tions can be cre ate d and ying? Does he
s he feel temptation of cop
honesty or dishonesty. Doe situation?, all such
a given
rupee note in
try to pick up the one
the assessment of the trait of honesty,
instances can lead towards
in the individual.
3. Questionnaire by the following

is a que sti onn air e can be understood
What
Goode and Hatt:
description given by a device for securing
questionnaire refe rs to
“In general the word w hich the respondent fills in
to by using a form
questions
answers
33).
himself.” (1952; p. ormation from
ke s it cle ar that in collecting inf m
This defini tio n ma characteristics, a for
sub jec t him sel f about his personality sti ons , 1s use d. The
the que
of printed or written m
consisting of @ series sti ons 1n the spa ce provided in the for
pon ds to the se que The se ans wer s are
subject res (2) etc.
Yes» no or cannot say the
under the columns for per son ali ty ass essment. Items, like
ted and use d
then evalua aires:
ed in the questionn
following, are includ Yes, no, ? (not definite)
ing alone? f
Do you enjoy be successful?
th s
y se ei ng ot he rs is s
Do you enjo : AS phic
a joke on you? i
Do you laugh at your relati ve s? >, > r
al on g we ll wi th
Do you get cting
st r me
populalar ; od a nd iis quite useful in colle
Dotth
It is the mo ve inform at io n.
well as qua litati
quantitative as
y inventory
4, Personalit ires in so many aspects like administration,
Q uestionna
It resembles t ion etc. The difference can be seen in two ways.
reta
scoring; interp can be used for
ire is the general device and
FirsSt, the quk
estionnaz
an ).
(00%idual
i
an n indiv
ly connected with -
vith persona
a allor kinds
oy aie behaviou r ofmatio
of infor Personality Inventory
his
answers about the person and
to seek
is specially designed
personality.
Second, the questions, set in the Questionnaire, are general
ly
addressable to the second person. They are such as:
Do you often feel lonely? Yes, no, ?
while in the Personality Inventory, they are usually addressed
to the
first person such as:
I often feel lonely Yes, no, ?
The best known Personality Inventory is the Minnesota
Multi-
phasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). The questions,
included in
this inventory are such that their answers are known to indicate
certain specific personality traits. It consists of 550 items. Some of
these items are presented below for illustration:
I sweat very easily even on cool days.
There is something wrong with my sex organs.
I have never been in love with any one.
I like to talk about sex.
Each item is printed on a separate card. The subject
reads the
questions and then, according to the category of his response—yes,
or doubtful—puts them at three places. With the help of no
these res-
ponses, evaluation in terms of the important personality
traits can
be obtained.
The Questionnaire and Personality Inventory suffer from
following drawbacks: the
(i) It is difficult to get the response to all Quest
ions.
(ii) The subject may give selected responses rather
genuine ones (hide his weaknesses etc.). than the
(iii) He may be ignorant of certain traits or qualities which he
may possess.
5. Rating scale
Rating scale is used to know from others
Stands in terms of some Personality traits. where an individual
Usually with the help of
this technique, we try to have some specific idea
personality traits of an individual (whom about some of the
we do not know well),
from the person, who knows him very well.
the subject has made upon the person who It rates reflects the impression
him. The three
basic things involved in this techn
ique are:
(i) The specific trait or traits to be rated.
(ii) The scale by which degree of possession or absence of the
trait has to be shown.
(iii) The appropriate persons or judges
for rating.
First of all,
the traits or characteristics, which have
ted by the judges are to be stated and defined clearl to be evalua-
y. Then a scale
Personality 273
for rating work is to be constructed. How it is done can be under-

stood through the following example.
Suppose we wish to have rating on the ‘Quality of Leadership’
of the students of a class. We can have divisions of this quality into
degrees such as very good, good, average, poor, very poor, etc. Now
the arrangement of these divisions along a line, at equal intervals,
from high to low or otherwise will be named as Rating Scale for
assessing the quality of leadership. Usually the degrees are indicated
by numbers, | to 3, 1 to 5 or1to7, comprising three points, five
point or seven points scale. The seven point scale is of the follow-
ing type:
T 6 5 4 3 2 1
Excellent Very Good Aver- Below Poor Very
good age average poor
Now the raters, who are in a position to rate the individuals

properly, can be asked to rate them and give them scores, ranging
from 1 to 7, according to the degree of leadership they possess.
Rating techniques suffer from some drawbacks like subjective
bias and halo effect etc. In the former, the rater may have his
own likes and dislikes and this may go to colour his estimates about
the individuals under rating, where under the halo effect, he may rate
an individual (on the basis of general impression) to be more honest
or likeable than his actual potentialities.
To bring some reliability it has been suggested that instead of
having rating by only one judge, we can assign the rating work to
= r 0 f judges—for €
example 1
le, to different teachers, classmates,
a numbe
or ratings.
parents etc.—who can pool in their judgements
6. Interview
Intervie
1 w is a is technique of getting information, directly from the
personality in face to face
m aaoun puspa ferns Ex of ideas and contacts. It gives an
information between
the subject and the Psychologists. For this purpose, the Psychologist
tries to fix a face to face appointment with the person or persons
under assessment. He makes sure of the personality traits or beha-
iour he has to assess and then he plans, accoidingly. Usually, a list
viour tions, to be put, is prepared for this purpose and after taking
of a pect into confidence, the psychologist tries to seek answers to
the su Janed questions. He does not only care for the content
of
his pre-p. ma but the tone, behaviour and other similar factors, are
the respon mind for the proper evaluation of the desired personality
also kept 1 individuals.
pattern of the . i
The limitation of this technique is that it needs a well trained
competent interviewer. It is costly in terms of labour, time and money.
It also suffers from the subjective bias of the interviewer. Here also
like Questionnaire and Personality Inventory, we cannot have any
safeguard to stop the subject to hide his feelings or to respond in
‘terms of selective answers. On the credit side, cent per cent answers
tothe questions put to the subject, are obtained through interview.
There is very little danger of not getting answers to the questions and
moreover we can get most confidential information from the subject
which otherwise, he hesitates to reveal through writing. In fact,
interview is relatively, a more flexible tool. It permits explanation,
adjustment and variations according to the situation and thus proves
one of the essential and important tools for the personality assess-
ment.
7. Projective techniques
So far we have discussed only those techniques which usually
` evaluate the overt or conscious behaviour of an individual. The
covert or unconscious behaviour, by all means, is not so insignificant;
father it is more significant than the former, as Freud believes that
our conscious behaviour is only one-tenth of the total behaviour.
Therefore, there should be some other techniques which not only
emphasize on the observable part of the human personality but can
reveal his inner or private world and go deeper in the unconscious
behaviour of an individual to dig out the repressed feelings, wishes,
desires, fears, hopes and ambitions, etc.
Projective techniques are devised to accept the challenge. They
try to assess the total personality of an individual and not in frag-
ments. Let us see what these techniques are.
What are the projective techniques

These techniques are based on the phenomenen of projection. In
these techniques relatively indefinite and unstructured stimuli (like
vague pictures, ink-blots, incomplete sentences, etc.) are provided to
the subject and he is asked to structure them in any way he likes.
In doing so he unconsciously projects his own desires, hopes, fears,
repressed wishes etc , and thus not only reveals his inner or private
world but gives a proper clue to estimate his total personality.
The common Projective Techniques are:
The Rorschach ink-blot test
This technique has been developed by the Swiss psychologist, son

of an art teacher Mr. Harmans Rorschach. Material of the test
consists of 10 cards on which we have ink-blots. Five of them are
in black and white and five are multi-coloured. These ink-blots are
completely unstructured—the shapes of the blots do not have any
specific meaning.
275
Pe rsonatity
lit
Fig. 16.4. An inkblot similar to that used

in Rorscharch test
Administration of the test

s (i) The cards are presented one at a time in a specified order.
hen the subject takes his seat, the examiner gives him the first
card with necessary instructions. He is asked to say what he sees 1n
it, what does it look like, etc.
a given
(ii) The subject is allowed as much time as he wants forhe wishes.
many respon ses to it as
card and is permitted to give as it from any
and look at
He is also allowed to turn the card around
angle to find things in it.
nses of the subject
(iii) Besides keeping a record of the respo
of paper, the examiner
concerning these ink-blots on different pieces cards are
on in which
notes the time taken for each response, positi incidental behaviour of
being held, emoti onal expre ssion and other
the subject during the test period ete.
, second phase of
(iv) After all the cards have been presentedthe or addition to
inquiry follows. It is intended to seek clarification
original responses.
of the test: For the purpose
Scoring, analysis and interpretation symbols which are entered
of scoring, the responsesare given specific
in 4 columns.
named as:
These scoring categories are
(ii) Originality and (iv) Deter-
(i) Location, (ii) Contents,
minants.
Location (The first column). Location refers to the part of the
blot with which the subje ct associates each response. The symbol
W, D, d and s are used for scoring the location responses. The
3 s
ahead:
symbols stand for the things given
(W) for that response which shows that the subject is seeing the
card as a whole.
(D) indicates large details.
(d) indicates small details.
(s) indicates the subject’ s response to the white spaces within
the main outlines.
Contents (2nd column). This column concerns itself with the
contents of the responses. It simply takes note of what
is seen by the
subject and not the manner of its perception. Below we
write some
of the symbols used for scoring the content of the responses:
Scoring symbol Content of the response
H Subject sees human forms.
A Subject sees animal forms.
Aa or Ha Subject sees animal detail or human
detail.
N Subject sees natural objects like rivers,
mountains, green fields etc.
o Subject sees inanimate objects like
lamp shade, pot, etc.
In this way for details of the contents the symbols are used and
entered into the 2nd column.
Originality (3rd column). For each of 10 cards, certain
responses
are scored as popular, by symbol P, because of their commo n
occurrence with some others in which something new is given,
and
thus they indicate some type of originality in them, are
original and depicted by the symbol O. scoredjas
Determinants (4th column). This column takes note of the manner

