Natural Selection

Part II
NATURAL SELECTION

Statement(s) and Objective(s):

D4.1.7- Sexual selection as a selection pressure in animal species.

● Outline the mechanism of sexual selection in evolution of courtship behavior and anatomical features.
● Describe examples of sexual selection, including for color, size, and courtship behaviors.

D4.1.8- Modelling of sexual and natural selection based on experimental control of selection pressures.

● Outline the selective pressures for and against coloration in guppies.

● Summarize John Endler’s experiments with guppies which demonstrate selection for and against coloration in different habitats.

D4.1.9- Concept of the gene pool.

● Define gene pool, gene and allele.

● Describe how it is possible for multiple gene pools to exist in a single species.

D4.1.10- Allele frequencies of geographically isolated populations.

● Define allele frequency.

● Calculate allele frequency from gene pool data.
● Use a database to search for allele frequency of a human gene.
NATURAL SELECTION

Statement(s) and Objective(s):

D4.1.11- Changes in allele frequency in the gene pool as a consequence of natural selection between individuals according to differences in their
heritable traits.

● State that change in the allele frequencies of a gene is evidence of evolution.

● Explain how natural selection can lead to change in allele frequency in a gene pool.
● Outline “neo-Darwinism” as the integration of genetic inheritance and the mechanism of natural selection.

D4.1.12- Differences between directional, disruptive and stabilizing selection.

● Outline the change in allele frequencies associated with stabilizing, disruptive and directional selection.
● Use graphs to illustrate or identify stabilizing, disruptive and directional selection.
● Outline an example of stabilizing, disruptive and directional selection.

D4.1.15- Artificial selection by deliberate choice of traits.

● Define selective breeding and artificial selection.

● Outline the mechanism of artificial selection in evolution of crop plants and domestic animals,
● Describe an example of artificial selection of a crop plant or domestic animal.
● Explain why antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an example of natural selection.
Selection
• Selection acts on any
trait that affects survival
or reproduction
• predation selection
• physiological
selection
• sexual selection
Predation Selection
Act On Both
Predator and Prey

• Speed
• Behaviors
• Camouflage &
mimicry
• Defenses (physical &
chemical)
Physiological
Selection

Acting on body functions

• Disease resistance
5.5 mya
• Physiology efficiency The
Antarctic Some fish
(using oxygen, food, Ocean had the
freezes
water) over
variation of
producing
• Biochemical versatility antifreeze
protein.
• Protection from injury
 Sexual Selection
• Sexual Selection: individuals with certain inherited
characteristics are more likely to obtain mates than
other individuals
• Results in sexual dimorphism (differences between
sexes in secondary sex characteristics)
• Size, color, ornamentation, behavior, etc.
• Intrasexual Selection: individuals of one sex (usually
males) compete directly for mates
• Intersexual Selection: individuals of one sex (usually
females) choose a mate

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 Sexual Selection Occurs When Certain
Traits Increase Mating Success

attractiveness successful
fertility of
to potential rearing of
gametes
mate offspring

© Created by Alyssa 2023

Example: Birds of Paradise

• Birds-of-paradise are classic

examples of extreme sexual
selection due to generations
of females choosing mates
based on 'attractiveness’.
• The result is unparalleled
species radiation with males
exhibiting vast differences in
behavior and an array of
exotic feathers.
 Experiments also show that populations can
evolve.

For example, biologist John Endler

Modelling of conducted experiments with the guppies of
Natural Trinidad that clearly show selection at work.
Selection • Spots that help the guppy blend in with its
surroundings protect it from predation — but spots
that make it stand out help it attract mates.
• After fewer than 15 generations of selection, the
markings of guppies in different ponds had
substantially diverged as a result of natural selection.
John Endler’s
Guppies

Demonstrates that genetic

variation within a population
provides the raw material for
rapid evolution when
environmental conditions
change.
 Gene Pool: all the copies of every type of allele at
every locus in all members of a population

In diploid organisms, the gene pool is 2 times the

number of alleles as there are individuals (each
individual has 2 alleles)
• Ex: 500 flowers = 1000 alleles
Gene Pool
Use “p” and “q” to represent the allele frequency in
the population (percentage of each allele)

•p+q=1

Fixed Alleles: only one allele exits in the gene pool –

all members of the populations are homozygous for
this allele
 If the population of a flower
demonstrating incomplete
dominance for flower color
in which the heterozygote is
pink contains 320 red
Sample Gene flowers, 160 pink flowers,
Pool Problem and 20 white flowers, how
many copies of each allele
may be found in the gene
pool of the population?
 So, if we count all the alleles in the
population, we'll have:
● From RR individuals: 320 * 2 =
640 copies of allele R
● From Rr individuals: 160 * 1 =
160 copies of allele R, and 160
* 1 = 160 copies of allele r
● From rr individuals: 20 * 2 = 40
copies of allele r
Sample Gene Now, let's add up all the copies of
Pool Problem each allele:
● Total copies of allele R = 640 +
160 = 800
● Total copies of allele r = 160 +
40 = 200

800 R & 200 W

 • Allele frequencies measure genetic variation.
Allele • Measures how common allele is in population
Frequencies • Can be calculated for each allele in gene pool
 Phenotype is the product Phenotypes =
of inherited genotype and Genotypes +
environmental influences Environments

Individuals Can
Respond To As environments change, selective
pressure favors organisms with adaptations
Environmental that have increased fitness benefits.

