Raw materials:

SUGARCANE AVAILIBILITY
Negros Island is known to be the sugar basket of the Philippines. More than half of the available
agricultural lowland is sugarcane plantation that produces about 53% of the total national
production. Productivity in terms of tonne cane harvested per hectare, Philippines has an average
annual production of about 60 tons per hectare (Tongol, 2018). Negros Occidental is a province
in the Philippines located in the Negros Island region. It is known as the “sugar bowl of the
Philippines”, producing more than half of the nation’s sugar output. The landscape consists of
alluvial plains and hilly and mountainous areas. A mountain range lines the eastern part of the
province that forms the basis of the border shared with another province, Negros Oriental
(Tongson, 2019).

Philippines is an agricultural country with the agricultural sector contributing to ∼9% of the
country's GDP in 2016, with at least 24% of its available land area being used for agricultural
activities and over 90% of which is allocated for growing crops [1]. This indicates that
Philippines have an abundant agricultural biomass resource that could be tapped into for
renewable bio-based economy. More importantly, however, is to identify resources having
quantities that could support such bio-based economy. In view of the crops produced in the
country, sugarcane is the top agricultural crop produced in the country among the top five crops,
including, paddy rice, coconut, maize and banana & plantains [2,3]. Annual sugarcane
production in the country amounts to over 20 million tons. In the harvesting and processing of
this crop, biomass residues are generated. These residues are the sugarcane tops & leaves which
are collectively referred to as sugarcane trash and sugarcane bagasse which is the fibrous by-
product in milling of sugarcane (Go & Conag, 2019).

The ASEAN countries, contributing around 10% of the global sugar production, are important
players in the global sugar trade. These countries together produce over 17 million tonnes of
sugar and consume around 15 million tonnes of sugar annually. Thailand is the second largest
sugar exporter after Brazil, with an export share of 60%. Indonesia is the world’s third largest
consumer and a major importer of sugar. Philippines, another sugarcane-growing country, has its
production entirely consumption oriented and aims to ascertain its status as a net exporter of
sugar. The South-East Asian countries account for ~13% of the global centrifugal raw sugar
exports and ~14% of the global sugar imports. Thus, this group of sugar-producing countries
influences the world sugar trade to a great extent. Even with many favourable factors, the cane
productivity, sugar production and over all status of sugar industry in these countries are not very
impressive due to several region-specific challenges. The recent economic developments like
formation of ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) leading to ASEAN Free Trade Area
(AFTA), and other related reforms have provided sufficient impetus for these countries to gear
up to these emerging situations and become globally competitive (Solomon et al., 2016)

The area of sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) cultivation totaled 27 million hectares in the world and
10 million hectares in Brazil. Sugarcane is a valuable crop considering the potential to produce
sugar, ethanol, biodegradable products, energy generation and food for animal production. In
tropical conditions, high biomass production in the range of 150–300 Mg ha–1 year–1 can be
achieved, depending on the management and production system employed. Due to great
adaptation to different types of soil and environment, sugarcane could be produced in over 100
countries to supply biofuel and food to the world. Improvement in the production process
adopted in Brazil in the last decade, including mechanical planting and harvesting, new methods
of sugarcane planting, control of pests, diseases, nutrition and fertilization, has increased
sugarcane yield in Brazil while improving work-conditions and social aspects of sugarcane
cultivation. Therefore, the high potential production of sugarcane, its varied uses and its ability
to be cultivated in regions with low economic and social development indicates that sugarcane
cultivation could become a key source of income and improve life-quality in many regions.
However, political and governmental organization is required to achieve this goal (Heinrichs et
al., 2017).