of perception i.e., the particular characteristics which have helped
the subject in determining the blot of deciding his manner of per-
ception. The main determinants are:
(i) the form (F) of the blot, (i) its colour (C), (iii) movement (M)
and (iv) shading (K).
For example, if the subject responds to a blot as butterfly, then,
we can say that it is the “form” which led to this way of seeing it
and then we score the response as F. On the other hand, if the
subject sees something like fire, blood etc., then the determinant is
certainly the “‘colour” and we enter C in the fourth column.
Subject’s responses on account of “shading” e.g., perception of
rough or smooth surfaces, smoke, cloud etc., are scored as K,
whereas if the subject responds In terms of ‘‘movements’”—movement
of human beings (like boy running, dancing etc.), animal being (like
217
Personality
moving etc.),
dog barking) or inanimate objects (water flowing, cloth
d in the 4th colum n of determi-
e symbols, M Fm or m are entere
can have cases where we note t hem by mixed symbols as
nants. We
(CF), (FK), etc.
the different symbols
Interpretation: Now, in all the four columns
an idea of the relati ve frequ encies of different
>e conien. It gives (in symbo ls) in different
s
ia s of responses. The entry of score way:
in the follo wing
olumns can be roughly made
III Column IV Column
tColumn II Column rminants
Orig inal ity Dete
acation Contents
Symbols
Frequency
different symbols within the scoring
The relative frequencies of the rpreter to
ral categories help the inte
Phin <i and among the severistics of the subject.
ecide the personality characte
than d or D;
number of W’s are greater
For example if (i) the and is expected to
lligent
then the person is said to be mature, inte
possess the ability to synt hesi ze.
expense of
si de of the colour at the ina
(ii) More frequency sonan the extro vert nature whi le dom tion 0
human moveme nt indicate
M over colour, an introvert. ety, depressed
g responses expresses anxi
ii) Dominance of shadin ity and
rior
attitudes and feeling of infe hness of
on move ment indicates ric
emphasis
(iv) Relatively more
one’s ima gin ati ve life .
urrence of certain
is not onl y the rel ative importance or occthe various other
It help in interpretation, ject at the time of
the behaviour of the sub
factors like time factor,
reactions etc., also ationships, obser-
, it is onl y thr oug h various kinds of rel parts that
Therefore
egration ©
vations, records an d int t a subject’s personality can be drawn. The
e a bou on
a final global pic tur ring and interpretati
dem and s a lot of tr aining and skill in sco k sho uld be con si-
test wor
m iner and therefore, the
on the part of the exa and s hould only be done by an experienc
ed
as a ser iou s one
dered logist.
and trained psycho
Ap perception Test
TAT or Thematic of a certain picture ina The-
is ti ng of perceptition
o:
The tes t co ns i ve themes) is called TAT or The-
ti c ma nn er (r evealing imaginat t was developed by Murray and
ma
on Test. This tes
matic Appercepti
Morgan. of 30 pictures which
Į and admini ‘stration: It consists
Test materia actu al life situations. Ten of
beings ina variety of
portray human
these cards are meant for males, 10 for females and 10 for both.
In
this way the maximum number of pictures used with any subject is
20. The test is usually administered in two sessions, using
10 pictures
in each session.
Fig. 16.5. A sample picture

from TAT
k The pictures are presented one at

a
indefinite. The subject is told clearly thattime. They are vague and
this is a test of creative
imagination and that there is no right
and
to make up a story for each of the pictures wrong response. He has.
presented to him, within
a fixed time period. He has to take care
while knitting the story: of the following aspects
(i) What is going on in the picture?
(ii) What has led to this scene?
(iii) What would happen in such a situation?
In making up the stories the subject uncon
many characteristics of his personality. There sciou sly projects so
is no time to think.
Therefore, the stories express his own life—natural desires,
dislikes, ambitions, emoti likes and
ons, sentiments etc. Its special value resides
in its power of exploring the underlying hidden drives, complexes
and conflicts of the personality. An „expert examiner
much about
can know
the personality of his subject by carefully interpreting
the given responses.
Scoring and interpretation: Originally Murra
Contents of the stories according to need and Presses y(theanalyz ed the
need of the
hero and the environmental forces to which he is exposed). Today
TE
Personality
this way of interpretation is not generally followed. Nowadays, the

system of scoring and interpretation takes account of the following:
(i) Hero of the Story— What type of personality he has?
(ii) Theme of the Story—What is the nature of the theme or plot
used in making the story?
language used,
_ (iii) The style of the story—Length of the story, organisation
sion, forced or poor expres sion,
direct or indirect expres
etc.
of the contents, originality and creativity,
ests, sentiments, attitudes
(iv) The content of the story—What inter
er (real ity or fanta sy) the behaviour has
they depict. In which mann
the mind, the story reveals.
been expressed. What inner-state of
subject’s reaction to be listed
(v) Test situation as a whole—The
as a whole.
omission, addition,
(vi) Particular emphasis or omissions—The
ar details.
distortion and attention to particul
authority and sex.
(vii) Subject’s attitude towards
unhappy;
of the story—happy:
(viii) Outcome. Conclusion
Comedy, etc.
te more
themes and features contribu global
As a whole, the recurring tati on. Mor eov er, the
ards interpre
than a single response tow ses of all the
s per son ali ty sho uld be based on the respon
view of one’ There are so
subject.
20 pictures shown to the
misinterpreto : i
t: f
ore, the future of J ]. He should be given
rpre ter more than in per!
inte
iring essential know
full opportunity for acqu
this purpose.
;
(Ch ild ren Ap pe rc ep tion Test)
CAT for children
wor ks wel l wit h adu lts an d adolescents but the CAT was
TAT test 10 years,
children between 3 to
it is not suitable. Ford Bellak.
developed by D. Leopol ds have
s of 10 cards. The car
3 A act ers sin ce it was thought
e
with animal figure mor s
Id identify themselves are sho wn in var iou s life
ersons. These animals tures
i the 10 cards are needed. The pic
readily than yi ’s own expe rienl ce,
igned to evoke fantev tasies relatiing to a child ol
mak es, he pro jec ts
er story the chi ld
ate eeZa and feeling- Wha e alt era tio ns
but it demands som
E t isa colour free test ions.
al co nd it
i o the child’s loc ‘ ented one by one
ee he tes t: All the 10 cards are pres
Seas an e ies on them. The child
Administe is asked to mike up stor ry makinga pleasant
e sto
e and he should tak
ane hae confidenc
game to play with-
280
General Psychology
Interpretation: Interpretation of the stories is centred round the
following eleven variables:
(i) Hero. The personality traits of
story. the hero as revealed by the
(ii) Theme of the Story: What particular
for the story building? theme has he selected
(iii) The end of the story: Ha 7
Tealistic or unrealistic, ppy ending or unhappy, wisA hfu 1
(iv) Attitude towards parental
grateful, dependent, figures. Hatred, respectful,
aggressive a nd fearful, etc. devoted,
;
C) Family role. With whom in the family the
himself. chil d iden tifies
$
~ (i) Other outside fig
Introduced in the Story ures introduced. Objects or external eleme nts
.
but not shown in the
pictures.
. (vii) Omittedor igno
Ignored should be re d fi gures. Which figure
.
noted as they may depict s are omiti ted o r