Changes

This process helps to shape the

characteristics of a population over time and
can lead to the evolution of new species.
Selective Pressures Vary

• Having a variety of different traits within a population

is advantageous for survival because selective
pressures vary (usually linked to the state of the
ecosystem/environment).
• A condition that was previously deemed
“advantageous” could become harmful to a
population under new environmental conditions.
• The allele would then, theoretically, be selected
against, and the number of individuals carrying that
gene would begin to decrease.
 Allele frequencies represent the prevalence
of a particular allele in a population, as a
Allele proportion of all the alleles for that gene
Frequencies of
• Consequently, allele frequencies are either represented
Geographically as a percentage or as a value from 0 to 1.0
Isolated
Populations
Changes in allele frequency can reflect
either random processes (genetic drift) or
differential processes (natural selection)

• Population bottlenecks and the founder effect will

exacerbate genetic differences between geographically
isolated populations
ALFRED

• Allele frequencies between populations

can be compared using
the Allele Frequency Database
(ALFRED)
1. Go to the Allele Frequency Database
(ALFRED)
2. Type a gene name into the search
parameter
3. Choose a specific gene loci
4. Select a polymorphism
5. Choose a frequency display format
ALFRED Examples

• SCL45A2 – involved in
human melanin production
(allele frequency differs in
Northern Europe)
• ABO – blood groups show
regional variation (e.g. O
blood more common in
Africa)
• LCT – lactase is required for
lactose tolerance (more Comparison of Frequency of Leu → Phe Mutation in the SCL45A2
common in Northern Europe Gene
/ Africa)
Neo-Darwinism
• The fusion of Mendelian genetics and Darwin's
natural selection
• Produce a more comprehensive evolutionary theory
than either can offer separately
• Darwin showed that evolution involves selection
interacting with variation within populations
• Mendel that the bases of this variation are discrete
units of heredity (genes)
Natural Selection

• Only element of evolution where the outcome is

NOT random
• Increased frequency of “good” alleles over
time
• Acts on phenotype more than genotype
• 3 Types of Selection:
1. Directional Selection: conditions favor one extreme of a phenotypic
range
2. Disruptive Selection: conditions favor both extremes of a phenotypic
range
3. Stabilizing Selection: conditions favor intermediates and select against
extreme phenotypes

• Directional and Stabilizing reduce variation,

Disruptive increases it
Changes In The Average Trait Of A Population

DIRECTIONAL STABILIZING DISRUPTIVE

SELECTION SELECTION SELECTION

horse size human birth weight rock pocket mice

 Natural selection acts on
Necks of giraffes distributions of traits.
– evolution has
proceeded in the
direction of Leg length of rabbits – long
longer necks. legs are eliminated because
the rabbits can’t crawl into a
hole to escape predators,
short legs are eliminated
because they cannot run
fast enough to escape
predators.

Acorns – squirrels do not eat the smallest, not enough food. Squirrels do
not eat the largest, to hard to carry. Squirrels eat the average, after many
years the average become eliminated.
 • A pigeon breeder
noticed that people
could select and breed
for specific traits.
• Artificial selection –
A technique in
Artificial which breeders
Selection select for a
particular trait.
• Darwin applied the idea
of artificial selection to
the natural environment
to term natural
selection.
 Natural Selection
vs. Artificial Selection

• Artificial Selection: nature provides variation,

and humans select variations that we find
useful (domestic animals and crops).
• Natural Selection: the environment is the
selective force. Only those organisms that are
well adapted will survive in the wild.

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Artificial Selection
by Humans

• Artificial selection is a type of

selective breeding in order to
manipulate the phenotypic
frequencies of a population or
species.
• Artificial selection is the
process of intentionally
breeding organisms for specific
traits.
• Typically, humans choose
which individuals will
reproduce based on having
desirable traits.
 • Multiple origins of dogs from wolves greater than 14,000 years ago
Artificial with repeated genetic exchange between dog and wolf populations.

Selection: Dog • Dogs can read human communicative gestures (ie.pointing) better in
comparison than wolves.

Breeding • Unclear if this ability is a result of direct selection or a by-product

of selection against fear and aggression towards humans.
Human Impact on
Variation

• Artificial selection/Inbreeding
• Loss of alleles in
gene pool
• Loss of genetic diversity
• Reduces adaptability
• Overuse of
antibiotics/Insecticides
• Resistance increased
 During the course of many years, certain bacteria
have evolved and developed resistance to
antibiotics (favorable inherited mutation)

• This is beneficial to the bacteria, and harmful to the organism

Antibiotic infected.
• MRSA-antibiotic resistant illness.
Resistance/Pesticide • This was a helpful mutation to the bacteria. These traits were
Resistance passed onto future bacteria that made them stronger (Natural
Selection)

Plants who had the mutation to survive pesticides

passed this trait on to other plants. These plants
survived, and reproduced—making more plants that
were resistant to pesticides
Direct Observations:
Drug Resistant Bacteria
• Antibiotics typically destroy bacteria
• Some bacteria have a way of avoiding
destruction (enzyme to destroy antibiotic,
enzyme that does the same job as the
enzyme the antibiotic is targeting, etc.)
• HOW the bacteria is resistant may
vary, but it is in some way resistant
• Only resistant bacteria will survive to
reproduce and pass on their traits
(including the one for resistance) to their
offspring
• Eventually, the entire population is
resistant to the antibiotic