BIOCHAR USES:

BIOCHAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION

Biochars are low-cost and renewable biomaterials with several applications, including soil
amendment, mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, and removal of both inorganic and organic
contaminants in aqueous systems. An increasing body of recent evidence indicates that biochars
can also remove gaseous chemical contaminants, such as those occurring in industrial flue gases.
However, unlike other applications such as in agroecosystems, soil amendments, and aquatic
systems, comprehensive reviews on biochar applications in the field of air pollution control are
still lacking. The current paper examined existing evidence to understand the nature of
contaminants, particularly the gaseous ones, potential applications, constraints, and future
research needs pertaining to biochar applications in air pollution control. The preparation of
biochars and their functionalized derivatives, and the properties influencing their capacity to
remove gaseous contaminants are summarized. The removal capacity and mechanisms of various
organic and inorganic gaseous contaminants by biochars are discussed. Evidence shows that
biochars effectively remove metal vapours, particularly elemental mercury (Hg0), acidic gases
(H2S, SO2, CO2), ozone, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and organic contaminants including aromatic
compounds, volatile organic compounds, and odorous substances (Gwenzi et al., 2021).

The emission of air pollutants from various industries is a major contributor to environmental
pollution. The removal of these pollutants before they are discharged into the environment has
become an important means of controlling air pollution. Biochar has attracted increasing
attention because of its low cost, high porosity, large specific surface area, abundant surface
functional groups, and high removal capacity. The physicochemical properties of biochar are
greatly affected by feedstock types, preparation, and modification conditions. For this reason, the
capacity and propensity of biochar for removing air pollutants are rather variable. To understand
the existing research status and grasp the latest research progress, a systematic review on the
removal of different air pollutants by biochar is highly needed. Based on the recent research, this
paper systematically analyzes and summarizes the preparation and modification methods of
biochar commonly used for the removal of six air pollutants (SO2, H2S, CO2, Hg0, VOCs, and
NH3), as well as the removal performance and mechanisms (Zhao et al., 2022).

Biochar is produced by thermal decomposition of biomass under oxygen-limited conditions

(pyrolysis), and it has received attention in soil remediation and waste disposal in recent years.
The characteristics of biochar are influenced mainly by the preparation temperature and biomass.
Higher pyrolysis temperature often results in the increased surface area and carbonized fraction
of biochar leading to high sorption capability for pollutants. Biochars derived from various
source materials show different properties of surface area, porosity and the amount of functional
groups which are important concerning on the effect of biochar. Biochar has been proved to be
effective in improving soil properties and increasing crop biomass. It has also been suggested
that it can even enhance crop resistance to disease. Biochar has recently been used to remediate
soil with both heavy metal and organic pollutants (Tang et al., 2013).

Water and soil pollution has caused serious global concerns due to their detrimental effect on
ecological security and health risks. Remediation of the contaminated water and soil to
rehabilitate their ecological functions is urgently needed to ensure sustainable food production
and water supply. As a novel multifunctional carbonaceous material, biochar (BC), recognized
for its potential roles in carbon sequestration, waste biomass management, bioenergy production,
soil improvement, greenhouse gas emission reduction, and crop productivity enhancement, is
highly recommended as an amendment for water and soil remediation. This chapter summarizes
the feedstock and technologies for BC production, formation, and characterization,
systematically reviews the current research findings on the roles of BC in removing inorganic
contaminants (e.g., heavy metals, oxyanions) and organic contaminants (e.g., pesticides,
antibiotics) from water, and extensively discusses BC application in remediation of soil
contaminated with metals and organic pollutants. The stability of BC and its priming effects on
native soil organic matter when used in soil carbon sequestration is also reviewed, as are the
limitations and risks associated with applying it to environmental remediation. Additionally,
existing knowledge gaps and future directions regarding water and soil remediation are
identified. This information will be useful for the development and application of BC-based
technologies in water and soil remediation (Zheng et al., 2019).