that the figures were not there. the wish of the subject
(viii) Nature of the anxieties. Harassme
being left alone etc., should also nt, loss of love, afraid of
be noted.
(ix) Punishment for crime. The relationship between a cri
committed in the Story and me
severity of punishment give
n for it.
(x) Defence and confidence. The
aggression, passivity,
type of defences, neth
regression etc., the child
compliance takes, nature
or dependence, involvement in pleasure and achiev
sex desire, etc, ement,
(xi)i Other supp
lementary knowledge. The language
Structure of the Stori es, time taken for comp , the a uneIl
Teactions of the subject leting them an
at the time of making
the story etc.
With all this know
ledge an expert interprete r can pronounce
judgement on the variou.
s aspects of the child’s personality.
Word association test
In this techniqu
subject is told e ther eare a number of selected words. The
that:
(i) the examiner will utter a serie
s of words, one at a time,
(ii) after ea ch word
the
with the first word that comes subject is to reply as quickly as possible
to his mind, and
(iii) there is no right or wrong response.
i ords the reply to each word spoken by him;
the fee anes oe unusu
accompanying a given response. al speech or behaviour manifestations
The contents of the responses
With the other recorded things give clues along
for evaluating the human
Personality and thus help a psychologist in his work.
281
Pers onali i y
Sentence-completion tests
n
These tests include a list of incomp
lete sentences, generally ope
subj ect in one or mor e
at the end, whichh requi
ie l re comp letion by the list and answer as
ords. The sub jec t is asked to go through the s).
ing a second though to his answer
t
uigkiy as possible (without giv ence s: -
lowing sent
or example, we can have the fol
I am worried OVET...
My hope iS-
I feel proud When... s... 1n
My hero iS... Word
regarded as superior to
A The Sentence completion tests aro respond with more than one
subject may and variety
ssociation because the pos sib le to have a greater flexibility es may be
oe Als o ther e it is exp eri enc
ality and
= ig and more area of person
pped. d above there
e techniques mentione
In addition to the projectivprove useful in many situations. They
may
are some others which wing and painting tests etc. Both of these
are play tec hni que , dra children. In the
are ver y use ful in the case of small aviour of the
technique s taneous beh
mer , the exa min er eth ing wit h the help of
for
pla yin g or con structing som g an
children whi le l free hand drawin
eri al and in the latter, the natura stu dy. Bot h of these
given mat
chi ldr en are the matter of the l ana lys is of a
paintings of the e a good opportunity for the carefu
techniques provid
child’s personality.
SUMMARY
’s charm-
is oft en ta ke n as synonymous to one ns, 800
: ality r pat ter
re good person althy build-up, pleasing behaviou ough it includes
pe ar an ce , he pe rs on al it y, al th
ing ap te mp er am e nt, etc. The each or the sum
characte r, fin e nd
s of on e’ s sel f, lex blend of a
all these aspect ma y ,
utes. It
total of these attrib and changing patter ne’s unique behaviour
ng
constantly evolviresult of one’s interact
emerged as 4 me specific ends
in view.
to wa rd s so the structure of
direct ed
ri es try to throw light on trait, trait-cum
e,
Personality theo va ri ous approaches
like typ
ad op ti ng
personality by pmental approach.
type and deve
lo ssif peoé ple into
proa ch try to classify te
ting type ap tain characteri
stics. Hippocra
Theories adop in g to cer fo un d in
pe acco rd or fluid
categories OT ty
op le ac co rd in g to the type of humourogical types based
classified pe ized specifi ic biol tinct types based
Kretschmer emphas o r fied three dis
identi
do n als our. Jung
tr
rt uc tu
sh
s- be
reip eleen
Shtw a pe rs on's physique and behavi
on body st intro-
ng people in terms of
op t ed the typ e approach in classifyi
too ad
General Psychology
he
Theories adopting
of an unique pattern trait
of tra
Eysenck’s theory
towards personality, of Starting
Personality presents trait ch
Personality types. from the traits cum type oP
it yielded
nits
Theories adop
.
personality from atide

ng developmenta
velopment anglle. Fr
approach tr y
eud used this to deseib
approa'
re:
y of personality. He proposed at
th
Tsonality, the child has to

pass through five
m
psych o-
> phallic,
latent and genital.
stimuli. The various techni

named as Rorschach í
Ink-blot_Test, Thematic
(TAT), Children Appercept ion Test (CAT), Word App erception Test
Association Test
sentence completion
test, play technique, ,.
etc. drawing and Painting
test ,
283
Personality
Readings
References and Suggested
, 1980.
pon Paul R., Personality, New York: Holt
New York: Harcourt
dler e iPrac
, A., cattice
es ET,and Theo ryy of Indiviviidual Psyc7 hology,;,
heor
Bruc
k: Macmillan, 1961.
testing (2nd e d.) New Yor
ig A., Psychological tation, New York: Hol
t,
A Psyciological Interpre
lpg G.W., Personality—
New York: Holt, 196
1.
ort, G.W ., Patt ern and Growth in Personality, pme nt, New
Allp Personality Develo
Bandura, A & Walter s, R.H., Social L earning and
York; Holt, 1963.
reprint), Calcutta,
Psychology (3rd ed.
Bhatia, H.R., Elements of Educational
Orient Longman, 196s. New York: Academic
Objec tive Perso nalit y Assessment,
Sort James, N.,
ress, 1972. ed.) Theories of
by Hall , and [Lindzey, G.s (2nd_
ell, R.B. quot
Cait ed .
C.S.
Personality, John Wiley, 1970 Judgment, New York:
of Personality
and Dirk, L_ .Schaeffer, Pa tterns
Cohen, R ic
Academ Press, 1973 k: Harper
ca l Testing (3rd ed.) New Yor
Cronbach, L.J., Essentials of Psychologi
& Row, 1970. an d Psychotherapy,
New York:
J and Miller, N.E., Personality
Dollard,
McGraw-Hill, 1950. : Kegan Paul, 1947.
enc k, H J., Dim ens ion s of Perso nality, London New York:
Eys Personality (3rd ed.)
Structure of Human
Eysenck, H.J., The
Methuen, 1971. Penguin Books,.
Psychology, London:
roduction 10 Jung's
For aham; F., An Int
York: Norton, 1939.
of Psychoanalysis, New
Freud, S., An outline London: Hogart, 195
3.
e of Psychoanalysis, 2.
ud, S., An out lin
k: McGraw Hill, 195
ial Research, rch, New Yor
Fre
t, Me th od s of Soc Ne w Yor k: New
Good and Hat of Jungian Psychology,
rdby, V-J., A Primer
Hall, C.S. and Norar York; John
American Lib y, ty (3rd ed.) New
Lin dze y, G., The ories of Personali
Hall, C.S. and
Wiley, 1978. : Prentice Hall,
Cliffs, New Jersey
Per son ali ty Theory—Englewood
Hogan, R.»
cs, Develop-
1976. ., Personality Dynami
bl. G.F ., Kag an, J & Holt R.R Brace, 1969.
Janis, I.L-, Ma! nt, New York:
Harcourt Steven
ment and ‘Assessme onell Trilling and
Wo rk of Si gmund Freud (Li 3.
e and ; 196
Jones, E., The Lif Garden City, New York: Anchor Co.
Marcus, eds-)
Technique, Yon kers: World Book
, D- The Rorschach
Klopfer, B and Kelley
1946. 1925.
York: Harcourt Brace,
B7 Phy siq ue and Character, New
Kre tsc hme r, ment, Homewood
A Comparative Assess
Maddi, S.R., rsPer sonalities Theories:
ey , 19
Illinois: Do hn Wiley, 1976.
son ali tie s an d As se ssment, New York: Jo
Mischel, Walter, Per
p General Psychology
Mischel, Walter, Introduction
to Personality (2nd ed.) New
Murray, H.H., Th te York: Holt, 1976.
Thematic Apperception Test, : : Har
Press, 1943, Cambridge vard Univiver
ersisity
Prince, Morton, The Unc
onscious (2nd ed.), New
Rogers, CRA Theory of York: Macmillan, 1929.
therapy, Personality and int
: er-
In S. Koch (Ed), personal relatii onshipips
: ,
McGraw Hill, 1959, chology: A Study of Science (Vol. II),
Psy
New Yor ork:
Sheldon, W.H., The Var ee
Differences, New Yor ieties of temperament: A Psycholog
k: Harper, 1942. y of Constitution?
Sherman, Mark, Personali
ty, New York: Pergam
on Press, 1979,
Vernon, P,
:E,, Personality Test and Assessment
1965, (Rev. ed.) London: : Methu en,
Watson, J.B., Behaviourism,
London: Kegan Paul, 1930.
Wig
194g ens, J. et al.,
Principles of Personality, Reading,
Mass: Addison—Wesley,
GLOSSARY
minimum amount of physical stimulus.

Absolute threshold: The cent of the time.
that is needed to produce a sensation 50 per
in shape of the lens to focus
Accommodation, visual; The change
an image on the retina.
s ucceed, to perform well or better
Achievement motive: An urge to
than others.
ed to measure what an individual
Achievement test: Test design
has already learned.
nce of
our blindnes: s caused by the abse
Achromatism: Complete col
cones in tie retina of the eye-
a state
Theory stating the emotion is
Activation theory of emotion:
of general excitation. an indin i-
ch an
level: Standard level whi of sti mulation to which ging
_ Adaptation ome accustomed and ch he the n use s in jud
vidual has bec
other stimuli.
the adrenal glands
(epinep' hrin e): Hormones produced by
Adrenalin g to stress.
to assist the body in reactin ary hormones asso-
hormone (ACTH): Pituit
Adrenocorticothropic
ciated with stress.
urge to be with others.
Affiliation motive: An the termination
image that persists after
An
After images; Visual:
of stimulus. d completely or
ne law: Pri nci ple that nerve fibres respon
All -or -no
not at all. and
theory, the simultaneous
In psychoanalytic and
Ambivalence: of opposite emotions, such as love
often unconscious holding
person.
hate toward one d extrovert.
ating in trovert an
Ambivert: Altern the trough and the height of
the distance bet ween
Amplitude: Half.
the crest of a wave of psycho sexual development in Freu-
cond s!tage
Anal stage: Se ,
dian psy cho log y- amount in
rog ens : Mal e sex hor mon es, also secret in small
ed
And è
ciations to a
females. to ta li ty of a person’s asso
mass: The
. Aperceptive event.
stimulus or an
General Psychology
isp
Apparent motion: Moti on perceived because the observer sees r
object in successive different positions rather than
because the objec
Js actually moving.
Aptitude: Specific ability indicative of one’s
desired future success. potentiality to get
r
Auditory area: Area of the cortex stimulated by the andion
sensory neurons located along the upper portion of the tempor
lobe.
Autokinetic motion: The apparent movement of a statio
such as a point of light in a dark room. nary object
Autosome: 22 pairs of chromosomes that determine the develop-

ment of our body structures and characteristics.
Axon: Extended nerve fibre that carries impulses from
body to other nerve cells or to a muscle or one cell
glands.
Basilar Membrane: The membrane within the cochlea of the inner
ear on which the organ of Corti is located.
Basket nerve findings: Nerve ending wrapped around the base of
a hair, receptor for the pressure sense.
Behaviour modification: Change in behaviour brought about by
operant conditioning techniques.
Binaural cues: Cues for the distance and location of sounds
requiring two ears.
Binocular cues: Cues for depth percepti
on requiring two eyes.
Binocular disparity: The difference between
the retinal images of the
two eyes that arises because each
eye sees an object from a slightly
different location.
Blaky Test: A projective test using a series
who engage in behaviour that the subjec of cartoons of dogs
t describes in a story.
Blind Spot: Small spot in the retina with
no light sensitive cells.
Brain Stem: Lower part of the brain,
spinal cord.
an enlargement of the
Brightness constancy: Perception of
same brightness even though the amount obje cts as maintaining the
of light reaching the retina
changes.
„Castration complex: A concept
in Freudian theory attributed to
children involving fear of losing the
having “lost” the penis for females.
peni s for males and anxiety at
Catharsis: A process involving
the release of emotional tension
through expression of the emotion.
Cerebellum: The part of the brain
close to the brainstem respon-
sible for body balance and coordination of body movement
s.
Cerebral Cortex: Thick folded layer of tightly
covering the cerebrum also called the new brai packed nerves
n.
Fy
Glossary
Cerebrum: Largest part of the brain composed of the two cerebral

hemispheres, left brain and the right brain. :
Chromosomes: Threadlike body in the cell nucleus that contains
genes.
Chronological age: Age in years or calendar age.
Chunking: Grouping associated bits of material into one unit for
processing by memory.
_ Classical conditioning: A kind of learning in which a conditioned
stimulus comes to elicit a response after having been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus that innately elicits the response.
s Closure: Gestaltist’s term for a person’s perceptual tendency to
“close up” figures.
Cochlea: Part of the ear containing fluid that vibrates, which in
turn causes the basilar membrane to vibrate.
_ Cognitive dissonance: Perceived in consistency between two
different beliefs, ideas or attitudes.
Cognitive map: Concept developed by Tolman, involving a spatial
representation or formation of mental hypothesis to reach a goal.
part of the
Collective unconscious: A term used by Jung for the
is inherit ed and commo n to all member s ofa
unconscious that
species.
colours of
Colour anomalies: Defects of colour vision in which the
some wave lengths are abnormally perceived.
perceive colours.
Colour blindness: Partial or total inability to
mixing together of pigments or lights or
Colour mixing: The
s.
different colours to form new colour
Concept: Generalized idea involving perception of a particular
of stimuli.
shared property in a given group
mblance between pairs
Concordance: A simple measure of the rese
of individuals or objects.
sible for colour vision.
Cones. Receptor cells in the retina respon
utterances;
Connected discourse: Written OT spoken grammatical
normal language.
exposed to all experimental conditions
Control group: Group
mpare with the experi-
except the independent variable in order to co i
Eg i
mental group-
of the iris of the eye.
Cornea: Transparent outer coating in front
Cultural fair test: Intelligence test designed to eliminate cultural
bias.
7; A kind of visual adaptation involving increasing
Dark adaptation
er being in the dark for a time.
ability to see aft
Death instinct: A Freudian
concept representing an urge lead
to destruction and death. ing
Decay theorofy forgetting: Theory of forgetting which holds that
memorizedmaterial gradually fades from
memory over time.
Decibel: Unit of measurement for the loudne
ss of sounds.
_ Delusion: A fixed but erroneous belief stron
gly held even though
it does not correspond to physical or
social realities.
Dependent variable: The variable that under
goes change, in an
experiment with the changes introduced in the indep
endent variable.
Deprivation: Condition under which needs are
unfulfilled.
Dendrite: Fibre extending from the neuron which receives infor-
mation from sense organs or the axon of an adjacent
Passes it to the cell body.
neuron and
Difference threshold: Smallest difference between a pair of stimuli

that can be perceived, also called just noticeable difference
.
Dominant gene: A gene with the capacity to express itself wholly,
to the exclusion of the other member of the pair of genes.
Drive reduction: Diminution of the state of tension of an or-
ganism by the achievement of a reinforcing goal.
Eardrum: A thin stretchable membrane in the middle
ear that
vibrates when sound waves exert pressure against it.
EEG (Electroencephologram): A record of the electrical activity
of
the brain.
Ecolocation: The location of objects by the use of sound cues
Teflected from the objects that are approached.
Efferent neuron: A neuron that carries the impulse from the brain
or spinal cord to the muscles (also called motor
neuron).
Egg: A female reproductive cell produced in
the ovary.
Ego: A concept in psychoanalytical approaches related
part of personality that mediates between with the
the id and super ego to
deal with reality.
Embryo: An organism in the early
humans from the second to the eighth weekstage of its development, in
after conception.
Encapsulated end organs: Pressure-sensit
ive receptors found near
the surface of the skin.
Endocrine glands: Ductless glands that
secrete hormones directly
into the bloodstream.
Engram: A hypothetical physical trace by which
a memory js
stored in the brain.
Erogenous Zones: The areas of the body that provide pleasure
when stimulated.
Glossary 407
Estrogens: Sex hormones present in both sexes but found in higher

concentrations in the females.
Estrous cycle: Hormone cycle related to female fertility cycle.
Experimental Group: The group subjected to a change in an in-
dependent variable for carrying out experimental studies.
_ Extinction: Cessation of a behaviour in classical and operant con-
ditioning.
Extrovert: Jung’s term to describe a personality that focuses on
social life and the external world instead ofits internal experience.
Factor analysis: A statistical technique to determine overlapping
characteristics (in terms of factors) of certain measures.
Fantasy: Reaction to frustration by withdrawing and seeking
pleasure in the world of one’s make-believe.
Feed back: Knowledge of the results of an action.
Fetus: Prenatal organism in final 30 week period before birth.
Figure-ground relationship: Perception typified by one feature
standing out against a larger background.
or
Fixation: A concept in Freudian theory indicating an object
d at an early stage.
way of behaviour to which libido is attache
hypo-
Fore-brain : Top portion of brain l consistinng of thalamus,
and cere brum an: d controllin g all “higher level” behaviour.
thalamus
Fovea: Area ofthe retina containing the cones of bright light
and colour vision.
Free-association: A psych o-analysis technique in which the patient
com es in to his mind for revealing his uncon-
expresses whatever
scious.
Free nerve endings: Structures below cold, the surface of the skin res-
of pain, warmth, etc.
ponsible for detection
cerebrum, containing motor
Frontal lobes: Large section of the
problem solving and reason-
projection areas and centres for speech,
ing. i
Functionalism: School of psychology that studies the purpose
underlying behav: jours. i
Functional fixedness: A kindarofobjmental rigidity, not perceiving
of a fam ili ect .
beyond a familiar use signal-
Gate Control theory: Theory of pain holding that the paid
. stem contains a gate like mechan ism that may be opened fully,
iy or not at all for regulating the level of pain felt by organism.
a a 3 4
P iani? skin response: A change in electrical resistance of the
é or may occur during many emotions.
S Eo The basic carriers of heredity located in chromosomes.
a General Psychology
Genital stage: The stage of normal adult sexual behaviour in
Freud’s theory of psycho-sexual development.
Gestalt: A perceptual whole.
Gonads: Male (testes) and female (ovaries)
sex glands.
Habituation: State of being accustomed to a particular situation.
Hair cells: A part of the organ of corti that partic
duction of mechanical energy (set up by sound waves) ipates in trans-
into electrical
discharges of the auditory nerve.
Hertz: Unit of measurement for the frequency of light or sound
waves.
„ Hierarchi of needs: Maslow’s description of human
ning with physiological needs to the higher order needs, begin-
needs having self-
actualization on the top.
Hind brain: Portion of the brain containing the medull
and cerebellum. a, pons
Homeostasis: A state of physiological equilibrium that is main-
tained by innate and automatic regulatory
mechanisms.
Hormones: Chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands.
Hypothalamus: Area of the fore-brain that plays a critical
role in
motivation and emotional responses.
Hypothesis: Idea that is tested experimentally.
Id: A concept in Freudian psychology that relates with
scious amoral and irresponsible personality. It functions uncon-
on the plea-
sure principle and is the reservoir of instincts.
Ideal Self: The goals and aims of the individual
set in Roger’s
theory of “Self”. ‘
Identification : Unconsciously taking on characteristic
s of another
person.
Illusion: Perception that does not correspond with actual stimuli.
Image: The representation of an object focused
on the retina;
recollection or reconstruction of a sense experience.
` Immediate memory: The process by which we can
recall something
for a half second after having perceived it.
Imprinting: The tendency of an Organism during
a critical period
of its early development to follow a moving object and
to form a
lasting attachment to that object.
Incentive:.A kind of reward that reinforces the behaviour in
its own right.
Independent variable: Variable that is manipulated in an eXperij-
ment while all others are held constant.
Inferiority complex: Deeply rooted feelings of inadequacy.
271
Glossary
Inhibition: A concept in learning theory of conditioning that