BIOCHAR AS ECOSORBENT

Today, the development of environmentally friendly technologies for the detoxification of heavy
metals in environmental objects is relevant. One of the promising areas is the production of
carbon sorption materials (biochar) from lignocellulosic waste. Plant waste is a promising natural
renewable material for ecosorbents. Biochar is a stable carbon-containing product that is
synthesized as a result of pyrolysis (carbonization) of plant biomass. In this study, the possibility
of obtaining an ecosorbent from bagasse (vegetable waste from sugarcane production) was
studied. When obtaining ecosorbents for the absorption of complex compounds of heavy metal
ions, chemical and biological modification of biochar was used. Sulfur-containing biochar was
obtained by chemical modification by one-stage pyrolysis of raw materials together with sulfur-
containing reagents. Sulfur-containing biochar has a high absorption capacity compared to the
original biochar. Its specificity is due to the formation of insoluble heavy metal sulfides on the
surface and in the pores of the sorbent. Microbiological modification leads to the creation of a
biosorption material for the strong binding of heavy metal ions. Sulfate-reducing bacteria
immobilized on the surface of biochar are able to convert sorbed heavy metals into insoluble
sulfide forms. A comprehensive study of the structural-porous and sorption properties of the
original and modified bagasse biochar has been carried out. Comparative analysis of the
adsorption capacity of the original bagasse, biochar from bagasse, biochar modified with sulfur,
and biochar with sulfate-reducing bacteria immobilized on its surface showed that chemically
and biologically modified biochar from sugar cane bagasse can strongly bind heavy metal ions. It
was noted that sulfur-containing biochar and biochar with immobilized sulfate-reducing bacteria
have a high absorption capacity (more than 90 %) with respect to Cd(II), Cu(II), Pb(II) and
Zn(II) ions at an initial concentration of 2 to 5 MPC. The studies show that chemically and
biologically modified sugarcane bagasse biochar can be used as effective ecosorbents for heavy
metal detoxification in water and soil environments. Their main property is the ability to form
insoluble sulfide forms of metals on the surface and in the pores of the ecosorbent (Khokhlov et
al., 2022).

Biochar is known to be an efficient bio-sorbent for a multitude of pollutants from wastewater due
to its eco-friendly and economically advantages. In this study, three different biochar adsorbents
were synthesized from pinewood sawdust by no activation, chemical and physical activation
followed by pyrolysis process at 500 °C for 3 h. The morphologies and compositions of the three
adsorbents were systemically measured by Brunauer–Emmett–Teller, Fourier-transform infrared
spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, and elemental analysis. The batch experiments were
established, and HPLC analyzed the adsorption uptake of naphthalene, phenanthrene, and
anthracene compounds on the surface of the three pinewood sawdust biochars (PWSDB) at
different predefined times intervals. The studies elucidated that the pseudo-second-order kinetic
model best-represented naphthalene (NAP), phenanthrene (PHE), and anthracene (ANT)
adsorption on the three adsorbents. The sorption equilibrium and kinetic studies show no
competition between PAHs for the adsorption sites, demonstrating homogeneity in the
adsorption process. The isotherm modeling was employed and fitted well by Langmuir and
Freundlich’s models. The removal efficacy of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) reached
approximately 90%, which is considered a promising and valuable outcome for separating PAHs
from wastewater. The economic cost analysis for the sawdust biochar was estimated and
compared with activated carbon. This study proves that the pinewood sawdust feedstock-based
biochar has promising adsorption efficacy in removing NAP, PHE, and ANT from synthetic
wastewater, besides the feasibility and economic benefits upon application (Rashad et al., 2022).

BIOCHAR FOR WATER TREATMENT

Approximately 600 million people lack access to safe drinking water, hence achieving
Sustainable Development Goal 6 (Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and
sanitation for all by 2030) calls for rapid translation of recent research into practical and frugal
solutions within the remaining 13 years. Biochars, with excellent capacity to remove several
contaminants from aqueous solutions, constitute an untapped technology for drinking
water treatment. Biochar water treatment has several potential merits compared to existing low-
cost methods (i.e., sand filtration, boiling, solar disinfection, chlorination): (1) biochar is a low-
cost and renewable adsorbent made using readily available biomaterials and skills, making it
appropriate for low-income communities; (2) existing methods predominantly
remove pathogens, but biochars remove chemical, biological and physical contaminants; (3)
biochars maintain organoleptic properties of water, while existing methods generate carcinogenic
by-products (e.g., chlorination) and/or increase concentrations of chemical contaminants (e.g.,
boiling). Biochars have co-benefits including provision of clean energy for household heating
and cooking, and soil application of spent biochar improves soil quality and crop yields.
Integrating biochar into the water and sanitation system transforms linear material flows into
looped material cycles, consistent with terra preta sanitation. Lack of design information on
biochar water treatment, and environmental and public health risks constrain the biochar
technology. Seven hypotheses for future research are highlighted under three themes: (1) design
and optimization of biochar water treatment; (2) ecotoxicology and human health risks
associated with contaminant transfer along the biochar-soil-food-human pathway, and (3) life
cycle analyses of carbon and energy footprints of biochar water treatment systems (Gwenzi et al.,
2017).