relates to a process that counters the conditioned response and
results in extinction.
problem or
Insight: The sudden occurrence of the solution to a
of a novel idea.
pancreas that regulates blood-
Insulin: Hormone s secreted by the
sugar level.
l
ure of intelli gence. It is equa
Intelligence Quotient (7.Q.): A measchronological age and multiplied
by
to a person’s mental age divided
by 100.
The theory of forgetting holding
Interference theory of ‘forgetting: knowledge gets in the way.
other
that we forget things because
depth; if one obje ct app
ears to be inter-
Inter-position: A cue to int er-posed object
another object, the
posed between the viewer andviewer.
is judged to be closer to the covert
and reportin g of one’s own
Introspection: The observing
behaviour.
e or mechanism that comes between
Intervening variable: A stat
a cause and its effects. l y that focuses on
to describe a person alit
Introvert: Jung’s ter: m e world.
lings instead of t he outsid
its own thoughts and fee
the eye.
Tris: Coloured part of 1n, space guided by
in
is: Sen se of position and movement
Kin est hes joints.
on from the muscles and
internal bodily stimulati ment, in Freu-
: A sta ge of psycho-sexual d evelop ual drives are
Latency per iod in which sex
age 0 f 6 to puberty
dian psychology: from
dormant. of the cerebral
l fis sur e: Deep groove on the lateral surface rontal
fi and parietal
Lat era lobe from the
separating the temporal
cortex,
lobes.
amus that largely
l hy po th al am us : A region of the hypothalthei biological drives
Latera fro m
behaviour T esulting these drives.
controls the motivated ser vin g as a cen tre for
of hunger and thirst anization emph-
of Pra gna nz: A Ges tal t law of perceptual org objects.
Law perceived
and meaningfulness of
asizing the wholeness i behaviour of
: Re la ti vel y pe rmanen1t change in the
s
Learning ence or training.
t about by experi
the learner brough the basic sexual
A con cep t in Fre ud’ s psychology denoting ’s behaviour.
Libido: ect of a person
sponsi ble for every asp
drive or instinct re rd autonomic
s' rap hy: An instrument; to reco TARAUON,
Lie detector (Ply brought on by emotion provoking stimuli.
nervous system changes
General Psychology
R
Life Instinct: A conce pt in Freudian psychology related} mn
an inner urge that lea ds towards construction and integration an
away from death.
Life style: A concept in Adler’s psychology depicting the typi
¥ttitudes and behaviour constituting the essen cal
tial ways a person lives-
Limbic system: A group of closely inter-connected structures at
the core of the br ain that works with the hypothalamus to control
the emotions and
motivational processes.
Linear perspective: A cue to depth and distance
fact that parallel lines seem to come closer toget based on the
more distant.
her as they become
Localization of functions: The doctrine that particular psychol

ogi~
cal functions are |ocated in particular parts
of the brain.
_, Long term memory (LTM): The memory for items retained indefi-
nitely; has almost limitless storage capacity; codes information
according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics.
p Massed practice: The co ntinuous study of material to be memo-
tized without rest periods.
Maturation: The changes in behaviour of an organism resulting
from physiological growth, the blueprints of which are provided by
heredity.
Medulla: The part of the hind brain that tegulates breathi
heart rate and blood pressure. ng,
Memory drum: A device used in memory experiments for, repeti-
tively presenting verbal material to be memorized
to a subject one
item at a time.
y Memory sp an: The amount of material that can
be retained in
immediate me: mory, usually seven items plus or minus two.
Menory Trace: Believed to be a fragile highly perishable
neural
response produced by sensory experience likely to
bring retention if
repeated often enough.
Menopause: A stage of cessation of ovarian
females. functioning in
Mental age: Mental development ex pressed in years or
determined by an intelligence test. months as
Method of constant Stimuli:A psyc
hophysical meth
mining thresholds of sensation in which several stimu od for deter-
li, from above
and below the threshold, are presented, and the subject
indicates
which he can perceive.
Method of forced choice: A psychophysical method for
determining
the thresholds of sensation in which the observer is forced to choose
one alternative on each trial.
293
Glossary
thod for determining thre s-
Method of limits: A psychophysical meint ensity is raised or lowered
stimulus
holds of sensation in which the it or just not detect it.
just dete ct
until the subject can
and visual
that controls auditory
Mid brain: Area of the brain
responses. ember.
e material easier to rem
Mnemonics: Techniques to mak s what
ng: A typ e of imi tat ion in which one in dividual doe
Modeli
person) doing.
he sees his model (whether
sound using only one
for the distance of the
Monaural Cues. Cues
ear. visual objects using
ocu lar Cue s: Cue s for the distan ce of
Mon
only one eye. because ofa
for get tin g: Los s of memory for material
Motivated to remember.
us wish or reason not
conscious or unconscio observer’s
ex: The app are nt motion of objects as an
Motion parall
e.
head turns from side to sid sible for motor
area : Pri mar y area © f the cortex respon
Motor
functions. al muscle
inv olv ing coo rdi nation of the skelet
Motor Skill: Skill
system. two linles of
usi o n: An ill usi on of length in which) erpretation of
Miiller-Lyer ill t of our int
unequal on accoun
equal length appear the lines as perspective Cues-
angles at the ends of on some axons.
ty covering found
Myelin Sheath: Fat lo gical method of
studying
at io n: A ps yc ho
Naturalistic Observ the subjects in their natural settings.
ob se rv in g
beha vi ou r by g necessary to
caused by a lack of somethin
Need: Deprivation
ng.
survival or well bei biological or soc
io-
ion : Th e sat isf action of one’s
Need reduct
psy logical needs.
cho response by the
post-
rei nfo rce r: Rei nforce. ment of a rsi ve Or un pl ea sant
Negati ve
or ter min a tio n of an ave
al
ponement, withdraw
stimulus. y rning in
: A typ e of tra nsfer of tr aining or ngleaof other
Negative transf er
or disrupts t he learni
one tas k interferes
which learning of
tasks. many of which to~
fibre: An axon or dendrite of a neuron, to and from the
Nerve impulses
transmitting nerve
gether form 4 nerve, .
tem
central nervous sys body which organi-
s syst e! m: Cen tra l con c trol system of the
Nervou
functions of the organism.
zes and coordinates the
oul General Psychology
Nerve tract: Bundles of axons in the brai
travel together. n and spinal cord that
Neuron:
Nerve cell that is the basi
Non-sense syllable: A syllable, usuac unit of the nervous system.
vowel-consonant), which has lly of three letters. (Consonant-
no meaning, used as a material
memory experiments. in
Occipital lobes: Areas of cerebral corte
x responsible for vision.
Oedipus Complex: A concept
tendency of a child to show feclingsin ofFre udian psychology ind ting
love and desire for oppica
Sex parent and ofjealousy and osi
hostility toward same-sex parent te
Olfac
.
tory sense organ: Organ that is responsible
smell, situated high upon the walls of each for the sense of
side of the nasal cavity.
Operant Conditioning: Type of conditioning referred to a kind
Gf
rning process whereby a response is made more
frequent by reinforcement (consequence probable or mor
s of its occurrence).
Oppon
ent process theory: Theory of colour
three sets of cones respond in an either/or vision that holds that
primary colour pairs. fashion to each of three
Oral Stage: First stage in Freud’s psyc
sonality during first 18 months oflife hoanalytic theory of per-
derived from activities that invol in which intense pleasures are
ve the mouth.
Org.in of Corti: Spiral structure in
Teceptor cells for hearing. the cochlea that contains the
Oval window: The membrane separati
that conducts vibrations to ng the middle and inner ear,
the cochlea.
Ovaries: Female sex glands that produce egg cells and sex hor-
mones.
Ovum: Female sex cell.
Oxytocin: Hormone secreted
signals the uterus by theposterior pituitary that
to start contractions during child-birth and the
mammary glands to produce
milk.
Paired associate list: A list of
memory experiment. The subject paired items used as material in
is asked to learn to respond with
the second of the pair when
presented with the first of the
pair.
Pancreas: Endocrine gland that
and glucagen, which control secretes two hormones —insulin
the blood sugar level.
Para sympathetic division:
leads to relaxation of internal Division of the nervous system that
organs and muscles after stress.
Parietal lobes: Areas of cerebral
Sense such as temperature, pain, cortex concerned with body
and the feel of.
Part method: A technique of memorizing
material is broken into Parts, for in which the lengthy
memorizing them separately and
then in their order.
295
Glossary
associates, by whom one is treated as an
Peer group: One’s
equal.
psychology depicting the
Penis envy: A concept in Freudian
desire to have a penis.
female’s unconscious
environmenta 1 stimul i into
Perception: A process of organising
some meaningful patterns or whole s.
to perceive the stimuli in the
Perceptual constancy: A tendency there may be changes
gh in rea lity
environment as unchanging, thou
stics .
in shape, size or other characteri
of nervous syste m outside the
Peripheral nervous system: Part
brain and the spinal cord. exual
the Freud’s theory of psycho-s
Phallic stage: Third stage in ngly interested in the genitals.
is stro
development when the child sed by
tual illusion of movement cau
Phi- phenomenon: The percep the r in succ essi on.
y lights one after ano
flashing a series of stationar obje ct or
tional fear of some specific
_ Phobia: Intense and irra :
situation.
the frequ lency
ch: The sen sed qua lit y of sound resulting from
Pit ear.
ng the
of the sound waves stimulati hasizing the
ple in Freudian theory emp function 0:
` Pleasure principle: A princi con seq uen ces , a
regardless of the
immediate gratification
the id. fires, when the
: The con dit ion of a neuron be fore it ide of
Polari zat ion ve ions are on the ins
positive ions are on the outsi de and negati
the cell membrane. with breathing and
ve centre that helps
Pones: Wind brain ner both sides of the brain.
s of
coordination of activitie ioning indicating
ve rei nfo rce r: A con cept in operant condit ses leading to
Positi res
thepon
sentation strengthens
a stimulus whose pre
its presentation. ch one learning helps
type of transfer in whi
Positive transfer: A
ng.
facilitate the other learni learning to disrupt
on: The tendency of ea rlier
Proactive inhibiti
rning.
the recall of later lea ed by attributing one’s
mechanism ch aracteriz
Projection: Defence
lings to others.
own desires and fee zation stating that
of perceptual organi
Proximity: A principle ects leads the perceiver to perceive them
of obj
nearness OF closeness
in patter ns. l development
five stages of psychologica
Psychosexual stages: The .
his personality theory
as put by Freud in ati ve vis ibility from long to shorte
r
in rel
ft
Purkinje effect: The shi illumination.
gth s of lig ht un de r conditions of reduced
wave len
“a General Psychology
P
Rationalization: The sa :
otherwise unjustified by process of justification of behaviour :
that is
providing rational reason
s.
Recall: The Process of : $ hou
cues. remembering wit t the aid F of tra
ex
.
Recessive gene: Gene who z
se heredity pot bgt 3
when it is paired with ential is not express! ed
a dominant gene.
Recognition: The abi 5
that has been seen lity to look at several thin gs and select 0 ne
or learned before.
Reflex: involuntary, :
unlearned, immedi :
ate response to a stimu jmulus.
Reinforcement: Th
help of an appropriat e :
process of strengthening a response e with
with the
e s timulus making it more likely
to recur.
Retention: Storage of learned material
in memory.
_ Reticular activating system (RAS 5 ous system
): Nerv irmotu n-
ning through the hind brain and
ponsible for general arou mid brain to the hypothalamu
sal of the organism.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA); Chemic
tions from DNA into spec al that translates genetic oe
ific cellular processes, such
of needed proteins. as the synth
Rods: The receptor cells in
night vision but whi the retina of the eye responsib
ch do not le for
produce the perception of colour.
Rorschach test: A pro
jective technique consisting of the ten ambi-
guous symmetrical ink-blots that subjects are asked to
interpret.
Saving method: A measure of
the difference between the retention arrived at by determ
number of trials originally need ina
the material and the number ed to lea
of trials needed for relearni
Schedule of Reinforcement: ng.
A pattern of taking decision
way a given response
is to be reinforced. in the
Secondary Sex Character
istics: B Odily changes that
puberty specific to the occur _ during
sexes but n Ot necessary for repro
example, facial hair in duction, for
men, develop ment of breasts
Selective Breeding: The Pro in women.
trait for the Purpose of cess of mating species
studying the inheritabili for a specific
Self-actualization: The hig ty.
needs proposed by Mas hest need in the hierarchi
low cal structure of
one’s self and fulfil one’ , that drives an individual to discover
s potential.
Self Concept: The gene
ral ideas and feelings
about himself as unique that one acquires
individual of special sign
Self-esteem: A positive ificance.
attitude toward Oneself,
of favour or approval. varying in degree
Sensory projection area: Cere
bral c Ortex area where
the sense organs register. messages from
Sensory storage: The brief perceptu
of sensory input for less than a second. al memory process of storage
297
Glossary
Serial lists: Any lists that are to be memorized in order.

d in a certaini way when resented
> Set: A 4 predisposition to respon
with certain stimuli . i 5 :
techni que in operan t c: ondit ionin g in which reinforce-
Shapin g: A
successively
ment is used to mould desired behavi our by reinforcing
close approximat ions to it.
in
Short term memo ry (STM): The type of memory helpful
of info rmat ion for about twent y secon ds or
retaining several items
or repeat them.
so even if one gets no chance to rehearse
classifying persons into certain
b Somatotyping: Sheldon’s system of
e to which their somatic structure
ody types according to the degre stics.
{body build) reflects certain physical characteri
Cattel l’s theor y of personality meaning
Source traits: A concept in tures of the personality.
the basic traits serving as the essential struc
that is characterized of all
Species specific behaviour: Behaviour
normal members of a given species.
uced in the testes.
Sperm: A male reproductive cell prod
of part of the strength
Spontaneous recovery: The recovery nguished.
it has been exti
of a conditioned response some time after n
apply to al l members of a give
Stero-types: Beliefs presumed to
group. on
event that produces some effect
Stimulus: An occurrence or
some organism.
ept in the t heory of conditioning
Stimulus discrimination: A conc to react to differences in stimuli
learns
emphasizing that an organism .
and to distinguish between them ditioning
concept int he theory of con
Stimulus generalization: A sm gets conditioned to respond to a
organi
emphasizing that once an lar stimuli bring the same response.
specific stimulus, other, simi environ-
performance for change in
Stimulus variability: Innate
mental stimuli. by the successive
nt motion caused
Stroboscopic motion: Apparestimuli.
visual
presentation of separate d
in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory relate
Super ego: A concept the individual the
that par t of per son ali ty which imposes on
with
cepts of the society.
restraint and moral pre by Cattell that
the types of traits defined
Surface traits: One of ty; they are more easily
e of the personali
are close to the surfac siv ene ss.
traits e.g. aggres
changed than source nervous system.
Sympathetic divi sion : Division of the autonomic
between the axon of one neuron and
Synapse: Fluid filled space t that helps the flow of information
nex
the receiving dendrite of the
.
system
through the nervous
pe General Psychology
Taste buds: Organs that receive the chemical stimuli for taste
sensation.
Textural Density gradient: A cue to visual
depth.
_ Testosterone: A male hormone responsible for sex-role beha-
viours.
Thalamus: Egg shaped structures in the fore-brain that function

as
the relay centre of the brain.
Thyroid gland: Endocrine gland located below the larynx that
Secretes thyroxin, which controls metabol
ism.
_ Timbre: The sensory quality of the sound that characterizes
2
given source.
Trait: Particular feature of an individual’s personality that seems
to stand out and endure over a vide variety of
situations.
Transduction: Process by which receptor cells transform physical
energy into an impulse that the nervous system
can carry
Transference: A concept in psychoanalysis related with the
patients’ unconscious transferring of feelings from earlier interper-
sonal relationships to the analyst.
Variable: Event or condition affecting a particular situati
on.
Verbal behaviour. The use of spoken or written language in com-
municating with others.
Vestibular sense: Sense of body balance, position and movemen
t.
Visible spectrum: That part of the light wave spectrum visible to
the human eye; the colours we see.
_ Visual acuity: Ability to distinguish fine details in the field of
vision.
Volley theory of pitch perception: Theory that recept
ors in the ear
respond in volley, with one group responding, then
a second, then a
third, and so on.
Weber’s Law: The amount of increment in physical
stimulus
needed to produce a “just noticeable difference” js proportional to
the magnitude of the initial stimulus.
Whole method: The method of memorizing material as a whole
without breaking it into parts to be memorized separately.
X-chromosome: X-shaped sex chromosomes
to be found as one in
males and two in females.
¥-chromosome: Y-shaped sex chromosomes, found
only in males.
Zygote: A fertilized egg or ovum.
INDEX
Abstract thinkin g, 129 Associative thinking, 130