Biochar as a stable carbon-rich material shows incredible potential to handle water/wastewater

contaminants. Its application is gaining increasing interest due to the availability of feedstock,
the simplicity of the preparation methods, and their enhanced physico-chemical properties. The
efficacy of biochar to remove organic and inorganic pollutants depends on its surface area, pore
size distribution, surface functional groups, and the size of the molecules to be removed, while
the physical architecture and surface properties of biochar depend on the nature of feedstock and
the preparation method/conditions. For instance, pyrolysis at high temperatures generally
produces hydrophobic biochars with higher surface area and micropore volume, allowing it to be
more suitable for organic contaminants sorption, whereas biochars produced at low temperatures
own smaller pore size, lower surface area, and higher oxygen-containing functional groups and
are more suitable to remove inorganic contaminants. In the field of water/wastewater treatment,
biochar can have extensive application prospects. Biochar have been widely used as an
additive/support media during anaerobic digestion and as filter media for the removal of
suspended matter, heavy metals and pathogens. Biochar was also tested for its efficiency as a
support-based catalyst for the degradation of dyes and recalcitrant contaminants. The current
review discusses on the different methods for biochar production and provides an overview of
current applications of biochar in wastewater treatment (Enaime et al., 2020).

Biochar is a promising agent for wastewater treatment, soil remediation, and gas storage and
separation. This review summarizes recent research development on biochar production and
applications with a focus on the application of biochar technology in wastewater treatment.
Different technologies for biochar production, with an emphasis on pre-treatment of feedstock
and post treatment, are succinctly summarized. Biochar has been extensively used as an
adsorbent to remove toxic metals, organic pollutants, and nutrients from wastewater. Compared
to pristine biochar, engineered/designer biochar generally has larger surface area, stronger
adsorption capacity, or more abundant surface functional groups (SFG), which represents a new
type of carbon material with great application prospects in various wastewater treatments. As the
first of its kind, this critical review emphasizes the promising prospects of biochar technology in
the treatment of various wastewater including industrial wastewater (dye, battery manufacture,
and dairy wastewater), municipal wastewater, agricultural wastewater, and stormwater. Future
research on engineered/designer biochar production and its field-scale application is discussed.
Based on the review, it can be concluded that biochar technology represents a new, cost
effective, and environmentally-friendly solution for the treatment of wastewater (Xiang et al.,
2020).

Over the past few years, we are witnessing the advent of a

revolutionary bioengineering technology in biochar production and its application in waste
treatment and an important component in power generation devices. Biochar is a solid product,
highly rich in carbon, whose adsorption properties are ideal for wastewater decontamination.
Due to its high specific surface area to volume ratio, it can be utilized for many environmental
applications. It has diverse applications in various fields. This review focuses on its various
applications in wastewater treatment to remove various pollutants such as heavy metals, dyes,
organic compounds, and pesticides. This review also highlights several energy-based
applications in batteries, supercapacitors, and microbial fuel cells. It described information about
the different feedstock materials to produce LB-derived biochar, the various conditions for the
production process, i.e., pyrolysis and the modification methods of biochar for improving
properties required for wastewater treatment. The present review helps the readers understand
the importance of biochar in wastewater treatment and its application in power generation in
terms of batteries, supercapacitors, microbial fuel cells, applications in fuel production, pollutant
and dye removal, particularly the latest development on using LB-derived biochar. This review
also highlights the economic and environmental sustainability along with the commercialization
of biochar plants. It also describes various pyrolytic reactors utilized for biochar production
(Gupta et al., 2022).