Absolute threshold, 4 j- Attention, 155-65
eand, a defined, 155 56
measuremen 86 87 division of, 162-63
method of constant stimuli, 8 distraction, 164-65
method of forced choice, 87 s factors of, 158-60
methods of limits, 86 fluctuation of, 161-62
Accommodation as depth of distance signs and effects of, 156-57
cue, 115-16 shifting of, 161-62
Achievement motive, 146-47 span of, 160-61
Achievement need, 139 sustained, 163-64
Adaptation, 89-90 types of, 157-58
visual, 90 involuntary, 157
dark, 90 voluntary, 158
light, 90 Auditory canal, 95
117
retinal, 90 Auditory space perception,
51
Adler’s theory, Autonomic nervous system,
of motivation, 148 sympathetic, 51
of personality, 265 para sympathetic, 51
Adrenaline, 55 Autokinetic illusion, 122
Adrenal Cortex, 55 Axon, 45
Adrenocorticotrophic, 54 ry of
Adrenal gland, 55 Bandura, and Walter's theo
Adrenal medulla, 55 personality, 268
Adjustment, 169 Basilar membrane, 96
Affiliation motive, 145-46 Basket nerve endings, 98-99
Aggression motive, 145 Behaviour; 1-3, 20
Aliport's theory of personality, 260 meaning, 3
All or none-Jaw, 4 types of, 3
Ambivert, 259 affective, 3
Amplitude, 94 cognitive, 3
Anal stage, 21 conative, 3
Androgen, 55 conscious, 3
Anteriorlobe, 5+ sub-conscious, 3
Behaviourism, 17-
Anvil, 95
Apperception, 15 Binaural cues, 118-19 113, 117
15 Binocular cues, visual,
Apperceptive mass,
Aptitudes, 242-251 Blind spot, 89
Body senses, 100 01
and ability, 243 128
and achievement, 244 Brain function, 48, 49,49
localization of, 48-
and intelligence, 244 law of mass action, 48-4
9
and interest, 2: law of equipotentiality
, 48-49
defined, 242-43 as tools of thinking, 128
nature of, 242-* Brainstem, 50
Aptitude tests, 244-51
classified, 245
-49
artistic aptitude, 248 Carl Roger’s theory of
clerical aptitude, 246-47 personality, 260-62
mechanical aptitude, 245-46 Case history method, 28
musical aptitude, 24 7 Case study method, 28
scholastic aptitude, Castration complex, 21
ity, 260-62
utility of, 250-51 Cattell’s theory of personal
46-
Aqueous humor, 89 Central nervous system,
1
Associationism,
brain, 46 Distributed practice in memorization,

cerebellum, 48 208-09
cerebrum, 47 Doclard & Miller’s theory of
cerebral cortex, 47, 100 personality, 267-68
fore-brain, 46-47 Dream analysis, 20
hind-brain, 48 Drives, 140-41
hypothalamus, 47 primary, 140 ees?
mid-brain, 47 reduction as theory of motivation,
medulla, 48 147
pons, 48 secondary, 140
recticular activating system, 48 and incentives, 141
spinal cord, 50
Chemical Senses, 97-98
Children Apperception Eardrum, 95 s
Test (CAT), 279-80 Ebbinghaus’ curve oí forgetting,
Chromosomes, 60 213-14
Clinical method, 28, 37-40 Echolocation as distance cue, 113
Cochlea, 95 Egg, 60
Cognitive psychology, 23-24 Ego, 20
Cognitive theory of motivation, 148-49 Electra complex, 21
Colour blindness, 92 Emotions, 73-80
Colour constancy, 113 characteristics of, 74-75
Colour mixture, 91 defined, 73-74
Colour vision, 81-94 identification of, 75-76
theories of, 92 kinds of, 75
Young Helmholtz’s theory, 93 measurement of, 75-76
Hering’s opponent, process physiology of, 77-78
theory, 93-94 theories of, 79-81
Complementary colour, 92 activation theory, 80
Concepts, 127 cannon Bard theory, 79
Conception of child, 60 congnotive theory, 79-80
Conceptual thinking, 129 James Lange theory, 79
Concrete thinking, 129 Encapsulated end organs, 98-99
Conditioning of behaviour, 18 Endocrine glands, 52-56
Conditioning classical, 18 defined, 52
as theory of learning, 179-84 location of, 53
Conditioning operant as theory of types of, 53-56
learning, 184-91 adrenal, 55
Cones, 89-90 gonads, 55-56
Cornea, 89 pancreas, 55
Consciousness, 1 Parathyroid, 54
Constancy of 1.Q., 236-37 Pineal, 53
Contemporary Psychology, 22-24 pituitary, 53-54
cognitive, 23-24 thymus, 54-55
humanist, 23 _ thyroid, 54
transpersonal, 23 Environment, 65.67
Convergence as depth cue, 117 contributions of, 66-67
Corti, 96 defined, 65
Critical empiricism, 14 role of, 64-67
Creative thinking, 130 types of, 65
Cytoplasm, 60 itrogens, 55
Exsenck’s theory of personality, 262-7
Experimental designs, 33-35
Daily psychopathology, 20 types of, 33-35 A
Day dreaming, 13 control group, 3
Deductive reasoning, 132 multiple stonk. 34-35
Delusions, 130 rotation, 35
Dendrite, 45 single group, 33
Deprivation complex, 21 Experimental method, 28, 32 36
Differential method, 36
Difference threshold, 87 Fantasy, 130
Distraction, 164-65 Fertilized ovum, 60
Index 301.
Figure-ground relationship, 106-7, 122 of movement, 122
Forgetting, 212-17 of perspective, 120-21
curve of, 213-14 of size, 119
defined, 212-13 Images as tools of thinking, 127
theories of, 215-17 Immediate memory, 204
interference theory, 215-16 Inductive reasoning, 132
repression theory, 216-17 Ink-blot test, 274-77
trace decay, 215 Innate ideas, 14
types of, 214-15 Insight, 19
morbid, 214-15 as theory of learning, 191-95
natural, 215 Instincts, 69-73
Fovea, 89 classification, 72-73
Free association, 20, 130 defined, 69-70
Free nerve endings, 98-99 and reflex action, 71-72
Free recall, 207 Jnstinctive theory of
Freud’s theory of personality, 263-65 motivation, 147-48
Functionalism, 16-17 Insulin, 55
Functionalist, 17 Intelligence, 220-240
assessment of, 228-240
defined, 220-21
Gate control theory, 99-100
nature of, 227-28
Genes, 60 theories of, 222-26
role of, 61-62 group factor, 223-24
types of, 61 Guilford’s theory, 225-76
dominant, 61 hierarchical theory, 224-25
reccssive, 61 multi factor, 222
Genetics, 60 two factor, 222-23
Germ cells, 60 unitary, Ton Mo
Gestalt, 19 ligence tests, ~
Gestalt psychology, 18-19
Gifted children, 237-239 Intel ssified, 228-29
types Of, 230-35
Glucogon, 55 group non-verbal, 234-35
Goal oriented as theory group verbal, 233-34
of motivation, 149 individual performance, 230-33
Gonads, 55-56 nr rar OP 238 a
Guilford’s model of intellect, 225-26 igence Quotient (I. Q.), =.
Intellige cation of, 237-39
Hammer, 95 concePt of, 235-36
Hearing sense, 94-97 constancy of, 236-37
mechanism of, 94-96 Interference theory of
theories of, 96-97 forgetting, 215-16
frequency theory, 96 Interposition as distance cue, ESR
place theory, 96 Interview as 2 technique of personality
volley theory, 97 assessment, 273-74
trespection,16, 28
Heredity, 59-67 271-72
contributions of, €6-67 a entor personality,
defined, 59-60 :
mechanism of, 60-61 J. n.d., 87 P
role of, 64 A 3 g’s clas sifi cati on of per son ality, 259
Jun
of
Hippocrates” classification
personality, 257
Homeostasis, 1 Kinesthetic sense, 100-01 of persona-
Kretschmer’s classification
Hypoglycemia, 55 lity, 258
Hypothyro dism, 54
Humanist psychology, 23
142-43 Larynx, 54 =
Hunger motive,
Lashley’s laws onIccalization, 48-09
Learning, 168-97
Id, 20-21 defined, 168-70
119-22
Jllusion, perceptual; nature of, 169-70
of curvature, 121-22 law of analogy, 177
of horizontal-vertical, of attitude, 177
of length, 120
of effect, 175-76 Neural impulse, 45-46
of exercise, 176-77 Neuron structure, 44-46
of multiple response, 177 Night vision, 89
of readiness, 175 Noradrenaline, 55
types of, 170-73 Normative survey method, 28
theories of, 173-95
transfer of, 195-97 Observation
defined, 195-96 as method, 28 i
theories in, 196-97 as technique of personality
types in, 196 assessment, 270-71
Learning method for studying memory, Oedipus complex, 21
Olfactory bulbs, 98
Learning theories of.personality, 267-68 Olfactory hair, 98
Pigheaad shadow as distance cue, Operant, 185
114-15 Operant behaviour, 185
Linear perspective as depth cue, 114 Operant conditioning, 185-91
Long term memory, 205 defined, 187
Loudness as quality of sound, 95 experiments of, 188
Lymphoid system, 55 implications of, 190-91
mechanism of, 188-89
Maslow's hierarchical structure of shaping in 189-90
needs, 149-50 V/s classical
Maslow’s theory of motivation, 149-50 conditioning, 187-88
Masson’s disc as device for studying Optic nerve, 89
visual attention, 162 Ova, 60
Maternal motive, 144-55 Ovum, 60
Memory, 202-08 Oval Window, 95
and remembering, 203-04 Ovaries, 60
improvement of, 209.12 Oxytocin, 54
meaning of, 202
study of, 205-08 Paired associate list, 205
types of, 204-05 Pancreas, 55
Memorization, 202-03, 208-09 Paradoxical cold, 99
economy in, 208-09 Paradoxical heat, 99
meaning of, 202 Para-thormone, 54
mechanism of, 203 Perception, 104-22
methods of, 208-09 defined, 104-06
Memory drum, 206 mean‘ng, 104-05
Menstrual cycle, 60 nature, 105-06
Mental age, 235-36 Perception of space, 113-17
Mentally retarded, 237-39 inauditory, 117
Monaural cues, 117-18 indirection, 118-19
Monocular cues, visual, 113-17 in distance, 117-118
Motivation Perceptual constancy, 112-13 |
defined, 137 in colour, 113 |
theories of, 147-50 in shape, 112
Motives, 141-47, 150-52 in size, 112 |
defined, 141 Perceptual illusions, 119-22
measurement of, 150-52 of curvature, 121
types of, 142-47 of horizontal-vertical, 121-22
Myel in sneath, 45-50 of perspective, 120-21
of size, 119-120
Naturalist, 15 Perceptual organisation, 106-11
Naturalistic observation, 30-32 meaning, 106
Needs, principles of, 106-12
defined, 127 adaptability, 111-12
biological, 137 closure, 107-08
socio-psychological, 137-38 context, 110-11
Neo-Freudians, 22 contour, 110
Nervous system, 44-52 figure-ground telationship,
central, 46-50 106-07 `
peripheral, 51 grouping, 109-10
Index 303
simplicity, 110 Relative movement as depth cue 116-17

Perceptual thinking, 129 Remembering defined, 203-04
Peripheral nervous system, 51 Repression theory, 216-17
types of, 51 Respondent behaviour, 185
autonomic, 51 Retention
somatic, 51 meaning of, 203
Personality, 253-81 measurement of, 207-08
assessment of, 268-31 Retinal disparity as depth cue, 117
characteristics of, 255-56 Retroactive inhibition, 216
defined, 253-56 Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 44, 61
nature of, 253-68 Rods, 8-90
theories of, 257-68 Rorschach-ink blot test, 274-77
developmental, 263 68
trait, 260-262 Saving method for studying memory,
type, 257-60 é
type cum trait, 262-63 Science, normative, 5
Phallic Ae 22 positive, 5
Phi-phenomenon, 122 Secondary sex characteristics, 55
Pineal, 53 Selective breeding, 64-65
Pinna, 95 Self actualization as need, 139
Pitch, 95 as theory of motivation, 149-50
Primary colours, 91-92 Self assertion need, 139
Proactive inhibition, 216 Sense of pain, 99-100
Probed recall, 206 Sense of p'essure, 99
Problem solving, 132-33 Sense of temperature, 99
Projective techniques, 151 Sense of touch, 99
Psyche, 1, 13 Sensation, 85
structure of, 20-21 Sensitivity, 85
Psychology Sentence completion test, 281
defined, 1-2, 5 Serial list, 205
branches of, 6-8 Serial recall, 207
nature of, 2-4 Sex chromosomes, 62
scope of, 5-8 Sex determination, 61-62
utility of, 8-11 Sex motive, 143-44
Psychological methods, 28-42 Shape constancy, 112
Psychoanalysis, 19-22 Sheldon’s classification of
Psychoanalytic method, 20-21, 28 personality, 258
Psychophysical method, 28, 40-02 Short term memory, 204-05
gente sexual development stages, Situational tests, 271
-22 Size constancy, 11
Social approval need, 139
Questionnaire, 271 Social company need, 1
of
Social urges as theory
moti vation, 148 b
of, 94-95
Rating, 89 Sound waves, characteristics, 208
hod
Rating scale, 272-73 Spaced V/s unspaced met ristics, 55
Rationalist, 15 Species-Specific characte
Reasoning, 1 Sperm, 60
defined, 131- Spermatozoa, 60
types of, 132-33 Spinal cord, 50 87-88
Recall Stimuli discrimination. 7
meaning, 203 Stimuli detection, 85-8
measurement of, 207 Stirrup, 95. k
of 122
Recitation as method Stroboscopic motion,
memorization, 208 Structure of the ear,
95-96
89
Recognition, 20. Structure of the eye, 88-
139
Recognition need, Structuralism, 16
Reflex action, 50, 69 Super ego, 21
29
Reflective thinking,
Reinforcer, 18: Tabula rasa, 14
Reinforcement. 185-87 Taste buds, 98
schedules of, 186-87
gy
304 General Psycholo
65-66
Taste pore, 98 Twin and family studies,
Twins mechanism, 62-6.
Tastes, 60
Testosterone, 56
Texture gradient as depth cue, 115 Vesopressin, 54
Thematic Apperception Vestibular sense, 100-01
Test (TAT), 277-79 Visible Spectrum, 91
Thinking, 125-31 Visual acuity, 89 ,
defined, 125-26 Volley theory of hearing, 97
nature of, 126-27
tools of, 127-28 94
types of, 129-31 Waves, light and sound, 88,
Thirst motive, 143 Wechsler intelligence scale,
Weber’s law, 87-88
Whole and part method.280208
Thymus, 54-55
Thyroid, 54
Thyrotropin, 54 Word association test,
Thyroxin. 54
Timbre, 95 X-chromosome, 62
Tone, 95
Trace decay theory, 215
Trial and error theory, 174-79 Y-chromosome, 62
Transfer of learning, 195-97 Young-Helmholtz thecry
meaning of, 195-96 of colour vision, 93
theories of, 196-97
types of, 196 Zygote, 60
Qt.. Wez
fi Ù Library 2
fer e a
lg b
S.K. Mangal, a teacher with a
brilliant academic career, has post-
graduate degrees from Agra, Panjab
and Delhi universities and a Ph.D.
in Education from Kurukshetra
University. His Ph.D. thesis has
been published as Dimensions of
Teacher Adjustment. A test named
Teacher Adjustment Inventory
devised by him has also been
published.
Dr Mangal has been actively
associated with the task of teaching
n
and writing in the fields of Educatio
two
and Psychology for more than
of his earli er work s,
decades. Two
Educational Psyc holo gy and
been
Abnormal Psychology, have
At pres ent he is
greatly appreciated.
of
teaching at C.R. College
Education, Rohtak.
ts
Jacket design : Pigmen
0
ISBN 81 207 0723
SURGICAL GASTROENTEROLOGY
—J.D. Wig
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STERLING PUBLISHERS PVT. LTD.

This edition is eo pyright under the

m. PSYCHOLOGY — MEANING, NATURE AND

N. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY—A HISTORI-

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOUR 44

5. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT

Set; direction and interest in thinking; Types of

10. MOTIVATION OF BEHAVIOUR 13"

11, ATTENTION 155

12. LEARNING 168

13, MEMORY-REMEMBERING AND FORGETTING 202

is forgetting; Ebbinghaus’s curve of Forgetting, Types

14, INTELLIGENCE 220

15. APTITUDES 242

16, PERSONALITY 253

Fig 4.1 The Structure of a neuron. 45

The subject Psychology is becoming more and more popular day

the science of consciousness. According to these psychologists, the

‘Conclusion regarding definitions :

Meaning of the term behaviour

Nature of the subject psychology

called as a science. In general, we may call the nature of a subject

On the basis of the above characteristics, it may be established

What kind of science is psychology?

What kind of positive science is psychology ?

_Branches and fields of psychology

relation to their own environment. ‘The causes, symptoms and syn-

_ +5. Physiological psychology: This branch of psychology describes

B, BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY

educational systems according to the needs and requirements of the

making abilities, and

: knowingly or unknowingly, do make use of psy-

towardrd:s social Progress

for study of the behaviour and the subject competent to perform

Psychology is the legitimate child of his mother philosophy. How-

—It has high-lighted the importance of good behaviour to tho

References and Suggested Rea

Historical background of a subject not only presents a fascinating

the precepts of the Catho-

e 1 as they are; they

Herbert Spencer amilton, James Mill, John Stuart

C and D in sensory experience, the sensory experience A, occurring

B. THE Modern AGE OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY

explaining how the study of human behaviour should be performed,

William James (1842-1910), the father of American psychology, is

(1849-1936) the propagator gsof of the Russian psychologist Ivan Palvov

stimulus response, auioma

lically in dreams. The analysis

of the pen, forgotten names and forgotten appointments, lost

In this way;'Freud through

The other mentionab

C. THE RECENT TRENDS

good deal of energy trying to prove a contrary point. Quite opposite,

Cognitive Psychology studies all about man’s

The cognitive psychologyis gaining Popularity day by

Historically, the evolution

(i) In the earliest age of superstitions causes and forms of human

(ii) Subsequently, philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle

Recent trends in contemporary psychology

References and Suggested Readings

Chaplin, J.P. & Krawiec. T.S.; System

Marks, R.W. (Ed.); Great Ideas in Psych

` Psychology is termed as the Scientific study of behaviour. The