BIOCHAR TRENDS

Environmental pollutants including emerging contaminants are a growing concern worldwide.

Organic wastes, such as food waste, compost, animal manure, crop residues, and sludge are
generally used as feedstock. The conventional treatment methodologies (primary and secondary
treatment process) do not mitigate or remove pollutants effectively. Hence, an effective, low-
cost, and environmentally friendly tertiary treatment process is an urgent need. Biochar finds
interesting applications in environmental processes like pollutant remediation, greenhouse gas
mitigation, and wastewater treatment. Studies have shown that different types of adsorbents
(biochars) like, native and engineered biochar are being used in the removal or mitigation of
heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides,
disinfectants, polychlorinated dibenzofurans, and dibenzo-p-dioxins from contaminated sites for
environmental management (Khan et al., 2021).

Interest in biochar production from organic waste has been growing in recent years due to its
broad applicability, availability, and smoother production. Biochar production techniques are
being continuously modernized to improve the production rate and quality. Though numerous
methods have been reported in the recent past, a systematic classification of the same is yet to be
explored. Based on the advancement of the techniques being employed for biochar production
and modification of conventional methods, we have categorized all major techniques of biochar
production into two primary classes. In the traditional approach, ancient methods and
conventional pyrolysis techniques (Slow and Fast pyrolysis) are included, whereas, in modern
approaches, several advanced technologies such as Gasification, Torrefaction, Hydrothermal
carbonization, Electro-modification, along with modified traditional methods (Flash pyrolysis,
Vacuum pyrolysis, and Microwave pyrolysis) are comprised (Gabhane et al., 2020).

The world is currently facing significant challenges in reducing the concentration of atmospheric
carbon dioxide (CO2) through scientific methods, primarily by sequestering the CO2 in the soil.
Biochar is a kind of charcoal that is primarily composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Due
to its aromatic content, biochar can persist in the environment for an extended period and absorb
greenhouse gases (GHG). Each year, biochar effectively captures an estimated amount of
CO2 ranging from 1 to 35 gigatons (GtCO2) and 78 to 477 GtCO2 over this century. Biochar
helps mitigate climate change by sequestering carbon in the soil for extended periods and
consequently reducing GHG emissions. This enhances soil fertility, water retention capacity, and
nutrient circulation, which promote higher crop yields. Biochar's by-products of biochar can be
harvested and used as a renewable energy source. Besides, biochar integration can be effective in
waste management strategies that mitigate the challenges of organic waste disposal. Biochar is
also an efficient water purification element that favors climate action. Through the application of
biochar alteration can be employed to establish carbon credits, and its methods can effectively
reduce carbon emissions to an acceptable level. Biochar's unique properties, wide-spread
applicability, cost-effectiveness, and trustworthy development prospects demonstrate great
potential towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) (Shoudho et al., 2024).

Biochar has caught great attention over the last decade, yielding a large number of publications
in a broad range of disciplines. This scientometric study produces a combined qualitative–
quantitative assessment of 10,000 publications recorded in the period 2005–2019 in the Web of
Science (WoS) database, based on innovative methods and indicators, and focusing in particular
on biochar production and valorization pathways. The cumulated number of publications was
analyzed with power and logistic models, and the economic indicator CAGR (Compound Annual
Growth Rate) for the estimation of future academic output. Mapping of the evolution of
academic output revealed the worldwide diffusion of academic production toward many
countries and continents. According to the analysis of collaboration networks of most productive
countries, the development of academic output may be linked to high levels of international
collaboration, as well as the diversity of these networks. Furthermore, the rise of academic
output in the African continent may preclude an evolution toward a multipolar academic world.
The average number of citations per paper at both author level (number of citations/number of
papers) and journal level (total citations/total papers) was found to be a useful indicator of
scientific productivity (Abdeljaoued et al., 2020).
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